Nanochitosan Applications for Enhanced Crop Production and Food Security E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This unique, important, and timely book provides detailed information about the application of nanochitosan to increase agricultural productivity to enhance food security and nutrition.
Readers will find in Nanochitosan Applications for Enhanced Crop Production and Food Security detailed state-of-the-art information including:
- The modes of action through which nanochitosan perform numerous biological activities;
- State-of-the-art information and recent advancements in the application of nanochitosan, including targeted delivery, genetic manipulation, antimicrobial uses, curing infections in plants, controlled delivery of biologically active constituents, applications in the evaluation of carbon dioxide concentrations and humidity in controlled greenhouse environments, and their use as pressure sensors in agrichemical spraying equipment;
- Information on applying nanochitosan as a biofertilizer and bioinsecticide when applied on seeds and for foliar spraying of agricultural crops, soil amendment, and protection against pathogens and pests;
- The application of nanochitosan in the manufacturing of nanosensors in precision farming in the determination of crop growth, condition of soils, penetration of agrochemicals, diseases, and the level of environmental pollution to ensure a high level of safety for plant and soil health.
Audience
Researchers, scientists, and graduate students in agriculture, crop science, agricultural biotechnology, and agricultural engineering applications of nanochitosan, as well as policymakers, entrepreneurs, and investors in agriculture and food security.
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Seitenzahl: 765
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 The Role of Nanomaterials in Agriculture as Nanofertilizers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nanotechnology in Agriculture
1.3 Nanomaterials
1.4 Nanofertilizers
1.5 Conclusion
References
2 Synthesis of Nano-Chitosan Using Agricultural Waste
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Different Sources of Agricultural Waste
2.3 Synthesis of Nano-Chitosan
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Reduction of Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Nanochitosan
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Greenhouse Gases Emitted in Agriculture
3.3 Environmental and Economic Consequences of Greenhouse Gases
3.4 Nanochitosan as a Potential Mitigation Strategy
3.5 Mechanisms of Action for Emission Reduction
3.6 Crop Yield and Quality
3.7 Limitations and Future Research Directions
3.8 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
4 The Application of Nanochitosan Biopesticides as a Replacement to Synthetic Pesticides
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nanochitosan
4.3 Efficacy of Nanochitosan Compared to Synthetic Pesticides
4.4 Challenges and Future Prospects for the Use of Chitosan Nanoparticles as Biopesticides
4.5 Conclusion
4.6 Recommendations
References
5 The Use of Nanochitosan for Enhancement in the Quality and Yield of Fruit Crops
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chitosan
5.3 The Impact of Chitosan NPs on the Growth and Yields of Some Fruit Crops
5.4 Application of Chitosan Nanoparticles (ChNPs)
5.5 Other Potential Use of Nanochitosan for Enhancing Fruit Crops
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 Application of Nanochitosan for Effective Fruit Production
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mechanism of Action
6.3 Fruits
6.4 Guidelines in Effective Application of Nanochitosan
6.5 Application of Nanochitosan for Different Fruits
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Application of Nanochitosan in the Detection of Mycotoxins
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanochitosan
7.3 Advantages of Nanochitosan
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Recommendations
References
8 Application of Nanochitosan in Food Packaging Sectors
8.1 The Evolution of Food Packaging
8.2 Standard Food Packaging
8.3 Types of Food Packaging
8.4 Environmental Impacts of Food Packaging
8.5 Significance of Food Packaging
8.6 Current Challenges in the Field of Food Packaging and Sustainability
8.7 Current Scenario of Nanotechnology Application in Food Packaging
8.8 Different Nanoparticles in Food Packaging Applications
8.9 Preparation of Chitosan Nanoparticles
8.10 Advantages of Nanotechnology in Food Packaging
8.11 Conclusion
References
9 Application of Nanochitosan as Food Additive and Preservatives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Importance of Food Additives and Preservatives in the Food Industry
9.3 Transition to the Application of Nanochitosan in Food Preservation
9.4 Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan
9.5 Mechanisms of Food Spoilage and Preservation
9.6 Application of Nanochitosan as Food Additives
9.7 Safety and Regulatory Considerations for Nanochitosan
9.8 Case Studies and Practical Applications of Nanochitosan
9.9 Future Prospects and Challenges
9.10 Conclusion
References
10 Applications of Chitosan Nanocomposites in Packaging of Food Products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Chitosan Antimicrobial Potential
10.3 Chitosan Composites for Food Applications
10.4 Conclusion
References
11 Application of Nanochitosan as Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture
11.1 Introduction to Nanoparticle and Chitosan
11.2 Nanofertilizers
11.3 Biofertilizers
11.4 Application of Nanochitosan for Sustainable Agricultural Activities
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Application of Nanochitosan in Plant Growth and Crop Protection
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Chitosan-Based Agronanochemicals
12.3 The Mechanism of Actions of Chitosan Against the Pathogens
12.4 Agronanochemicals Pose Adverse Effects on Human Health and Environmental Welfare
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Chitosan-Based Nanosystems: Antimicrobial Activity in Agrifood Sector
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chitosan
13.3 Nanotechnology in Agrifood Industry
13.4 Various Forms of Chitosan-Based Nanosystems Used in Agrifood
13.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan Nanoparticles
13.6 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Activity of Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites
13.7 Mechanism of Antifungal Activity of Chitosan-Based Nanosystems
13.8 Antibiofilm Properties of Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives
13.9 Applications of Chitosan-Based Nanosystems in Food Preservation
13.10 Toxicology, Safety, and Regulatory Aspects of Nanosystem
13.11 Conclusion
References
14 Significant of Nanochitosan in the Management of Biotic Stress
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nanochitosan Compound
14.3 Methods of Preparation
14.4 Significance of Nanochitosan
14.5 Biotic Stress Mechanism
14.6 Management of Biotic Stress Conditions
References
15 Relevance of Nanochitosan in Food Sector and Food Packaging Sectors: Current Trends
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Chitosan Nanoparticles and Food Packaging
15.3 Potential Application of Nanochitosan in Food Packaging
15.4 Nanochitosan in Food Packaging Sector
15.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
16 Application of Nanochitosan for the Biodegradation of Agricultural Wastes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Role of Nanochitosan in Waste Management Nanochitosan
16.3 Unique Properties of Nanochitosan
16.4 Application of Nanochitosan in Agricultural Waste Biodegradation
16.5 Mechanisms of Nanochitosan in Biodegradation
16.6 Nanochitosan-Based Biodegradation Techniques
16.7 Environmental Benefits of Nanochitosan-Based Biodegradation
16.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives of Nanochitosan Biodegradation of Agricultural Wastes
16.9 Conclusion
References
17 Application of Nanochitosan in the Detection of Pesticide Residues and Degradation
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Pesticides and Their Chemical Nature
17.3 Properties of Chitosan Nanoparticles
17.4 Application of Chitosan in Bioremediation of Pesticide
17.5 Conclusion
17.6 Future Perspective
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 The use of nanochitosan in the food packaging sector.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Some possible applications of nanochitosan in agricultural waste bi...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of nanotechnology applications of agricult...
