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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This book is a comprehensive guide to nanoformulations revolutionizing agriculture, enhancing sustainability, and advancing agrochemical applications.
This book examines state-of-the-art research, emerging challenges, and new opportunities in the field of nanoformulations for agriculture applications. Detailed discussions include the development and use of nanopesticides, nanoformulations for promoting plant growth, and nanotechnology for effective crop disease management. Furthermore, it covers recent trends in the design and production of nano-based formulations and nanocarriers for the efficient delivery of agrochemicals.
The book is divided into three sections. The first section introduces readers to agricultural applications and methods for nanoparticle synthesis, their applications, and types of biomasses. It examines the benefits of agriculture and the role of nanotechnology in the agriculture sector. The second section focuses on nanoformulations for plant growth promotion. It covers topics on types of nanoparticles, synthesis methods of nanoparticles, and applications of nanoparticles in the agricultural field. The third section discusses trends, various other applications, and the benefits of using nanocarriers in agriculture.
Audience
This book is aimed at researchers, engineers and scientists working in agrochemicals, crops, soil, biotechnology (chemistry), microbiology, nano-chemistry/technology/materials/formulations in agriculture applications.
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Seitenzahl: 591
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Nanoformulations for Agricultural Applications: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities
1.1 Synthesis and Fabrication of Green Nanoparticles
1.2 Biomass-Derived Nanoparticles and Their Applications: Sensing, Catalytic, Biomedical, and Environmental
1.3 Synthesis and Application of Nanopesticides
1.4 Nanoformulation for Plant Growth Promotion
1.5 Nanotechnology in Crop Disease Management
1.6 Application of Nanofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages and Future Prospects
1.7 Biodegradable Bionanocomposites in Agriculture Applications
1.8 Advances and Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
1.9 Recent Trends in Designing and Production of Nano-Based Formulations
1.10 Nanocarriers for the Effective Application of Agrochemicals
References
2 Synthesis and Fabrication of Green Nanoparticles
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
2.3 Green Methods for Nanoparticle Synthesis
2.4 Synthesis Using Microorganisms
2.5 Synthesis Using Plant Extracts
2.6 Fabrication Using Bimolecular Templates
2.7 Factors Affecting Production of Nanoparticles
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Biomass-Derived Nanoparticles and Their Applications: Sensing, Catalytic, Biomedical, and Environmental
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biomass and the Derived Nanoparticles
3.3 Applications
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Synthesis and Application of Nanopesticides
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Need of Agriculture
4.3 Benefits of Agriculture to the Pharmaceutical Field
4.4 Agriculture Help in Pollination
4.5 The Challenge to the Agriculture Industry
4.6 The Role of Nanotechnology in Agriculture Sector
4.7 Applications of Nanoparticles
4.8 Future Perspective
4.9 Conclusions
References
5 Nanoformulations for Plant Growth Promotion
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Nanoparticles
5.3 Synthesis Methods of Nanoparticles
5.4 Approaches for Nanoparticle Synthesis
5.5 A New Approach of the Nanoformulation in Plant Growth Promotion
5.6 Role of Nanotechnology in Plant Protection and Pest Management
5.7 Interaction Uptake and Translocation of Nanoformulation or Nanoparticles with Plants
5.8 Effects of Nanoparticles on Plant
5.9 Application of Nanoparticles in Agriculture Field
5.10 Types of Metal-Based Nanoparticles
5.11 Factors Affecting the Biological Activity of Nanoparticles
5.12 Future Prospects
5.13 Conclusion
References
6 Nanotechnology in Crop Disease Management
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nanoparticles for Management of Crop Disease
6.3 Nanoparticles and RNA Interference for Plant Protection
6.4 Environmental Reverberations
6.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
7 Application of Nanofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages and Future Prospects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanofertilizers
7.3 Synthesis of Nanofertilizers
7.4 Classification of Nanofertilizers
7.5 Mode of Application of Nanofertilizers
7.6 Role of Nanofertilizers for Growth of Crop Plants
7.7 Limitation of Nanofertilizers
7.8 Recommendations and Future Perspectives of Nanofertilizers
7.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
8 Biodegradable Bionanocomposites in Agriculture Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Agricultural Applications
8.3 Biodegradable Polymers
8.4 Biodegradable Nanocomposites in Agricultural Applications
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Advances and Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nanopesticide
9.3 Nanotechnology in Seed Priming
9.4 Nanoregulators for the Development of Stress Tolerant Plants
9.5 Nanopore Sequencing for Plant Pathogen Identification and Detection
9.6 Nanoparticles in Innovative Farming Practices
9.7 Nanoparticle-Mediated Gene Delivery for Genetic Engineering and Crop Improvement
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 Recent Trends in Designing and Production of Nano-Based Formulations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture Nanoparticles for Nutrient Delivery in Agriculture
10.3 Nanoparticles for Nutrient Delivery in Agriculture
10.4 Advantages of Nanofertilizers Over Conventional Fertilizers
10.5 Synthesis of Nanofertilizer
10.6 Modes of Application of Nanofertilizer
10.7 Design and Formulation of Nanofertilizers
10.8 Nanoformulations for Pest and Disease Control in Crops
10.9 Impacts of Nanopesticides
10.10 Types of Synthesis of Nanopesticides
10.11 Nanopesticides for Crop Protection
10.12 Green Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Microorganisms: A Novel Approach
10.13 Regulatory and Safety Considerations
10.14 Conclusions
References
11 Nanocarriers for the Effective Application of Agrochemicals
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Nanocarriers and Their Use So Far
11.3 Rationale Behind Using Nanocarriers in Agriculture
11.4 Types of Nanocarriers
11.5 Anticipated Benefits from the Use of Nanocarriers in Agriculture
11.6 The Aspect of Sustainability of Nanocarriers Used in Agriculture
11.7 Associated Challenges and Issues of Nanocarriers in Agriculture
11.8 Future Prospects
11.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Synthesis of different nanoparticles using fungal strains.
Table 2.2 Details of some metallic nanoparticles prepared using different acti...
Table 2.3 Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using various algal species.
Table 2.4 Nanoparticles prepared using plant extracts.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Examples of Bacteria assisted metal NPs [6, 8, 13].
Table 3.2
Examples of plants sps. used in biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles ...
Table 3.3
Categories of the nanoparticles synthesized from the various method ...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Nano‘pesticides/herbicides, carrier system, activators, purpose, met...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 List of nanoparticles synthesized using plant extracts.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Difference between traditional and nanofertilizers.
Table 7.2 Commercial available nanofertilizers.
