Nanomaterials E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1432

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

The first in-depth treatment of the synthesis, processing, and characterization of nanomaterials using lasers, ranging from fundamentals to the latest research results, this handy reference is divided into two main sections. After introducing the concepts of lasers, nanomaterials, nanoarchitectures and laser-material interactions in the first three chapters, the book goes on to discuss the synthesis of various nanomaterials in vacuum, gas and liquids. The second half discusses various nanomaterial characterization techniques involving lasers, from Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopies to light dynamic scattering, laser spectroscopy and such unusual techniques as laser photo acoustic, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, ultrafast dynamics and laser-induced thermal pulses. The specialist authors adopt a practical approach throughout, with an emphasis on experiments, set-up, and results. Each chapter begins with an introduction and is uniform in covering the basic approaches, experimental setups, and dependencies of the particular method on different parameters, providing sufficient theory and modeling to understand the principles behind the techniques.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Related Titles

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Lasers: Fundamentals, Types, and Operations

1.1 Introduction of Lasers

1.2 Types of Laser and Their Operations

1.3 Methods of Producing EUV/VUV, X-Ray Laser Beams

1.4 Properties of Laser Radiation

1.5 Modification in Basic Laser Structure

References

Chapter 2: Introduction of Materials and Architectures at the Nanoscale

2.1 Origin and Historical Development

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Band Theory of Solids

2.4 Quantum Confinement

2.5 Defects and Imperfections

2.6 Metal, Semiconductor, and Insulator Nanomaterials

2.7 Various Synthesis Methods of Nanoscale Materials

2.8 Various Techniques of Materials Characterization

2.9 Self-Assembly and Induced Assembly, Aggregation, and Agglomeration of Nanoparticles

2.10 Applications of Lasers in Nanomaterial Synthesis, Modification, and Characterization

2.11 Summary and Future Prospects

References

Part I: Nanomaterials: Laser Based Processing Techniques

Chapter 3: Laser–Matter Interaction

3.1 High-Intensity Femtosecond Laser Interactions with Gases and Clusters

3.1.4 High-Pressure Atomic Physics

References

Chapter 3.2: Laser-Matter Interaction: Plasma and Nanomaterials Processing

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Influences of Laser Irradiance on Melting and Vaporization Processes

3.2.3 Influence of Laser Pulse Width and Pulse Shape

3.2.4 Influences of Laser Wavelength on Ablation Threshold and Plasma Parameters

3.2.6 Double Pulse Laser Ablation

3.2.7 Electric- and Magnetic-Field-Assisted Laser Ablation

3.2.8 Effect of Laser Polarization

3.2.9 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4: Nanomaterials: Laser-Based Processing in Gas Phase

4.1 Synthesis and Analysis of Nanostructured Thin Films Prepared by Laser Ablation of Metals in Vacuum

References

Chapter 4.2: Synthesis of Nanostructures with Pulsed Laser Ablation in a Furnace

4.2.1 General Consideration for Pulsed Laser Deposition: an Introduction

References

Chapter 4.3: ZnO Nanowire and Its Heterostructures Grown with Nanoparticle-Assisted Pulsed Laser Deposition

Chapter 4.4: Laser-Vaporization-Controlled Condensation for the Synthesis of Semiconductor, Metallic, and Bimetallic Nanocrystals and Nanoparticle Catalysts

Chapter 5: Nanomaterials: Laser-Induced Nano/Microfabrications

5.1 Direct Femtosecond Laser Nanostructuring and Nanopatterning on Metals

References

Chapter 5.2: Laser-Induced Forward Transfer: an Approach to Direct Write of Patterns in Film Form

5.2.1 Introduction

5.2.2 Principle and Method

5.2.3 LIFT of Materials

5.2.4 Applications

5.2.5 Summary and Conclusion

References

Chapter 5.3: Laser-Induced Forward Transfer: Transfer of Micro-Nanomaterials on Substrate

5.3.1 Introduction of Laser-Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)

5.3.2 Spatial Resolution of the LIFT Process

5.3.3 Transfer of Thermally and Mechanically Sensitive Materials

References

Chapter 5.4: Laser-Induced Forward Transfer for the Fabrication of Devices

5.4.1 Introduction

5.4.2 LIFT Techniques for Direct-Write Applications

5.4.3 Modified LIFT Methods

5.4.4 Conclusions and Future Aspects

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6: Nanomaterials: Laser-Based Processing in Liquid Media