Figure 1.2 Schematic of the top-down and bottom-up approaches for synthesizing...
Figure 1.3 Hypothetical phase regions of microemulsion systems. Source: Singh
Figure 1.4 Sonochemical synthesis of nanoparticles. Source: Fadhil [1].
Figure 1.5 Detailed analysis of electrochemical method of nanoparticle synthes...
Figure 1.6 Institutionalized procedures for experimentation of pulse laser abl...
Figure 1.7 Schematic view of high ball-milling approach of nanoparticle synthe...
Figure 1.8 Mechanochemical approach of nanoparticle synthesis. Source: Singh
e
...
Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of the physical vapor deposition process. So...
Figure 1.10 Biological synthesis and applications of metal nanoparticles in bi...
Figure 1.11 Impact of conventional and nanoformulations. Source: Reddy and Chh...
Figure 1.12 Effect of nanomaterials loaded with fertilizers on plant. Source: ...
Figure 1.13 Overview of nanofertilizer application in agriculture. Source: Ver...
Figure 1.14 Classification and types of nanofertilizers. Source: Yadav
et al.
...
Figure 1.15 Characterization techniques for nanomaterials. Source: Nilmini [82...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Deacetylation of chitin into chitosan [6].
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Schematic representation of chitosan [9].
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The preparation of chitosan from chitin through deacetylation [2].
Figure 10.2 Mechanism of chitosan supplemented with nano-metals [17].
Figure 10.3 Pictorial representation of a composite film made of chitosan and ...
Figure 10.4 Pictorial representation of tomato: (a) control, (b) nCS, (c) CS/C...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Chemical structure of chitin and chitosan.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 The main methods of preparation of chitosan nanoparticles.
Figure 15.2 Nanotechnology for food packaging in food industry.
Figure 15.3 Mesoporous silica graphene–based inorganic nanoparticles.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic representation of chapter.
Figure 16.2 Unique properties of nanochitosans.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Classification of insecticides [16, 17].
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Nanochitosan Applications for Enhanced Crop Production and Food Security
Edited by
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
Microbiology Department, Edo State University Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria
Maulin P. Shah
Industrial Wastewater Research Lab, Enviro Technology Ltd., Ankleshwar, Gujarat, India
Yerima Mohammed Bello
Department of Microbiology, Sokoto State University, Nigeria
Daniel Hefft
Institute of Sustainability and Food Innovation, University Centre Reaseheath, UK
Jay Singh
Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shyam S. Pandey
Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 2-4 Hibikino, Wakamatsu, Kitakyushu, Japan
and
Ravindra Pratap Singh
Department of Biotechnology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-21257-6
Front cover image courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Several scientific breakthroughs and innovative advances have been documented over the years, especially in agriculture, to ensure massive food output that could help feed the ever-increasing global population. It has been projected that the population of humankind will rise to 10 billion people by the year 2050. Furthermore, several challenges have been typical impediments to sustainable agriculture, including unstable climatic changes, enhanced greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation, post-harvest losses of agricultural commodities, chronic food insecurity and malnutrition, high levels of soil salinity and alkalinity, massive deforestation, extreme temperatures, water scarcity, soil depletion, environmental pollution with toxic compounds and metals, and the prevalence of pathogens and diseases.
To achieve major transformations in agricultural systems and rural economies, there is a need to search for naturally available biological and sustainable resources that could help resolve the global problems of food insecurity, malnutrition, and securing a healthy future for all people and the planet. To this end, the application of nanomaterials derived from natural sources has been highlighted as a sustainable and innovative tool that could boost crop production, minimize losses, and augment the effectiveness of agricultural inputs, thereby ensuring sustainability.
The use of chitosan in the fabrication of nanochitosan has been identified as a sustainable, innovative, and cutting-edge technology capable of addressing many challenges affecting agricultural productivity. This can be attributed to its high biocompatibility, cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and versatile applications, including its use as an environmentally friendly tool for enhancing crop production and protecting agricultural crops from pests and pathogens.
This book provides detailed information on the application of nanochitosan for increasing agricultural productivity. It explores its use as a biofertilizer and bioinsecticide, including applications in seed treatment and foliar spraying of agricultural crops, soil amendment, and protection against pathogens and pests. Additionally, it highlights the use of nanochitosan in manufacturing nanosensors for precision farming to monitor crop growth, soil conditions, agrochemical penetration, diseases, and environmental pollution while ensuring plant and soil health.
The modes of action through which nanochitosan performs its various biological activities are also discussed. The book provides state-of-theart information on recent advances in nanochitosan applications, such as targeted delivery, genetic manipulation, antimicrobial uses (antibacterial, antiviral, antinematode, antiparasite, and antifungal), curing infections in plants, and delivering biologically active constituents. Moreover, it explores the application of nanochitosan in evaluating carbon dioxide concentrations and humidity in controlled greenhouse environments and its use as pressure sensors in agrichemical spraying equipment.
Information on the commercialization, mass production, derivation of various biological materials, socioeconomic perspectives, industrial applications, patents, and the roles of policymakers, institutions, governments, farmers, and agricultural ministries is also emphasized. The specific nutritional composition of plants treated with nanochitosan and its practical field applications are detailed.
This book is aimed at a diverse audience, including global leaders, industrialists, individuals in the food industry, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, and professionals in agriculture, microbiology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, environmental microbiology, and microbial biotechnology. It also caters to investors, innovators, farmers, policymakers, extension workers, educators, researchers, and those in other interdisciplinary scientific fields. Additionally, it serves as an educational resource and project guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students and educational institutions conducting research in agriculture and nanotechnology.
This book is highly recommended for professionals, scientists, environmentalists, industrialists, researchers, students in higher education, innovators, and policymakers interested in agriculture.
I want to express my deepest appreciation to all the contributors who have dedicated their time and efforts to making this book a success. Furthermore, I sincerely thank my co-editors for their hard work and dedication during this project. Finally, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the suggestions, help, and support of Martin Scrivener and others from Scrivener Publishing.