Table 7.3 Impact of nanofertilizers on the development of plants.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Applications of plastics in agriculture. Retrieved from [11].
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Commercially available nanofertlizers.
Table 9.2 Nanoparticles used in seed priming.
Table 9.3 Nanoparticles used in abiotic stress management.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Impact of nanofertilizers on different crops under varying pedoclim...
Table 10.2 Examples of nanopesticides.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Types of nanocarriers and their remarkable properties.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Synthesis methods for nanoparticle synthesis.
Figure 2.2 Green synthesis methods for the production of nanoparticles.
Figure 2.3 General strategy of nanoparticles using plant extracts.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Types of biomass.
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of intracellular and extracellular synthes...
Figure 3.3 Types of plant biomass.
Figure 3.4 Types of animal biomass.
Figure 3.5 Types of method for synthesis of NPs [31].
Figure 3.6 Role of different types of biosensors [46].
Figure 3.7 Role of different types of biosensors [46].
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Application of nanoparticles and nanoparticles-based formulation in...
Figure 4.2 Timescale for developments in atrazine nano-pesticide.
Figure 4.3 Increase in the productivity by the use of nano-pesticides and nano...
Figure 4.4 Application of nanotechnology in different agriculture sector.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Generalized synthesis of monodisperse nanoparticles by the injectio...
Figure 5.2 Flowchart showing green synthesis of nanoparticles.
Figure 5.3 Schematic diagram showing synthesis of nanoparticles.
Figure 5.4 Types of nanocomposites.
Figure 5.5 Applications of nanocomposites.
Figure 5.6 Flowchart showing transport of nanoparticles in plant.
Figure 5.7 Parameters affecting the biological activity of nanoparticles.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Applications of nanotechnology in the agriculture sector.
Figure 6.2 Nanoparticle studies on diseases of citrus and maize.
Figure 6.3 Nanopesticides drift and adverse consequences that could lead to co...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Synthesis, mode of application and properties of nanofertilizers (A...
Figure 7.2 Role of nanofertilizers with various defense mechanisms in plants u...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Close-up image of poly-tunnel in Sri Lanka (photo courtesy by Mr. P...
Figure 8.2 Mulch using polyethylene in Sri Lanka (Photo courtesy of Mr. Priyan...
Figure 8.3 Bales from Florida, USA.
Figure 8.4 Classification of biodegradable polymers [26].
Figure 8.5 Applications of bionanocomposites in agriculture.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Application of nanotechnology in agriculture.
Figure 10.2 Advantages and challenges of nanofertilizers.
Figure 10.3 Different methods of synthesis of nanofertilizers.
Figure 10.4 Modes of application of nanofertilizers.
Figure 10.5 Nanofertilizer classification.
Figure 10.6 Impact of nanopesticides.
Figure 10.7 Nanopesticide formulations.
Figure 10.8 Types of nanopesticides.
Figure 10.9 Test strip for immunochromatogrphic stricp for Grapevine Leafrol a...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Types of biopolymers and their merits.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Nanoformulations for Agricultural Applications
Edited by
Radhakrishnan E.K.
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
Aswani R.
School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
and
Visakh P. M.
Dept. of Chemical Oceanography School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-81909-7
Front cover image courtesy of Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
This book summarizes many recent research accomplishments in the area of agricultural applications of nanotechnology. In this book, we discuss various topics, including nanoformulations for agricultural applications: state of the art, new challenges and opportunities, synthesis and fabrication of green nanoparticles, biomass-derived nanoparticles and their applications in sensing, catalysis, biomedicine, and environmental uses; synthesis and application of nanopesticides; nanoformulations for plant growth promotion; nanotechnology in crop disease management; the application of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture—advantages and future prospects; biodegradable bionanocomposites in agriculture; advances and applications of nanotechnology in agriculture; recent trends in designing and producing nano-based formulations; and nanocarriers for effective agrochemical application.
This book will be a valuable reference for university and college faculty, professionals, post-doctoral research fellows, senior graduate students, and researchers from R&D laboratories working in agricultural applications of nanotechnology. The various chapters are contributed by prominent researchers from industry, academia, and government or private research laboratories worldwide, providing an up-to-date record of major findings and observations in the field.
The first chapter discusses the introduction, scope, state of the art, preparation methods, challenges, and opportunities in agricultural applications of nanotechnology. Chapter 2 reviews the relationships between structure and properties. The chapter covers topics such as synthesis of nanoparticles, green synthesis methods, synthesis using microorganisms, synthesis using plant extracts, fabrication using biomolecular templates, and factors affecting nanoparticle production.
Chapter 3 is divided into two main sections: biomass and its derived nanoparticles, and applications. The first part covers types of biomass, methods for biomass-assisted nanoparticle synthesis, and types of nanoparticles derived from biomass, while the second part focuses on applications in sensing, catalysis, biomedicine, and environmental fields.
Focusing on nanopesticides, Chapter 4 introduce the need for agriculture and discuss various topics, including the benefits of agriculture for the pharmaceutical field, agriculture’s role in pollination, challenges facing the agricultural industry, and the role of nanotechnology in the agriculture sector. The fifth chapter is based on nanoformulations for plant growth promotion. The fascinating topics covered here include nanoparticle types, synthesis methods, approaches to nanoparticle synthesis, nanoformulations in plant growth promotion, nanotechnology in plant protection and pest management, uptake and translocation of nanoformulations in plants, the effects of nanoparticles on plants, applications in agriculture, types of metal-based nanoparticles, and factors affecting nanoparticle biological activity.
Chapter 6 provides a thorough overview of nanotechnology in crop disease management. It begins by describing nanoparticles for managing crop diseases, including nanoinsecticides, nanofungicides, nanoherbicides, and nanoparticles used in RNA interference for plant protection, along with environmental implications. Chapter 7 discusses the application of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture, covering advantages and future prospects. Chapter 8 examines biodegradable bionanocomposites for agriculture, structured in three main parts: agricultural applications, biodegradable polymers, and biodegradable bionanocomposites.
The ninth chapter explores advances and applications of nanotechnology in agriculture, including topics like the advantages of nanopesticides, nanotechnology in seed priming, nano-regulators for stress-tolerant plants, nanopore sequencing for plant pathogen identification, nanoparticles in innovative farming practices, soil-less farming, microgreen farming, and nanoparticle-mediated gene delivery for genetic engineering and crop improvement. Chapter 10 reviews recent trends in designing and production of nano-based formulations. The final chapter covers nanocarriers and their uses so far, rationale for nanocarriers in agriculture, types of nanocarriers, expected benefits, sustainability aspects, and challenges associated with nanocarriers in agriculture.