Professor Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
(Ph.D, AAS affiliate, FRSB (UK) FNYA; FBSN; FNSM, MNBGN)
Director of Research and Innovation, Edo State University, Uzairue, Nigeria
December 2024
1The Role of Nanomaterials in Agriculture as Nanofertilizers
Wuna Muhammad Muhammad1*, Abdulqadir Bala Ibrahim2, Job Oloruntoba Samuel1, Ahmadu Shekwaga Khalifa1, Oluwafemi Adebayo Oyewole1, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji3,4, Eniola K. I. T.4, Mohammed Bello Yerima5 and John Tsado Mathew6
1Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
2Perishable Crops Research Department, Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Kano, Nigeria
3Department of Microbiology, Edo State University, Uzairue, Nigeria
4Department of Biological Sciences, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria
5Department of Microbiology, Sokoto State University, Sokoto, Sokoto State, Nigeria
6Department of Chemistry, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai, Niger State, Nigeria
Abstract
Nanomaterials form the fundamental building blocks of both nanoscience and nanotechnology. The use of nanomaterials has revolutionized agriculture through the innovation of novel techniques and products. Multiple applications of nanomaterials exist in agriculture including its use in precision farming, nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, nanoformulations, and nanosensors to trail products and nutrients levels, to increase the productivity without the contamination of soil and water, to enhance crop productivity, and to provide protection against various biotic and abiotic stresses. The implementation of nanofertilizers has generated considerable concerns pertaining to human safety, food safety, and security. There exist apprehensions regarding the transportation, toxicity, and bioavailability of these chemicals, alongside the possibility of unknown environmental ramifications on biological systems. These problems impede the acceptance and utilization of sustainable agriculture practices. The safety issues associated with nanoparticles in agriculture arise from their reactivity and unpredictability, which might potentially affect the well-being of agricultural workers who come into contact with these xenobiotics during the manufacturing and application procedures in the field. Additional investigation is required in order to ascertain the viability and applicability of incorporating these innovative intelligent fertilizers, taking into account their projected benefits.
Keywords: Nanomaterials, nanofertilizers, nanotechnology, sustainable agriculture
1.1 Introduction
The invention of the atomic force microscope (AFM) in 1986 has significantly contributed to the advancement of nanostructured materials in the field of nanotechnology. These materials hold promise for enhancing production and manufacturing processes across multiple industries [1]. The combination of nanotechnology and biotechnology has greatly expanded the use of nanomaterials in various fields such as mechanics, medicine, and the food industry [2, 3].
Nanotechnology involves the investigation of minute structures and the manipulation of individual atoms, molecules, or compounds to develop materials and technologies with distinctive characteristics [4]. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field that combines various disciplines, including biology, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electronics engineering. Its focus is on understanding, manipulating, and constructing devices and systems with exceptional functionalities and qualities at the atomic, molecular, and supramolecular levels [5]. Nanotechnology involves studying structures, devices, and materials that have at least one dimension between 1 nm and 100 nm. When the size of particles is reduced below this limit, the resulting material exhibits distinct biological and physicochemical properties compared to macroscale materials made from the same substances [5].
The prefix “nano” originates from the Greek term meaning “dwarf” [6]. The term “nano” is commonly used to describe things that are very small or miniature in size. This perception has led to the understanding that nanomaterials are tiny structures that act as a single unit, possessing unique characteristics and performance. These materials typically have sizes ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm, which has sparked a heightened level of interest and involvement. Nanomaterials exhibit notable mesoscopic properties, including a high surface-to-volume ratio, enhanced chemical and biological activity, catalytic behavior, strength, penetrability, enzymatic activation, and quantum characteristics, in comparison to bulk materials [7]. They are commonly used in various sectors due to their distinctive properties that enhance their ability to support diverse biological and biochemical activities [1, 5]. The exploration of nanomaterials in various aspects such as synthesis, categorization, applications, and evaluations has been stimulated [8].
Agriculture plays a crucial role in developing countries, providing support to over 60% of the population [9, 10]. The expanding human population has led to increased nutrient extraction to boost food grain production, reducing arable land, limiting water resources, degrading soil organic matter, and contributing to climate change. Consequently, the adoption of advanced agricultural technologies like nanotechnology has become imperative [11, 12]. The development of an innovative and efficient technology is crucial for improving production and reducing food waste, which is essential for maintaining sustainable and living standards and enhancing food security at a national level. Nanotechnology has the potential to improve the production of high-quality foods and enhance their nutritional bioavailability. Numerous research studies are currently investigating the broadening application of nanotechnology in agricultural production and food processing [13].
Nanotechnology is widely utilized in various aspects of agricultural product production, processing, storage, packaging, transportation, and marketing facilities [11]. The objective of employing nanomaterials in agriculture is to minimize chemical usage and distribution, decrease nutrient losses in fertilization, and enhance crop yield by controlling pests and nutrients [9, 14].
Nanotechnology has gained considerable attention in agriculture due to its potential applications, including the use of nanofertilizers and nanopesticides. These applications offer benefits such as product and nutrient tracking, increased productivity without soil and water contamination, and protection against biotic and abiotic stresses [15, 16]. Nanotechnology has the potential to serve as sensors for monitoring soil quality in agricultural fields, thereby contributing to the maintenance of crop health [17]. Nanotechnology has significantly impacted agriculture and the food industry through the implementation of innovative techniques like precision farming. Precision agriculture has several benefits, including enhanced plant nutrient absorption, improved input utilization, disease detection and control, increased resilience to environmental stresses, and efficient processing, storage, and packaging systems [18–21]. In addition, the application of nanoclays and zeolites enhances fertilizer efficiency and promotes soil fertility restoration by releasing bound nutrients [22]. Abd-Elrahman and Mostafa [11] conducted research on smart seeds that have a nanopolymer coating and are specifically engineered to germinate in favorable conditions.
1.2 Nanotechnology in Agriculture
The need for nanotechnology is emphasized by emerging issues such as the growing demand for safe and healthy food, heightened disease risk, and the potential impact of changing weather patterns on agricultural and fishery productivity [22, 23]. Nanotechnology has the potential to significantly impact the agriculture and food industries through its ability to enhance molecular disease treatment, facilitate rapid disease diagnosis, and improve plant nutrient absorption, among other applications [24]. Smart sensors and delivery systems have the potential to assist the agriculture industry in combating viral infections and other crop diseases. Joshi et al. [12] suggest that the use of nanostructured catalysts can enhance the effectiveness of pesticides and herbicides, thereby reducing the required dosage. Nanotechnology can contribute to environmental preservation through the utilization of renewable energy sources, filters, and catalysts, which effectively mitigate pollution and remediate existing contaminants [25].
Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize agriculture by aiding in the understanding of biochemical processes in crops. This can be achieved by replacing traditional methods of analyzing environmental challenges and applying nanotechnology to enhance production [13]. Nanotechnology, environmentally friendly technologies, and agricultural biotechnology have the potential to significantly impact various aspects of the agricultural-value chain, leading to synchronized public benefits, legal considerations, moral implications, and environmental effects [13]. The use of nanoscale agrochemicals in agriculture, including nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, nanosensors, and nanoformulations, has significantly transformed conventional agricultural methods, enhancing their sustainability and efficiency (Figure 1.1).
Nanotechnology has various agricultural applications, such as wastewater treatment, soil remediation, and enhancement of agricultural productivity through infection detection sensors [8, 14, 24]. Nanobiosensors are a subset of nanotools used in advanced agricultural practices. They demonstrate the practical and potential applications of nanotools in managing agricultural inputs and enhancing precision in farm management [26]. Nanotechnology in agriculture has several positive impacts. These include the utilization of nanopore carrying zeolite for improved efficacy and slow discharge of enrichers, the use of nanosensors to detect soil quality, and the implementation of efficient supply systems for herbicides [15]. Nanoparticles (NPs) commonly used for monitoring plant diseases include carbon, silica, silver, and alumino-silicates [26]. Nanomaterials are suggested for use in agriculture to replace chemical spraying by providing a consistent source of energetic molecules. Usman et al. [16] found that improved water and nutrient management can enhance yields and reduce nutrient waste in fertilizer application.
Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of nanotechnology applications of agriculture.
1.3 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials play a crucial role in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nanostructure science and technology is a rapidly growing interdisciplinary field that has gained significant global attention in recent years. This technology has the potential to revolutionize the production of materials and products, expanding the range and variety of available functionalities. The business influence of nanomaterials is already significant and is expected to further expand in the future [27].
Nanoscale materials are defined as substances with a dimension smaller than 100 nm. A nanometer is equivalent to one millionth of a millimeter, making it 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Nanomaterials are intriguing due to the occurrence of distinctive optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties at the nanoscale. These emerging features possess significant potential to exert a substantial influence across diverse industries [27]. Certain NPs occur naturally, but the significance lies in manmade nanomaterials, which are purposefully engineered and widely used in various commercial products and processes [28]. Nanoparticles are commonly found in various everyday products such as sunscreens, cosmetics, sporting goods, stain-resistant clothes, tyres, and electronics [29, 30]. Additionally, they are also used in the field of medicine for purposes such as diagnosis, imaging, and drug delivery [31]. Engineered nanomaterials are molecular-level resources that leverage their small size and unique properties, which are typically absent in their larger forms [32]. The distinct characteristics of nano-sized materials can be attributed to two primary factors: the increased relative surface area and the emergence of novel quantum effects [33]. Nanomaterials exhibit a significantly greater surface area–to–volume ratio compared to conventional materials, resulting in enhanced chemical reactivity and decreased strength [34]. At the nanoscale, quantum effects have a substantial impact on material properties and features, resulting in distinct optical, electrical, and magnetic behaviors [35].
Nanomaterials are characterized by their small size, typically measuring 100 nm or less. They can exist in various dimensions, such as surface films (one dimension), strands or fibers (two dimensions), or particles (three dimensions) [36]. Microscopic particles can exist in various forms, including solitary, fused, aggregated, or agglomerated states, and can exhibit morphologies that are spherical, tubular, or irregular. Nanotubes, dendrimers, quantum dots (QDs), and fullerenes are prevalent nanomaterials. Nanomaterials possess unique physical and chemical properties that differentiate them from conventional chemicals. Examples of nanomaterials include silver NPs, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, photocatalysts, carbon nanomaterials, and silica NPs [37, 38].
1.3.1 Nanoparticles
Gavanji [39] defines NPs as “clustered atoms” between 1 nm and 100 nm in size, which, due to their small size, may have unique properties compared to the bulk material. Their unique properties, which differ significantly from those of their coarse-grained counterparts, have garnered considerable interest in both their isolated and consolidated forms. Their high surface-to-volume ratio increases their ability to penetrate cell membranes and possibly biochemical activity. Nanoparticles are increasingly being incorporated into a wide range of commonplace items, from medical treatments to the production of food to the storage of energy in solar and oxide fuel batteries [40].
1.3.1.1 Properties of Nanoparticles
The distinct characteristics of NPs arise from differences in their size and scale. The size and shape of a particle determine its surface area–to–volume ratio. In the case of an NP, it is characterized by being very small in at least one dimension. Nanoparticles exhibit various phenomena, including the random motion of small particles, quantum tunneling, the discreteness of energy, the uncertainty of matter, and the dual nature of mass and energy for wave particles [41]. Nanomaterials exhibit altered electrical, optical, surface-related, mechanical, and magnetic properties at the nanoscale. These properties resemble those observed in NPs, as discussed more below.
1.3.1.1.1 Electrical Properties
The confinement of electrons at the nanoscale restricts their movement, leading to alterations in electrical properties. For instance, bulk conductor/semiconductor materials exhibit superconducting or conducting behavior when confined to the nanoscale. Nano gold and nano silver, which have a size smaller than 10 nm, do not possess electrical conductivity [38].
1.3.1.1.2 Optical Properties
The optical characteristics of nanomaterials are influenced by their size. At the nanoscale, electron mobility is restricted. Electrons exhibit distinct responses to light due to their confinement. Gold exhibits a golden color at the macroscale, whereas gold particles at the nanoscale display a red hue. Nanoscale zinc oxide particles do not scatter visible light, whereas larger zinc oxide particles scatter visible light and exhibit a white appearance. The optical appearance of QDs varies with decreasing particle size, leading to a range of colors [37].
1.3.1.1.3 Surface Properties
The surface area of nanomaterials significantly affects their surface-dominated properties, such as melting temperature, reaction rate, capillary action, and adhesion. Due to their high surface area, nanomaterials exhibit distinct properties compared to their bulk counterparts. Gold exhibits a melting point of 1,064°C in bulk form. However, when the particle size is reduced from 100 nm to 10 nm in diameter, the melting temperature decreases to 100°C. The melting point decreases by approximately 50% when the size is reduced to around 2 nm [42].
1.3.1.1.4 Mechanical Properties
Harish et al. [31] observed various alterations in the mechanical properties of materials at the nanoscale. These changes include an increase in Young’s modulus, tensile strength (fourfold), reduced plastic deformation, heightened hardness, increased brittleness, deformations in grain boundaries, decreased elongation, lower density of dislocation moments, and an augmented short distance of dislocation moments.