The editors wish to express our sincere gratitude to all contributors who supported the successful completion of this book. We appreciate their commitment and dedication to enhancing this work. Without their enthusiasm and support, compiling this book would not have been possible. We also thank the reviewers for their valuable time and critical comments on each chapter. Additionally, we thank Martin Scrivener and the team at Scrivener Publishing for recognizing the importance of this field and for initiating a project in which few other publishers have invested.
Radhakrishnan E.K.
Aswani R.
Visakh P. M.
November 2024
1Nanoformulations for Agricultural Applications: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities
Aswani R.1, Radhakrishnan E.K.2 and Visakh P. M.3*
1Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
2Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India
3Department of Chemical Oceanography School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology Cochin, Kerala, India
Abstract
In this chapter providing and short version of all chapters, here we are writing about the different chapter topics such as synthesis and fabrication of green nanoparticles, biomass-derived nanoparticles and their applications: sensing, catalytic, biomedical and environmental, synthesis and application of nanopesticides, nanoformulations for plant growth promotion, nanotechnology in crop disease management, application of nano-fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: advantages and future prospects, biodegradable bionanocomposites in agriculture applications, advances and applications of nanotechnology in agriculture, recent trends in designing and production of nano based formulations, nanocarriers for the effective application of agrochemicals.
Keywords: Nanoformulations, agrochemicals, nanopesticides, green nanoparticles, biomass, nano-fertilizers, agriculture, nanotechnology, nanocarriers
1.1 Synthesis and Fabrication of Green Nanoparticles
The biological method involved in the synthesis of nanoparticles become cost-effective, easy to synthesize, reduces chemical output to the environment and free from unnecessary processing during synthesis [1]. Nanoparticles derived from biological materials are popularly known as biogenic nanoparticles and synthesis process involved is referred as green synthesis of nanoparticles. The concept of green chemistry has been applied for the biosynthesis of safe, cost-effective, and eco-friendly nanoparticles. The biosynthesis of nanoparticles using the plant and microbial organism epitomizes a green substitute for the invention of nanoparticles with innovative properties. The synthesis of nanoparticles is broadly divided in to two categories: top-down and bottom up strategies. Any synthesis approaches for the nanoparticles are belongs to either one of these approaches. In top-down synthesis, nanoparticles are generated from their bulk materials by breaking down them to the finest through mechanical grinding, milling, chemical etching, laser ablation, and sputtering [2]. A wide verity of nanoparticles such as metallic, metal oxide type, alloy-based, magnetic, and other inorganic ones are produced so far. Silver, gold, copper, palladium, and platinum nanoparticles are the important metallic nanoparticles that are established for biomedical applications, catalysis, and environmental applications. Magnetic nanoparticles hold a magnetic counterpart like iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. in combination with a definite functionality [3]. These are widely employed for the applications including catalysis and biomedical applications. The nanoparticles are synthesized using different physicochemical and biological methods.
Green nanotechnology is the only potential solution to overcome the disadvantageous and applications of nanoparticles compared with other physicochemical methods. Thus, the practice of green nanotechnology and safe production of nanoparticles have great research interest. Various biological methods are frequently conducted in sense of this green aspects. Green nanotechnology is simple, cost-effective, and eco-friendly, and this technology received great importance in recent years. Green nanotechnology can be defined, in general, as the use of biological routes like bacteria, fungi, or plants for the synthesis of nanomaterials (or nanoparticles) with the aid of various biotechnological techniques. Various microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, yeasts, viruses, and actinomycetes are being employed for the synthesis of different nanoparticles. There are reports on Au, Ag, ZnO, Se, Pt, SiO2, ZrO2 nanoparticles prepared using microorganisms mediated green strategies having different type of morphologies such as nanotubes, nanoconjugates, nanorods, nanowires, etc. Bacteria contains reductase enzyme inside the cell that catalyze the reduction of metal ions into metal nanoparticles. Various species of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have been reported to adsorb and take up heavy metal ions [4]. The significant advantages of using bacterial systems for nanoparticles synthesis are easy handling and genetic manipulation [5–7]. Bacteria play a significant role in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles of silver and gold. Silver nanoparticle is well known for its biocidal properties which make it quite unique. It has been reported that some bacteria are resistant to silver [8], and they can accumulate silver on their cell wall to around 25% of their dry weight biomass indicating their potential use in the industrial recovery of silver from ore materials [9].
Gold nanoparticles prepared using a novel extremophilic actinomycete, Thermomonospora sp resulted in ∼8 nm sized particles that were capped and stabilized (the nanoparticles were stable for 6 months) with some extracellular proteins [10, 11]. In contrast gold nanoparticles of dimension 5 to 15 nm synthesized using alkali-tolerant actinomycete, Rhodococcus sp have shown the presence of reductase on the cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane which accounts for the metal ion reduction [12]. The biosynthetic route is a safe, biocompatible, and environment-friendly strategy adopted to synthesize nanoparticles using plants and microorganisms. The plant parts, such as leaves, fruits, roots, stem, seeds, are also used for the synthesis of various nanoparticles as these plant parts are rich in phytochemicals which acts like stabilization and reducing agents [13]. Various biological membranes are used for the synthesis of nanoparticles with the effective utilization of their ultrafine pores. For instance, gold nanoparticles were prepared using the rubber membrane prepared from Hevea brasiliensis that plays the role as preservative in the reduction of metal ions in solution [14]. Viruses are effective biomolecular templates for the synthesis of two-dimensional and three-dimensional nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are used for biomedical and agricultural applications owing to their controlled modification of surface functionality, less toxicity, good stability, biocompatibility, monodispersed natura and biodegradability [15].
Also, nanoparticles have been prepared using plant viruses that are biodegradable, noninfectious, biocompatible and stable. Amino acids are proven to be efficient reducing and capping agents for the synthesis of metals and metal oxide nanoparticles. In a typical study, the synthesis of gold nanoparticles was carried out with 20 amino acids and L-histidine was found to be the most effective reducing agent for the synthesis which significantly affected the morphology, dimension, and yield of nanoparticles [16].