1.3.1.1.5 Magnetic Properties
In nanomagnetic materials, every spin exhibits magnetic properties at the NP level [43]. The spin exchange interaction is the dominant interaction between adjacent spins. The majority of materials possess a J value of zero and exhibit nonmagnetic properties, either being paramagnetic or diamagnetic. After removing the external magnetic field, nano super-paramagnets, similar to paramagnets, exhibit a return to zero magnetization. The occurrence is attributed to the small size of the particles rather than the inherently poor interaction between individual moments [31].
1.3.1.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
Metallic NPs are typically synthesized using either the “bottom-up” or “top-down” approach. Bottom-up fabrication involves constructing a material by adding atoms, molecules, or clusters one by one. In contrast, top-down fabrication involves cutting a bulk material into smaller particles, specifically in the nano-size range. The “bottom-up” technique is commonly preferred for NP synthesis. This method involves a homogeneous system where catalysts, such as reducing agents and enzymes, are used to synthesize nanostructures. The catalysts play a crucial role in controlling the formation of NPs. The “top-down” approach is used to work with materials in their bulk form. To reduce the size of the material to the nanoscale, specialized techniques such as thermal decomposition, mechanical grinding, etching, cutting, and sputtering are employed [40]. The specific physical, optical, and chemical properties of NPs play a crucial role in optimizing their application in various contexts [44]. During synthesis, it is crucial to consider various factors such as surface property, size distribution, apparent morphology, particle composition, dissolution rate, and the types of reducing and capping agents used [45].
Figure 1.2 Schematic of the top-down and bottom-up approaches for synthesizing nanoparticles. Source: Neme et al. [13].
In spite of the methods of AgNPs synthesis described above (Figure 1.2), these nanoparticles can also be synthesized via the chemical method, physical method, and biological method.
1.3.1.2.1 Chemical Method of Nanoparticle Synthesis
Chemical methods are preferred for synthesizing NPs of different sizes and shapes due to their convenient synthesis in solution [46]. Various chemical methods, such as microemulsion/colloidal procedures, sonochemical techniques, electrochemical techniques, chemical reduction methods, and electrochemical methods, have been utilized for NP synthesis [47].
1.3.1.2.1.1 Microemulsion/Colloidal Technique
A suitable surfactant is employed in the micro-emulsion technique for NP synthesis to achieve a stable dispersion of two incompatible solutions, such as water in supercritical carbon dioxide (W/SC-CO2) or oil in water or water in oil. Hydrophobic surfactants in nanoscale micelles and oils localize within the core of the aggregate, whereas the hydrophilic head groups are oriented toward the surrounding water solvent [48]. Figure 1.3 shows the hypothetical phase regions of the microemulsion systems.
1.3.1.2.1.2 Sonochemical Method
Sonochemical synthesis involves the application of high-intensity ultrasonic radiation (ranging from 20 kHz to 10 MHz) to induce acoustic cavitation in molecules as shown in Figure 1.4. In solo electrochemical manufacturing, NPs are produced using ultrasonic pulses and electrolytes [49]. The application process is simple, can be conducted at ambient temperature, and enables easy adjustment of NP size through modification of precursor concentrations. Silver NPs are generated using a sonochemical technique in the presence of gelatin as a stabilizer. Silver NPs have potential applications as antimicrobial agents in food packaging and coatings [49].
Figure 1.3 Hypothetical phase regions of microemulsion systems. Source: Singh et al. [2].
Figure 1.4 Sonochemical synthesis of nanoparticles. Source: Fadhil [1].
1.3.1.2.1.3 Electrochemical Method
In this scenario, an electrolyte is positioned between two electrodes, facilitating the flow of electric current (Figure 1.5). Electricity plays a crucial role in the development of NPs at the electrode-electrolyte interface, acting as a driving or regulating force. This technique offers several advantages, such as the absence of a vacuum system, low costs, ease of operation, high flexibility, reduced contamination leading to pure products, and an environmentally sustainable process. Abbas et al. [50] demonstrated that silver NPs smaller than 20 nm can be produced through an electrochemical method. This method involves using a 0.01-mm solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3), a glassy carbon electrode as the working electrode, and silver metal as the counter electrode.
The primary benefit of this method is its capability to produce NPs of superior quality, with the ability to modify their size by manipulating the current density through an electrochemical technique. In addition, the process described by Biswas et al. [5] does not necessitate the use of costly equipment or a hoover cleaner. However, the deposition of silver (Ag) on the cathode limits the surface area available for particle formation in the electrochemical production of silver NPs. This constraint is one of the factors that need to be considered. Additionally, the presence of silver electrodeposits throughout the region may hinder the formation of NPs [8].
The synthesis of NPs in solution necessitates the use of metal precursors, reducing agents, and stabilizing agents. Common reducing agents used in aqueous or non-aqueous solutions include sodium citrate, ascorbate, sodium borohydride (NaBH4), elemental hydrogen, polyol process, Tollen’s reagent, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), and poly (ethylene glycol)– block copolymers. Stabilizing agents such as poly vinyl alcohol (PVA), poly vinylpyrrolidone (PVP), poly ethylene glycol (PEG), poly methacrylic acid, and poly methyl methacrylate have been identified in previous studies [40, 44, 46, 51].
Figure 1.5 Detailed analysis of electrochemical method of nanoparticle synthesis. Source: Singh et al. [2].
The size and shape of synthesized NPs are significantly affected by the metal precursor, reducing agents, and stabilizing agents [44]. Consequently, it is probable that all nuclei will exhibit similar or comparable sizes, leading to additional expansion. Modulating reaction parameters, including temperature, pH, precursors, reduction agents (such as NaBH4, ethylene glycol, and glucose), and stabilizing agents (such as PVA, PVP, and sodium oleate), enables the manipulation of initial nucleation and subsequent nuclei growth [40, 45].
1.3.1.2.2 Physical Method of Nanoparticle Synthesis
In addition to chemical methods, alternative procedures have been employed for the synthesis of NPs. Physical synthesis methods offer several advantages over chemical approaches, including the absence of solvent contamination in thin films, the homogeneity of NP distribution, and the narrow size distribution of NPs [52]. A notable drawback of these approaches is their increased energy consumption and longer completion times. Physical methods commonly employed for the synthesis of materials include evaporation-condensation, laser ablation, arc-discharge, physical vapor condensation, energy ball milling, electrical irradiation, gamma irradiation, lithography, and direct current magnetron sputtering [3, 48, 52].
1.3.1.2.2.1 Pulse Laser Ablation Method
In addition to conventional chemical processes, new methodologies have been utilized for the creation of NPs. Physical synthesis methods possess various advantages in comparison to chemical alternatives. These advantages encompass the elimination of solvent contamination in thin films, the uniform dispersion of NPs, and the limited range of NP sizes [52]. One significant limitation of these methodologies is their heightened energy consumption and extended durations for completion. Various physical methods are frequently utilized in the synthesis of materials, such as evaporation-condensation, laser ablation (Figure 1.6), arc-discharge, physical vapor condensation, energy ball milling (Figure 1.7), electrical irradiation, gamma irradiation, lithography, and direct current magnetron sputtering [3, 48, 52].
Figure 1.6 Institutionalized procedures for experimentation of pulse laser ablation method. Source: Singh et al. [2].
Figure 1.7 Schematic view of high ball-milling approach of nanoparticle synthesis. Source: Singh et al. [2].
1.3.1.2.2.2 High Ball-Milling Approach
The technology allows for the fabrication of NPs via a solid-state processing method. Raw materials, such as flakes or powder (size in microns), are placed in containers with tungsten carbide or hardened steel balls, and the containers are spun at high speeds (a few hundreds of revolutions per minute) around their own axis or some central axis [2, 52]. By repeatedly hurling and slamming raw materials against a wall, they are reduced to a powder with a particle size of a few nanometers to a few tens of nanometers. Planetary mills, tumbler mills, vibratory mills, and rod mills are just few of the mechanical mills that see heavy use. By grinding the material in a ball mill, a wide variety of compounds, such as cobalt, chromium, tungsten, nickel-titanium, aluminum-iron, and silver-iron, can be transformed into nanocrystalline forms. In addition to their potential use in active food packaging, some of the nanoparticles mentioned above also have antiviral, antiyeast, antifungal, and antibacterial characteristics [48].
1.3.1.2.2.3 Mechanochemical Approach
Chemical reactions can be initiated through the use of mechanical energy, such as potential or kinetic energy. Typical precursors encompass metallic compounds, oxides, and chlorides. The aforementioned substances exhibit a reaction upon grinding or subjecting them to additional heat, resulting in the formation of a composite powder. The powder consists of stable, submicron particles that are evenly dispersed inside a salt matrix. The removal of the matrix from the ultrafine particles can be achieved using a selective process subsequent to their washing in a solvent, as stated by Samal [53]. The mechanochemical approach for nanoparticle synthesis is demonstrated in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8 Mechanochemical approach of nanoparticle synthesis. Source: Singh et al. [2].
1.3.1.2.2.4 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) with Consolidation
Before being blown into a cloud of reactive or inert gas, the source material is vaporized. The scraper is used to clean the cold finger of any accumulated NPs. The powdered NPs are subsequently compressed by the piston-anvil. The entire process takes place in a vacuum chamber to ensure the highest level of purity in the final product (Figure 1.9). Food-safe aluminized film was developed via pulsed vapor deposition for future food packaging [3, 4].
Nanoparticles with uniform size and shape are typically prepared using thermal, alternating current, or arc discharge. The aforementioned methods allow for the simultaneous synthesis of a large number of NPs, reducing production time while preserving NP purity. However, the high cost of the necessary equipment is seen as the primary obstacle to the widespread implementation of such a technique [51, 54].
1.3.1.2.3 Biological (Green) Method of Nanoparticle Synthesis
As an alternative to traditional chemical and physical synthesis methods, the biological synthesis of NPs using plant extracts and/or microbes has arisen. These methods are also well-known for their simplicity, low cost, environmental friendliness, and scalability [55]. There has been a rise in the utilization of biological agents in the biosynthesis of metal and metal oxide NPs in the field of nanotechnology [40, 44, 46, 55].
Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of the physical vapor deposition process. Source: Singh et al. [2].
Figure 1.10 Biological synthesis and applications of metal nanoparticles in biomedical and environmental fields. Source: Singh et al. [2].
In the creation of NPs from metal salts, plants and their parts contain reducing agents in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, pigments, and a wide variety of secondary metabolites (Figure 1.10). Enzymes, proteins, and biosurfactants are all examples of microbial macromolecules that perform similar reducing agent roles. Several bacterial species utilize bio-surfactants as capping and/or stabilizing agents [40, 55]. There have also been reports of mixtures of plant extracts. The stem-derived callus of green apples, red apples, egg whites, lemon grass, coffee, and black tea are all used as reductants for AgNO3 [55].
Iravani et al. [51], Güzel and Erdal [52], and Ahmad et al. [55] utilized various bacterial strains, including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus licheniformis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Enterobacter cloacae, Aeromonas sp., Lactobacillus sp., and Corynebacterium sp., for NP synthesis. The study also investigated the utilization of various fungal species, such as Penicillium fellutanum, Aspergillus flavus, Coriolus versicolor, Cladosporium cladosporioides, and Penicillium sp., in the production of NPs. Algae species, including Tetraselmis gracilis, Chlorella salina, Oscillatoria willei, Spirulina platensis, Isochrysis galbana, and Chaetoceros calcitrans, were employed in the production of NPs. Ahmad et al. [55] successfully utilized plant extracts from Capsicum annuum, Eucalyptus citriodora, Ginko biloba, Diospyros kaki, Platanus orientalis, Euphorbia hirta, Acalypha indica, Moringa oleifera, Pinus desiflora, and Magnolia Kobus for the synthesis of AgNPs.
1.3.2 Application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Sustainability, crop enhancement, and greater production are just a few of the agriculture and environmental concerns that nanotechnology in agriculture is being developed to tackle. The potential for agricultural nanotechnology to alleviate world hunger, malnutrition, and infant mortality makes it an appealing investment for developing countries [13]. Changing traditional methods of studying environmental challenges and applying the results to production enhancements, nanotechnology is a promising tool that could revolutionize agricultural sectors [56]. Nanoscale agrochemicals, such as nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, nanosensors, and nanoformulations, have the potential to transform conventional farming methods into ones that are more environmentally friendly and productive [25]. Nanotechnology has many uses in agriculture, including purifying wastewater, restoring degraded soil, protecting crops from pests and diseases, and increasing yields.