Current agricultural practises, as a result of the Green Revolution, have made a significant contribution to the global food supply. The green revolution has unintentionally had a negative impact on the environment and ecosystem services, emphasizing the need for better scientific agricultural techniques to be developed. Nonjudicial application of fertilizers and pesticides has expanded significantly in the field due to a lack of understanding among common farmers, resulting in a rise in harmful agrichemicals in both ground and surface water. Nanotechnology has several applications in medicine, it increases drug delivery in many therapies especially in oncology field and provide new strategies in therapy especially against infectious diseases either through anti-microbial activity or inhibition of quorum sensing of bacteria especially Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Nanotechnology can be used in production of biomaterials such as medical implants or grafts. Nanotechnology is also used in food production to detect contaminants, or even in creation of laboratory vegetarian meat with taste and texture as that in the real meat to overcome food shortage in the world. The use of nanofertilizers enhances the accessibility and reach of nutrients to plant branches and leaves, resulting in increased growth. In data storage, a novel idea based on terabit capacity, ultra-high density, high data rate, and tiny form factor has just been introduced. Numerous nano-based technologies have the potential to be employed as sensors in agricultural activities. For pest control and live-stock health management, Carbon nanotube devices have the qualities of accurate sensing, diagnosis, and medicine administration.
The iron sulfate (FeSO4) nanoparticles sprayed on the leaves of sunflowers showed similar results in addition to increased utilization of carbon dioxide (CO2), iron content, and lower sodium contents [17]. The use of silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) to relieve UV-B induced stress in wheat has been investigated [18]. Nanozeolite can boost long-term nutrient availability as well as plant germination and growth [19]. In Arabidopsis, for example, a microarray investigation revealed that the application of AgNPs up-regulated or down-regulated a number of genes [20]. Plant response to nanofertilizers, on the other hand, differs depending on plant species, growth phases, and nanomaterials utilised [21]. The coating of active ingredients of pesticides with another material of various sizes at the nanoscale is known as nanoencapsulation of pesticides, with encapsulated materials referred to as the internal phase of the core material (pesticides) and capsulation materials referred to as the external phase, i.e., coating nanomaterials [22]. Nanomaterials in pesticide formulations have several beneficial qualities, such as improved stiffness, thermal stability, permeability, crystallinity, solubility, and biodegradability, all of which are important for a sustainable agricultural and environmental system [23, 24]. Halloysites, for example, are a sort of clay nanotube utilised in agriculture as a cost-effective pesticide transporter. Nanoformulations can be used to control release of active substances, improve pesticides’ ability to penetrate the plant [25], and prevent insecticides from photodegradation caused by direct sunlight [26]. The potential use of engineered nanoparticles in agriculture is also investigated in terms of disease and weed control. Nanoformulations with width less than this pore can readily pass through the cell wall and reach the plasma membrane, while some publications claim that particles as small as 40–50 nm can also get through the cell wall barrier [27, 28].
Several studies have proven that honeybees are harmed by insecticides, such as prochloraz and deltamethrin, even when the dose employed is 50 times lower than what is recommended [29, 30]. It was reported that pesticides impact the reproductive of fish-eating birds, and that the eggshells grow thin and readily shatter during the nesting season [31–33]. Pesticide toxicity can be detected in a variety of creatures ranging from soil microbes to plants, insects, fish, birds, and other wildlife. The ability of pesticides to injure or cause illness can be used to determine their toxicity [34]. Acute and chronic pesticide toxicity are the two types of toxicity.
1.2 Biomass-Derived Nanoparticles and Their Applications: Sensing, Catalytic, Biomedical, and Environmental
The Green chemistry principles [35] states about the “Twelve green commands”, which strongly recommends to scrutinize the greener options; which further advises us to look for sustainable material, which are renewable and environmentally safe and has less amount of risk associated with it, so as to substitute the components used in conventional techniques. Researchers have accelerated their investigation and delved into the nature repository for various types of biological substances which includes different varieties of plants, animals, and other living organisms and their by-products. These elements bear a large potential to break down the metallic ions into a 0-valencence (neutral) atom. Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles is practised using different forms of biological resources for example, phytochemicals, biomolecule, enzymes, various other products derived or secreted by plants, animals, and microorganisms. These are renewable, easily available, and can be extracted using simple non-conventional techniques. For the green synthesis of nanoparticle, care has to be taken that there is no release of unwanted or harmful by-products. The use of these biomass is eco-friendly, time saving, and also economical and also have wider applications compared to the one produced through conventional method. The advancement in production of NPs with greener method has been a perfect alternative as it can function at comparatively low temperature, pressure, and with least harmful chemicals. These can be cultured using simple laboratory techniques under controlled conditions, with low-cost media such as, cellulose or cellulase based compounds. These organisms have huge potential to reduce the metal salts by their enzymatic actions and can also efficiently absorb these metal ions, getting a higher rate of synthesis and stability. The rich phyto-chemicals obtained from plant extracts viz., roots, leaves, stems, seeds, and fruits have proved to be providing great success in synthesis of NPs which are eco-friendly.
Recently, there had been many literature work found on Azadirachta indica[36], Clerodendrum serratum, S. tricobatum, S. cumini, C. asiatica, C. sinensis[37], banana peel [38], Lippia nodiflora aerial extract [39], etc. For biosynthesis of NPs ranging from size 10 to 53 nm establishing it to be an alternative method against conventional methods [40, 41]. Plants produce carbohydrates and protein biomolecules, which promotes reduction of metallic nanoparticles. The amino groups (–NH2) and peptide bonds making up the protein structure, in plants, also do actively participate in the reaction of biosynthesis of metal ions [42]. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) synthesised using silk fibroin as a reducing agent, was found to be spherical, smooth edges, around 5 to 8 nm in diameter [43]. It also displayed antibacterial activity against Gram bacteria, and also giving strong capabilities in treating cancer. Transmission electron microscopy of silver nanoparticles synthesised using Bombyx mori silk fibroin showed spherical shaped particle of average size of 35 to 40 nm [44]. Chitosan derived from fish scales of Catla catla, and even prawns is used to reduce silver into AgNP; which are biocomposites of superior collagen fibers, hydroxyapatite, and amino acids [45]. Mostly all the metals can be synthesized into a nanoparticles. But the commonly used ones are aluminium (Al), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu) [46], gold (Au), iron (Fe), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn), etc. The metal nanoparticles size ranges from 10 to 100nm, showing the surface characteristics such as, high surface area to volume ratio, surface charge, structures, and shapes. These materials are also affected by its reactivity and sensitivity towards environmental factors such as moisture, heat, sunlight, etc. [47, 48]. Metal Nanoparticles receive a lot of attention with respect to its applicability in biosensing due to their novel properties which includes, larger surface area enhancing the biocognizance of elements like enzymes, antibodies, hormones, proteins, DNA sequences, whole cells, etc. and the confinement to receptors, higher rate of catalysis, and the electron transfer, as well as biocompatibility [49, 50].
Gold nanoparticles are used in manufacturing of biosensors because of their electron transferring capability and also adsorptive capacity. On such example is the use of AuNPs in the pregnancy detection test strip which identifies the HCG hormone released in the urine sample of a pregnant women. Use of silver nanoparticles synthesised by Bombyx mori silk fibroin show effective antibacterial activity against bacterial strains, such as Bacillus subtilis and Salmonella typhis [51, 52].
1.3 Synthesis and Application of Nanopesticides
Agriculture is defined as the cultivation of land, breeding of animals, plants, and fungi to produce the food, feed, fiber, and many other drive products to give non-dispensable and sustained life to living beings. Agriculture was the basic thing in the race of sedan hyper civilization [53]. The best domestication action is for the increase in productivity of grain crops, cereals, pulses, and seeds [54]. Modern agriculture technique extends beyond the traditional production of food for animals and humans. Agriculture covers topics, such as agronomy, plant breeding, plant pathology, crop modelling, the study of pest, and their management. Nanotechnology is the use of matter on the atomic, molecular, and supra-molecular scale. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are defined as application of strikingly minuscule things that can be used in all the fields of science like chemistry, biology, physics, etc. Increasing growth of the human population along with cutthroat usage of land causes land sparsity [55]. The rate of land loss can be reduced almost comparable to the rate of soil formation [56]. Agriculture increases the yield of crops in the drought years from industries, the agriculture plants gain the carbon, i.e., converted into plant part and soil organic matter to enhance soil health and this helps to increase the fertility of the land. Agriculture holds the topsoil with sufficient organic matter for lively soil structure and retention of water in the soil. Without the growth of plants, depletion of soil will occur, that decreases the fertility of the soil and will never restore. The removal of plant growth reinforces the destructive flood [57]. Change in climate causes the change in global temperature, which increases heat waves and the intensity of typhoons and hurricanes, and this climate change in few percentages can be reduced by increasing and promoting agriculture [58]. Biodiversity is the confinement of biological diversity like animals, plants, fungi, etc. Among the various terms of biodiversity agro-biodiversity is one of them [59, 60]. Agriculture helps to sustain a flourishing ecosystem at variance proportion. At the level of different species, they add a new variety of species. The pharmaceutical crop is a refined and polished form of agricultural species used in medicament configuration [61]. Not all the crops are used in pharma-crop, there are some crops that are used for both food and medicinal purposes. This gives benefits to buyers, farmers, and our society. Agriculture gives pollinators broad habitation area, wide dietary options, and also pollinators tend to migrate. The agriculture landscape provides pollinators large growth areas divergent and most functional habitation. It also offers bountiful benefits for the breeding area, food, and nesting [62].
Agriculture is one of that part which has credence on the climate. There are several challenges present in the agricultural sector. Agriculture sector are at high risk of natural elements, insects, pests (biological assets), plant disease, and poor weather conditions. All of these put an adverse effect on the agriculture industry [63]. Nanotechnology needs the casement, prediction, and artifact of things on the scale of atoms and molecules [64]. Nanotechnology and nanoscience are dependent on operational, useful size which is defined in nanometer scale [65]. Nanoparticles have a broad area of application in the biomedical, environmental, and agriculture field. Due to small size nanoparticles highly mobile in nature and they possess the quantum effect [66, 67]. Nanopesticides alone can be precisely applied to the plant seeds, foliage to the roots also for protection against pests and pathogens like fungi, insects, viruses, etc. But metal nanoparticles like silver, zinc, and copper have an antibacterial and antifungal nature [68–70]. Dimkpa et al. have synthesized TiO2, Al2O3, CeO2, FeO, and ZnO nanoparticles as nanofertilizers for different crops for increasing crop yield [71]. The work on smart agriculture using nanofertilizers have been reported by Helat et al.[72]. Different metal oxide based nanofertilizers were labelled with radioactive oxygen and fluorine atom for tracing their activity in crops was reported by Llop et al.[73].
1.4 Nanoformulation for Plant Growth Promotion
Nanobiofertilizer gives better and more long-lasting results as compared to traditional chemical fertilizers. It improves the structure and function of soil and the morphological, biochemical, and physiological yield attributes of plants [74]. The formation and application of nanobiofertilizer can be a smart fertilizer technique that enhances overall growth and yield of crops. Nanomaterials comprised of globular hollow cages, such as allotropic carbon forms, are found in fullerenes. They have attracted a lot of commercial interest due to their electrical conductivity, high strength, structure, electron affinity, and adaptability. These materials have sp2 hybridized pentagonal and hexagonal carbon units [75]. These NPs’ exterior core was stabilized by emulsifiers or surfactants. Lipid nanotechnology is a subfield that focuses on the design and manufacture of lipid nanoparticles (NPs) for a range of functions, including medication delivery and transporters as well as RNA release in cancer treatment [76]. Realizable particle sizes range from nanometers to micrometres thanks to nucleation and growth competition, which regulate particle size during synthesis [77]. Monodisperse nanoparticles can be created using a number of techniques. It is generally known that in order to create monodisperse particles, a brief period of nucleation must be followed by moderate, regulated development. Green synthesis is more cost-effective, easier to use, and more efficient than conventional methods. It can also be quickly scaled up to carry out larger activities. As opposed to microorganism-mediated nanoparticle manufacturing, this method does not require large-scale cultures and does not provide a biohazard issue. AgO2, AuO2, PdO2, FeO2, and ZnO2 nanoparticle production is now made simple by the use of green synthesis [78, 79]. Bioencapsulation could aid in deciphering the concept and mechanism of plant or crop interaction with microbes, pests, or pathogens using advanced nanotechnology techniques [80].
Bioencapsulation could also aid in the understanding of soil microbe microbial diversity, functional attributes, metabolic system, and genetic potential, leading to the development and commercialization of potent biological products such as biocontrol, biostimulants, biopesticides, and biofertilizers to increase crop yield while also assisting in the adaptation to harsh climatic conditions. The seed weight of black eyed pea increased by 7% in comparison to bulk Fe and Mg salt and plants not grown with Fe and Mn nanoparticles. In order to improve photosynthetic efficiency, Fe and Mn nanoparticles may be helpful [81, 82]. The features of nanoparticles, plant species, and environmental conditions are the main players in the interaction between nanomaterials and plants. How the first site of contact of nanoparticles influences the traffic route in plants is still a mystery. Magnetic nanoparticles with a carbon coating that were injected into pumpkin shoots made their way to the xylem vessels and stem parenchyma tissue. When nanoparticles were sprayed on leaves, low-efficiency translocation caused them to enter the epidermal cells of the petiole [83, 84]. According to research, the nanosize of TiO2 may have hastened the breakdown of organic compounds, boosted the uptake of inorganic nutrients, and quenched oxygen free radicals produced during the photosynthetic process, all of which increased the rate of photosynthetic activity [85]. The secret to a higher seed germination rate is nanoparticle penetration into the seed. It has been demonstrated that multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) can penetrate tomato seeds and boost germination rates by improving seed water intake. The most crucial metal for plant growth is iron, which also forms the basis of chlorophyll development and transports vital nutrients through the bloodstream. Focus has been placed on the creation of these nanoparticles and their applicability in agriculture by researchers all around the world [86].