1.3.2.1 Application of Nanotechnology in Precision Farming
The long-sought-after goal of precision farming is to tailor input to individual crops’ needs, increasing yields while decreasing costs. Computers, Global Positioning System (GPS), GIS, and remote sensing devices are used in precision farming to measure extremely localized environmental conditions, such as whether or not crops are growing at optimal efficiency or precisely identifying the nature and location of crop and environmental problems [12]. Recycling agricultural waste is another way in which precision farming can aid in cleaning up the environment [9]. However, microsensors and monitoring systems provided by nanotechnology will have a major impact on future precision farming methods. One of the key functions of nanotechnology-enabled devices will be the increased use of autonomous sensors connected to a GPS for real-time analysis. Soil conditions and crop development could be tracked using a grid of these nanosensors [13].
1.3.2.2 Nanosensors
The use of nanotechnology to improve soil quality and increase crop yields is another area of active research and development. The use of nanosensors to track crop and animal health and magnetic nanoparticles to remove soil toxins are both possible applications [57]. Developing nations may likewise benefit greatly from the “lab-on-a-chip” concept. Nanoparticles for soil conservation or remediation and nanosensors for plant disease and pesticide detection are two further areas of agriculture that can benefit from nanotechnology. Using enzymes in high-value and low-volume applications is a key component of enzyme immobilization for nanobiosensors utilizing nanomaterials [9].
1.3.2.3 Nanotechnology in Water Management
Surface water, groundwater, and wastewater can all be treated with novel nanomaterials that can remove harmful metal ions, organic and inorganic solutes, and microorganisms. Because NPs have a unique effect against refractory contaminants, they are the subject of extensive study and development for use in water filtration [11]. The public’s health requires rapid and precise detection of waterborne pathogens. However, conventional laboratory tests take a long time. Enzymatic, immunological, and genetic diagnostics are being developed as ways to speed up the diagnostic process. Nanofiber membranes and nanobiocides show potential as effective water filtering tools [24]. Biofilms are difficult to cure because the bacteria within them form mats that are covered in natural polymers. They demand a lot of downtime and manual labour for cleaning because they can only be cleaned mechanically. To combat these biofilms, scientists are working on enzyme-based treatments [58].
1.3.2.4 Biosensors to Detect Nutrients and Contaminants
Rapid, sensitive detection of pollutants and pathogens with molecular precision is necessary to safeguard soil health and the environment. The same set of protocols has been used to assess soil fertility for the past 60 years; these may no longer be relevant to modern production systems and precision farming technologies [12]. In-field detection, miniaturized portable devices, and remote sensors for real-time monitoring of large regions all require accurate sensors. Microbiological and immunoassay tests typically take a long time; however, they may be shortened with the help of these equipment. These sensors are utilized to identify contaminants in water, raw ingredients, and finished foods [56].
Enzymes can serve as sensors because to their ability to bind to certain macromolecules with great specificity. An electronic nose (E-nose) employing a pattern of reaction across a set of gas sensors is used to identify various scents. It works similarly to the human nose in identifying odorants, measuring their concentration, and identifying distinctive aspects of the scent [25]. Nanoscale gas sensors, such as ZnO nanowires, are its primary component. When a certain gas passes through them, their resistance shifts, causing an electrical signal shift that serves as a “fingerprint” [25]. Biosensors are high-powered instruments with the potential to identify poisons in food or the environment. They are inexpensive, quick to respond, simple to use, and compact [25], in addition to being very specific and sensitive. Direct enzyme inhibition sensors may be useful as a screening tool to determine when a sample contains one or more contaminants, but they currently lack the analytical capability to distinguish between multiple toxic substances in a sample (such as the simultaneous presence of a heavy metal and a pesticide). Field workers can benefit from these methods because they can be implemented in single-use test strips [25].
1.3.2.5 Nanotechnology to Improve Quality of Soil and Fertilizer Distribution
Farm administration: When it comes to raising crop yields, nanotechnology is indispensable. Examples of nanoscale materials being employed as biosensors in agricultural research include carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and QDs. The use of NPs has been shown to increase crop quality and production when applied to fertilization practices [9]. For ecological agriculture, the development and use of vermiculite, nanoclay, and zeolite may increase the efficiency of fertilizers and the yield of crops grown on soil with a coarse texture. Soil amendment using inorganic materials decreases NH4-N passage and increases N fertilizer synthesis in ecological agriculture systems [47].
The usage of fertilizers is crucial to agricultural output. Research shows that increasing soil fertility through the use of fertilizers has a linear effect on harvest yields [16]. Manjunatha et al. [9] and Usman et al. [16] describe nanofertilizer as a chemical with dimensions on the order of a few nanometers that improves plant nutrition by increasing nutrient delivery and regulating the slow release of nutrients into the soil over time. Increasing crop productivity through the use of nanofertilizers is essential. In order to modify nutrient consumption efficiency and reduce costs for environmental safety, nanotechnology enables the use of nanostructured or NPs for fertilizer transport or limited release routes to generate smooth fertilizer. Nutrient encapsulation within nanoporous structures, coating of thin polymeric films, and delivery as nanoscale particles or suspensions are all methods by which nanofertilizers might increase nutrient efficiency [2, 16, 25].
Nanoscale fertilizers have the potential to improve nutrient delivery because they can access plant surfaces and transport channels. Tomatoes, peppers, and flowers were grown using banana peel nanofertilizer [25]. Many crops have benefited from the use of nano fertilizers, including chickpeas for ZnO NPs, maize for silicon dioxide and iron slag powder, tomatoes for colloidal silica and Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium (NPK), spinach for titanium dioxide, and grapes for gold and sulfur fertilizers [47].
Treatment of fertilizers with nanoscale transporters has the potential to reduce chemical loss and environmental problems by securing the roots of the plant to the surrounding soil contents and organic material. Soil toxicity can be mitigated with nanoscale fertilizers, mitigating the risks of over dosing [48]. These nanofertilizers have a longer fertilizer impact and lessen the rate at which nutrients are released. SiO2 with TiO2 NPs increased nitrate action and plant absorption capabilities through controlled use of water and fertilizer, leading to a successful outcome in maize crop development [48].
1.3.2.6 Nanotechnology to Control Plant Diseases
Twenty percent to 40% of annual crop losses are attributed to plant pests and diseases [10]. Insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides are commonly used in modern farming as a means of pest control. It is crucial to create effective, low-cost insecticides that are safer for the environment. By boosting the solubility of weakly water-soluble pesticides, decreasing their toxicity, and extending their shelf life, nanotechnology has the potential to have a positive effect on the environment [4]. Figure 1.11 show the field impact of conventional and nano formulations.