1.5 Nanotechnology in Crop Disease Management
Agriculture is contemplated as the foundation of most developing countries, with 60% of the world’s populace contingent on it for their livelihood [87]. Nanotechnology has remarkably bestowed the medical sector, energy sector, information technology, materials, etc. because of its potentiality to make more efficient materials. Tragically, the thrust for the utilization of nanotechnology in the agro-food arena came alongside recently published reports [88–90]. The nanotechnology is in the agribusiness area can be comprehensively characterized into, (a) conveyance of nanocide-pesticide; (b) stabilize biopesticides and green pesticides utilizing nanomaterials; (c) sedated and regulated release of nanomaterials succored biofertilizers, fertilizers, and micronutrients; (d) transportation of genetic materials for crop development; (e) rapid and selective detection of phytopathogens and pesticides using nanobiosensors, and so forth. The direct application of nanomaterials on plant roots, seeds, or foliage as a protectant against several pathogens and pests have been explored for metal nanoparticles, including, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, copper, silver, etc. [91–93]. Lately, silver nanoparticles have expanded in prevalence because of production of “green synthesis” in yeast, fungi, bacteria, or plants [94]. Nanochitosan with advantageous biological attributes including low toxicity to humans and animals, antimicrobial activity, non-allergenicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability have been employed to instigate viral obstruction in plant tissues by ensuring them against contaminations brought about by the mosaic virus of cucumber, potato, peanut, snuff, and alfalfa [95–97]. Antimicrobial properties have been observed, for instance, for the regulation of Fusarium crown, root rot in tomato, Phyricularia grisea in rice, and Botrytis bunch rot in grapes [98]. Solid lipid nanoparticles proffer a grid to ensnare lipophilic dynamic atoms without the utilization of natural solvents [99]. Besides, the controlled arrival of different lipophilic parts, because of diminished portability of the action in the strong network [100]. When dispersed into water, surfactants are utilized to balance out the solid lipid nanoparticles. Their primary disadvantages include low stacking effectiveness and the possibility of spilling the active out of the structure during storage [101]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded neem seed kernel extract presented 54.61% weight loss in comparison to other formulations [102]. Slow delivery of active could likewise possibly diminish the harmfulness of the insect poisons. The expansion of nanoparticles diminished the delivery rate in soil layer discharge tests when contrasted with the commercial details. Treatment of zebrafish with azoxystrobin and difenoconazole stacked into poly(lactic acid) and poly(butylene succinate)shells, for 96 h exhibited diminished harmfulness contrasted with different details [103].
Nanochitosan was stacked with double-stranded RNA focused on the African intestinal sickness vector Anopheles gambiae or potentially the dengue and yellow fever vector Aedes aegypti, with fruitful knockdown of the focused on qualities. Similar examination exploited chitosan, carbon quantum spot, and silica nanoparticles as transporters of double-stranded RNA against A. aegypti hatchlings [104].
1.6 Application of Nanofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages and Future Prospects
Agriculture is an economic backbone of developing nations [105]. Farming practices with more crop yield is pivotal to mitigate problem of food insecurity. Crop yield is decreasing continuously due to change in climate conditions and environmental stresses that causes stagnation in crop production and plant nutrient deficiency [106]. To fulfil food demand for eight billion people which are expected to be ∼ten billion in 2050, two-three billion tonnes more food production is required [107]. Utilization of synthetic fertilizers can cause eutrophication, ground water contamination, greenhouse gas emission, ill effects on aquatic flora and fauna, and human health [108]. The use of chemical fertilizers increases crop production cost and decrease monetary gains of farmers [109]. Ditta and Arshad [110] reported that during farming operations, 50% to 80% used fertilizers are lost which may lead to reduction in soil fertility and economic losses, and only 20% to 50% of fertilizers can be used properly. Xin et al.[111] found significant amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, i.e., 40% to 70%, 80% to 90%, and 50% to 90%, respectively, are lost via leaching, photo and microbial degradation, chemical hydrolysis. Agricultural sustainability can be obtained via innovative technologies application which can promote crop productivity by securing natural sources [112]. Therefore, modern technological advancements with innovative and futuristic agricultural technologies and strategies are required for effective solution for problems of global agriculture system. The food security can be obtained via new agricultural methods, advanced agri-technologies, precision farming, and nanointerventions for climate smart farming. Nanotechnology has potential in solving agriculture related issues like degradation of land, nutrient insufficiency, less productivity, and leaching losses [113].
Many innovative types of fertilizers such as nanofertilizers [114], nanoagrochemicals [115], and nanobiosensors have been developed to promote crop yield for continuously increasing population. Nanofertilizers are cost-effective promising alternative to synthetic fertilizers that can escalate food production worldwide in a sustainable manner. Nanofertilizers act as nanocarriers and deliver nutrients to the right place by decreasing chemicals deposition on plants. Hybrid nanofertilizers can be synthesized by organic matrix where inorganic phase contained homogeneously dispersed nanoparticles. The moderate discharge of hybrid nanofertilizers up to fourteen days in tomato. Nanoparticles can release nutrients to target sites in living system. In nanofertilizers, nutrients are coated with nanomaterials for controlled release of nutrients to plants [116]. These smart fertilizers are recognized as an important substitute to conventional fertilizers [117]. Nanoparticles can be taken through stomata, trichomes, hydathodes, and transported via phloem and xylem in the plants [118]. Nanofertilizers application in agriculture can show some undesirable environmental changes. There must be some legislation or risk management system to check proper delivery and utilization of nanofertilizers for crop growth. Hence, analysis of the risks and identification of adverse effects of nanofertilizers are needed by their life cycle assessment [119]. In the agriculture, very less information is available on risk assessment and due to these stakeholders is unable to take decision for application of nano-based products. Amaranthus tricolor L. showed reduced growth and free radicals generation with multi-walled carbon nanotubes [120]. Nanofertilizers easily enter in food chain and show adverse effects on non-target living organisms. Carbon-based nanoparticles can change structure of DNA and gene expression levels in cells of plants [116].
1.7 Biodegradable Bionanocomposites in Agriculture Applications
The growing use of plastics in agriculture, called plastic culture has enabled farmers to increase their crop production while preventing herbicides and pesticides and conserving more water [121]. Plastics have been used in agriculture and horticulture since the middle of the last century [122]. In particular, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is the most widely used polyethylene grade, due to its relatively good optical and mechanical properties, combined with a competitive and cheap market price. One major drawback of most non-degradable polymers used in agriculture is the problem with their disposal methods, following their useful lifetime. Polysaccharide polymers that are abundant in nature are increasingly being used for the preparation of nanocomposites [123]. The term bionanocomposites (occasionally called biocomposites, bio-based plastics (bioplastics), green composites, biohybrids, nanocomposites, or nanobiocomposites) was introduced several years ago by Theng in 1970. The input materials for the production of such biodegradable polymers may be extracted or synthesized from renewable (based on agricultural plant or animal products) sources [124]. Agricultural nondegradable plastic wastes, one of the alternative ways of disposal is biodegradation. The most acceptable and practicable disposal method for biodegradable polymers is composting. However, composting requires an infrastructure, including collection systems and composting facilities [125]. Plastic is used at every stage of the horticultural life cycle right from seed packaging, planting, propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting, fruit picking, and preservation [126]. The estimated total plastics for agriculture purposes were 6.96 million tons in 2017 (the total amount of plastics was 348 million tons). Polyethylene (PE) is mainly used for agricultural cultivation purposes [127]. Greenhouse cover is the most widely used plastic film for protected cultivation [128].
The greenhouse is a framed structure covered with glass or plastic film and plants are grown in a partially or fully controlled environment. More than 80% of the worldwide market is comprised of films made from LDPE, ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), and ethylene-butyl acrylate (EBA) copolymers. Other polymers used include plasticized PVC in Japan and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) in the rest of the world [129]. According to crop needs, a cover film is supplied with different functions such as antidrip, anti-dust, and anti-fog systems. Recently, colored films (white, green, or yellow) and photo-selective film are used for the mulching practice. It was a great success and satisfaction for the agricultural practices. Plastic mulch film has different thicknesses and chooses based on plant type and age. It is available from 7 to 100-micron thickness but for medium duration crops 25 to 50 micron and for long-duration crops. According to Castellano, et al.[130], plastic nets are made of plastic threads connected, in a woven or knitted way. These types of nets have a regular porous geometric structure and allow fluids to go through. Plastic nets are used in numerous agricultural applications. These applications protect orchards and ornamentals from hail, wind, snow, or strong rainfall, green-houses, protection against insects and birds, harvesting, and post-harvest practices. Packaging is one of the most critical issues and areas in the distribution and marketing of agricultural produce. Generally, LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene), PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride), PP (Polypropylene), LLDPE (Linear low-density polyethylene), HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene), and PA (Polyamide) are used as plastic material in nets for fruits and nut picking and fruit packaging. Biodegradable materials which decompose in the soil are subjected to accelerated degradation due to the action of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae, and mineralize into carbon dioxide or methane, water, and biomass. On the other hand, biodegradable materials can be incorporated with organic materials, such as food and vegetable residues and manure, to generate carbon-rich compost [131].
Biocomposites are composite materials mainly derived (comprising one or more phase/s) from a biological origin. In terms of reinforcement, this could include plant materials such as fibers from cotton, flax, hemp, waste or recycled wood, wastepaper, or by-products or food crops. Regenerated cellulose fibers (viscose/rayon) are also included in this category [132]. They can be widely used in a variety of areas owing to multidimensional properties such as biocompatibility, antimicrobial activity, and biodegradability and show excellent properties (mechanical, optical, barrier, etc.) as compared to micro- or macro composites [133, 134]. Bionanocomposites are used in various agricultural applications such as food production, crop protection, toxin and pathogen exposure, purification of water, food packaging, wastewater treatment, and stopping environmental damage [135]. The environmental impact of plastic films used for agricultural mulches should account for the beneficial impact of mulches including a reduction in the use of pesticides, herbicides, water, and energy. The films may be serviceable during a single growing season or for multiple years depending on the crop and the cultural practices employed [136]. Pal and Katiyar [137] reported the synthesis and characterization of nanoamphiphilic chitosan dispersed PLA–bionanocomposite films for packaging application. The formed composite films demonstrated improved thermal, mechanical, and gas barrier properties.
The study reported on the antimicrobial properties of composite films derived from PLA/starch/chitosan blended matrix. Nanotubes can be incorporated into polymer structures (liquids, solutions, melts, gels, amorphous, and crystalline matrices) to increase their tensile strength and elasticity [138]. These nanotubes can increase viscosity owing to their high aspect ratio (i.e., large surface area) and stiffness, which requires lower amounts of protein [139, 140]. A nanocomposite film made by Chitosan and TiO2 showed ethylene photodegradation which helped in the prolongation of tomato storage [141]. The study reported on the effect of chitosan/nanosilica coating on the physicochemical characteristics of longan fruit under ambient temperature, and this study reveals that the chitosan/nanosilica films were observed to lower the decay of food by preventing the membrane structure from peroxidation, thus preserving the quality and elongating the storage shelf life. The coating enables to the generation of a layer of coat on the paper that has the protection role in the food packaging materials. It generates a product that is 100% biodegradable [142]. The coating films of wheat gluten bionanocomposite consisting of 7.5% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and 0.6% TiO2 were coated on unbleached kraft paper sheets. Nanoparticle-mediated gene or DNA transfer in plants for the development of insect pest-resistant varieties and the use of nanomaterials for the preparation of different kinds of biosensors that are useful in the remote-sensing devices required for precision farming are some of the boons of this modern nanotechnology.
1.8 Advances and Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
The nanoparticles have several positive impacts on the plants and soil health, which includes better soil health, enhanced microbial count and diversity, and enhanced nutritional profile of the soil, increased bioavailability and sustainability [143]. Several studies were reported that the nanofertilizers have considerably improved the biochemical and physiological indices of the crop plants [144]. Pirvulescua et al, reported that, the chlorophyll content was increased in sunflower and maize, it can be directly correlated with plant productivity [145]. In maize and cotton, zinc-based NFs increased proline content and the enzymatic reactions of peroxidase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase. Application to the leaves of pearl millet plants increased the amount of soluble protein and yield [146]. Several reports suggests that the nanoparticles can induce the production of reactive oxygen species, which causes the oxidative damage of nucleic acids, breakage of DNA–protein crosslinks and may eventually leads to the phytotoxicity, whereas some reports suggest that, the phytotoxicity is associated with the size of the nanoparticles and particles having a particular size only initiates the phytotoxicity [105, 147–149]. Nanocapsules, nanospheres, nanogels, and micelles are the most commonly synthesised controlled release formulations for which various physical and chemical methods have been described for their preparation. Nanocapsulation with a polymer matrix can improve the dispersion of hydrophobic drugs in aqueous solutions and allows their controlled release with high selectivity and without compromising biocidal activity [150].