Disease management and crop safety are only two examples of why agricultural nanotechnology is so crucial [10]. Delivery of nutrients and agricultural chemicals to plants can be regulated at a slow and consistent rate with the use of nano-based traditional herbicides and pesticides [15]. Moreover, NPs may play a significant role in the prevention and treatment of human illnesses and the management of insect pests [15, 26]. Polysaccharides such chitosan, alginates, starch, and polyesters have been studied for their potential use in the production of nano-insecticides [14].
Figure 1.11 Impact of conventional and nanoformulations. Source: Reddy and Chhabra [26].
There are two main ways in which NPs might be employed to safeguard plants: either directly as crop protectors or as sprayable carriers for conventional pesticides. Although NPs have many potential uses, researchers have yet to investigate their potential role in plant protection and food production [26].
1.3.2.7 Nanofertilizers
Over the past 50 years, the world’s nutritional needs have been mostly met thanks to the dramatic increase in crop output, especially grain yields. One of the main drivers of improved agricultural productivity is the rising use of chemical fertilizers [56]. Use of artificial fertilizers has increased as farmers have turned to more fertile crop kinds. When compared to organic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers cause more pollution and cost more to produce because so much of the fertilizer is wasted. Fifty percent to 70% of the nitrogen used in conventional fertilizers is lost in the process. Therefore, researchers are focusing on finding new approaches to nutrient management that would not compromise sustainability [59].
Here, nanotechnology is used to create slow-release fertilizers, cut down on ephemeral nutrient losses, and make scarce nutrients more accessible (Figure 1.12). Micronutrients and macronutrients, as well as nanomaterials that serve as carriers/additives for nutrients (by mixing with minerals), are all included in the category of nanofertilizers [12]. Making nanofertilizers by enclosing nutrients in nanomaterials has also been demonstrated [60–62]. Qureshi et al. [63], Manjunatha et al. [9], Kumar et al. [64], Kumar et al. [65], Mejias et al. [66], and Jakhar et al. [67] have all found that the use of nanofertilizers increases crop output and quality while cutting production costs, so contributing to agricultural sustainability. Nanofertilizers have been shown to increase crop yields by a median of 29% compared to traditional fertilizers, according to a meta-analysis of the available literature [16, 68–71]. Soybean (Glycinemax L.) plants treated with phosphatic nanofertilizers grew 32% faster and produced 20% more seeds than those given traditional fertilizer. As a result of the nanometric pores enabled by molecular transporters or the nanostructure cuticle pores, nanofertilizers also boost plant metabolism and nutrient uptake [4, 12, 14].
By using nanotechnology to plant nutrition, we can create slow/controlled release fertilizers that are better for the environment because they increase the efficiency with which fertilizer is used and decrease the amount of fertilizer that is lost to the environment [15]. Fertilizer efficiency ranges from 30% to 60% when using standard nitrogenous fertilizers, but phosphatic fertilizers are lost due to chemical bonding in soil and are, therefore, unavailable to plants [13, 15]. Nanocomposites of urea and hydroxyapatite have been shown to give controlled nitrogen release, decreased NH3 volatilization, and longer phosphorus availability after only 4 weeks of incubation [15]. Fertilizer consumption can be cut down by using slow-release chemicals. The desired function of nanofertilizers is to release nutrients only when and where plants need them, preventing the wasteful volatilization or leaching away of excess fertilizers. If plant signals control nutrient release, then understanding the signals sent between plant roots and soil microorganisms could lead to the development of smart fertilizers [50].
Figure 1.12 Effect of nanomaterials loaded with fertilizers on plant. Source: An et al. [56].
1.3.2.8 Nanostructured Formulation Reduce Nutrients Loss Into Soil by Leaching
Phosphate fertilizers and other insoluble mineral micronutrients have had their solubility and dispersion vastly improved through nanosizing or nanostructuring processing. Slow nutrient release may be possible with the use of zeolites, a class of naturally occurring minerals having a layered crystal structure resembling a honeycomb. Its complex system of interconnected tunnels and cages may store not just nitrogen and potassium, but also phosphorus, calcium, and a wide variety of other minor and trace nutrients, all of which dissolve slowly. Zeolite is a nutrient storage medium that releases its contents “on demand.” Nanomembranes can be used to encapsulate fertilizer particles, allowing for the controlled release of nutrients over time [26, 56].
1.3.2.9 Application of Nanotechnology in Seed Science
According to research by Rawat et al. [15], seeds are living organisms that can maintain themselves even in harsh conditions. With the help of nanotechnology, seeds may finally reach their full potential. It takes a long time for plants to produce seeds, especially those that rely on wind pollination. It is possible to ensure genetic purity by identifying pollen loads that will cause contamination. Air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and crop pollen yield all play a role in the dispersal of pollen. Pollen contamination can be avoided if bio-nanosensors are used to identify potentially contaminated samples before they are used [15]. This same method can be utilized to avoid pollen contamination in agricultural fields caused by genetically engineered crops. Seeds with new genes in them are being developed and sold. Seeds could be traced with the help of nano barcodes [13], which are encodable, machine-readable, durable, and a sub-micron-size taggants. Infected seeds can spread disease and often fail to germinate after being kept. Seeds can be preserved and used in considerably lower volumes if they are nano-coated with elemental forms of Zn, Mn, Pt, Au, and Ag. To help differentiate between healthy seeds and those infected with E. coli 0157:H7, QDs have been developed to act as a fluorescent marker in conjunction with immuno-magnetic separation [26].
1.4 Nanofertilizers
Desized nutritional elements can be found in nanoscale fertilizers, which come in powder or liquid form [72]. Although 1–100 nm is considered nanoscale, certain studies have shown an increase in fertilizer action for formulations up to 500 nm in diameter [73]. Improved nutritional quality and other quality aspects, like longer shelf life and dual or multiple roles as pesticides or heavy metal scavenging agents, are among the potential benefits of nanoscale fertilizers [74], which are predicted to reduce the quantity of fertilizer needed and increase use efficiency compared to conventional fertilizers.
One possible conclusion that could significantly benefit agriculture is the use of nanofertilizers. Thanks to their small size and large surface area, nanomaterials can efficiently absorb nutrients and promote growth in crops [75]. There could be significant economic and environmental benefits from incorporating nanotechnology into fertilizer products to enhance release profiles and absorption efficiency [75]. Figure 1.13 shows an overview of nanofertilizer applications in agriculture.
Inefficient formulations of nanofertilizers may be made worse if they dissolve and leach into the environment at a faster rate due to the NPs’ increased surface area [76]. The overuse of nanomaterials in any area, meanwhile, would be a purposeful input of nanomaterials into the environment and might have major effects on human and environmental exposure [77].