Studies reported similar toxicity or increased pesticidal toxicity or similar toxicity at lower concentrations as compared to the conventional to nanopesticide formulations. Studies demonstrate that nanoformulations can slow down the release [151]. Nanoformulations can allow a better targeting of the pest. Nanoformulations can protect from various degradation processes including photolysis, hydrolysis or degradation in soil [152]. There are several reports on the use of nanoparticles in soil-conserving cropping strategies. Fe2O3 nanoparticles increased stem and root length and biomass production in hydroponically grown spinach [153]. Treatment of tobacco plants grown in soil-less systems with ZnO nanoparticles resulted in increased biomass, leaf surface area and enzymatic activity of leaves, and improved the metabolite profile [154]. Se nanoparticles improved resistance to abiotic stress in hydroponically grown tomatoes and SiO2 nanoparticles showed seed coat resistance and nutrient availability in maize plants [155, 156]. Researchers have developed several nano-based solutions to extend the shelf life of microgreens. Li et al. developed a nanopackaging by coating a polyvinyl chloride film with ZnO nanoparticles. In another study, Luo et al. developed low-density polyethylene (LDPE) coated with CaCO3 nanoparticles [157]. For the preservation of tomatoes, Zhu et al.[158] developed a coating of silica nanoparticles and chitosan complex (NSSC). Through such innovative solutions nanotechnology may largely contribute to the innovative farming practices in the future. In addition to this, nanoparticles are being used in the delivery of RNA into plant cells. Chitosan nanoparticles are effectively used deliver the small interfering RNA into the plant cells [159] and double stranded RNA was transferred to tobacco leave cells using the non-toxic, biodegradable clay nanosheets [105]. In 2017, mout et al. successfully demonstrated the intra cytoplasmic delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins using the cationic arginine gold nanoparticles in cultured HeLa cells [160]. Such promising results spreading a ray of hope about the efficient nano-based gene editing machinery into the plant cells in the near future.
1.9 Recent Trends in Designing and Production of Nano-Based Formulations
Agricultural nanotechnology is a division of agricultural science that uses nanoparticles to enhance the agronomic management of soil, water, crops, and food [161]. There are numerous applications for nanotechnology, including the use of agricultural resources such as nutrients, chemicals, and water in agricultural processes. Because nanoparticles have unique physicochemical properties such as high surface area, high reactivity, and tunable pore size, nanotechnology offers a wide range of novel applications in the plant nutrition fields to meet the future demand of the growing population [162]. Fertilizers are required to increase crop yield, but they can reduce soil fertility by upsetting the mineral balance in the soil. Pesticides, fertilizers, and medicines are frequently sprayed and can be washed off easily. Nanotechnology offers controlled delivery of agrochemicals to improve disease resistance, enhancing plant growth, and efficient utilization of nutrients. Nanoencapsulation of pesticides and fertilizers has been useful in the targeted delivery and use of various agrochemicals in an environmentally friendly and greener way, thus reducing the dosage and wastage of these chemicals. It can also improve the application of herbicides by providing better penetration and slow release of active ingredients [163]. The nanofertilizers have higher surface area to volume ratio and a greater number of particles per unit area of a fertilizer. This results in high solubility and dispersion of insoluble nutrients in various solvents, such as water and increase the bioavailability. It also allows nanoparticles to penetrate into the plant from applied surfaces such as soil or leaves and improve uptake and nutrient use efficiency of the nanofertilizer [164].
In recent research a pot experiments carried out to study effects of biosynthesized copper oxide nanopartices on Cajanus cajan. The experimental data showed that treated plants had significantly higher root and shoot lengths, as well as increased biomass accumulation, resulting in a higher yield [165]. Scientists all over the world have discovered toxic effects of using copper nanoparticles at higher rates than recommended [111]. Several studies have found that applying some other types of Nanoparticles could improve plant growth to some extent, despite the fact that these particles did not contain any essential plant nutrients. Typical examples of this type are cerium oxide nanoparticles, titanium dioxide nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanomaterial. The potential of Cerium oxide nanoparticles in suppressing Fusarium wilt disease and enhancing tomato production was reviewed by Adisa et al.[166]. Nanomaterials held great promise for use in nano-based pesticide formulation, because of their small size, large surface area, and target modified properties. The nano-based formulation may improve pesticide properties and behaviors, such as solubility, dispersion, stability, mobility, and targeting delivery [152]. Pesticide nanoformulations have been made using a wide range of natural and synthetic materials, including metal, metal oxides, non-metal oxides, carbon, silicates, ceramics, clays, layered double hydroxides, polymers, lipids, dendrimers, proteins, quantum dots, and more [167]. The use of a polymer matrix in nanoencapsulation may improve the dispersion of hydrophobic active ingredients in aqueous solutions, allowing for controlled release with high selectivity and without interfering with biocidal activity [168]. The release profile of an active ingredient is determined by the chemical properties of the polymeric matrix, the strength of the chemical bonds, and the size of the biocide molecules. Following contact with the water and the necessary stimuli, diffusion, or disassembly of the polymer containing the active ingredient begins [169].
The advantages of polymer encapsulated nanoformulations over conventional formulations include controlled release [170], decreased evaporation, degradation, and leaching losses [171], and extended activity of the active ingredients with a short half-life [172]. However, increasing health risks ranging from inhalation to skin penetration remain unanswered because nanoformulations have significantly different properties than conventional bulk pesticides [173]. A number of nano-based pesticide formulations for plant protection have been developed, including imidacloprid [174], thiamethoxam, and thiram. Nanosensors are miniature sensors with dimensions in the nanometer range, enabling their integration into diverse systems and devices. These remarkable sensors possess the capability to detect and quantify a wide array of physical, chemical, and biological parameters, making them highly versatile for applications in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and precision agriculture [175]. One of the key advantages of nanosensors is their remarkable combination of small size and high sensitivity, enabling them to detect and measure a diverse range of parameters with exceptional precision and accuracy [176]