6.1 Liquid-Assisted Pulsed Laser Ablation/Irradiation for Generation of Nanoparticles

References

Chapter 6.2: Synthesis of Metal Compound Nanoparticles by Laser Ablation in Liquid

Chapter 6.3: Synthesis of Fourth Group (C, Si, and Ge) Nanoparticles by Laser Ablation in Liquids

6.3.1 Laser Ablation in Liquid (LAL)

6.3.2 Carbon Nanoparticles

6.3.3 Silicon Nanoparticles

6.3.4 Germanium Nanoparticles

6.3.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part II: Nanomaterials: Laser-Based Characterization Techniques

Chapter 7: Raman Spectroscopy: Basics and Applications

7.1 Raman Spectroscopy and its Application in the Characterization of Semiconductor Devices

Chapter 7.2: Effect of Particle Size Reduction on Raman Spectra

7.2 Effect of Particle Size Reduction on Raman Spectra

Chapter 8: Size Determination of Nanoparticles by Dynamic Light Scattering

8.1 Introduction

8.2 General Principles of DLS (Photon Correlation Spectroscopy)

8.3 Particle Size Standards Applied to DLS

8.4 Unique DLS Instruments

8.5 Sample Characterization Using DLS Measurements of Nanoparticles

8.6 Result of DLS Characterization

8.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Photolumniscence/Fluorescence Spectroscopic Technique for Nanomaterials Characterizations

9.1 Application of Photoluminescence Spectroscopy in the Characterizations of Nanomaterials

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9.2: Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy of Nanomaterials

9.2.1 Introduction

9.2.2 Instrumentation

9.2.1.3 Instrument Optimization and Performing FCS Experiments

9.2.1.4 Some FCS Studies on Nanomaterial Characterizations

9.2.1.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9.3: Time-Resolved Photoluminescence Spectroscopy of Nanomaterials

9.3.1 Introduction

9.3.2 Experimental Methods of TRPL

9.3.3 Case Study of ZnO

9.3.4 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 10: Photoacoustic Spectroscopy and Its Applications in Characterization of Nanomaterials

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Instrumentation

10.3 Applications of PA Spectroscopy to the Nanomaterials

Chapter 11: Ultrafast Laser Spectroscopy of Nanomaterials

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Ultrafast Time-Resolved Spectroscopy

11.3 Other Multiple Wave Ultrafast Spectroscopic Techniques

11.4 Measurement of Charge Carrier Dynamics

11.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12: Nonlinear Optical Characterization of Nanomaterials

12.1 Influence of Laser Ablation Parameters on the Optical and Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Colloidal Solution of Semiconductor Nanoparticles

12.2 High-Order Harmonic Generation in Silver-Nanoparticle-Contained Plasma

12.3 Studies of Low- and High-Order Nonlinear Optical Properties of BaTiO3 and SrTiO3 Nanoparticles

12.4 Results and Discussion

12.5 High-Order Harmonic Generation from the BaTiO3- and SrTiO3-Nanoparticle-Contained Laser Plumes

12.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13: Polarization and Space-Charge Profiling with Laser-Based Thermal Techniques

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Theoretical Foundations and Data Analysis

13.3 Experimental Techniques

13.4 Applications

13.5 Summary and Outlook

References

Index

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The Editors

Dr. Subhash Chandra Singh

Dublin City University

School of Physical Sciences

9 Dublin-Glasnevin

Ireland

Prof. Haibo Zeng

Nanjing University of Aeronautics

and Astronautics

State Key Laboratory of Mechanics and

Control of Mechanical Structures

Key Laboratory for Intelligent Nano

Materials and Devices of the Ministry

of Education

College of Material Science and Technology

Yudao Street 29, Nanjing 210016

People's Republic of China

Prof. Chunlei Guo

University of Rochester

The Institute of Optics

275, Hutchison Road

Rochester, NY 14627-0186

USA

Prof. Weiping Cai

Institute of Solid State Physics

Chinese Academy of Sciences

ShuShanHu Road 350

Hefei, Anhui 230031

People's Republic of China

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Preface

Lasers and nanomaterials are both highly emergent and hot topics of research recent days. Lasers have shown their potential applications not only in the processing of nanoscaled materials but also in their characterizations since the 1960s. Cutting, drilling, alloying, welding, defect creation inside the bulk, and so on, are some conventional applications of lasers in bulk material processing and are the subject of several books, while laser-based processing methods for nanoscaled materials are less dealt with by authors of books and editors.

Availability of a wide range of lasers with power option from milliwatt to petawatt, wavelength selectivity from soft X-ray to microwave, pulse widths from millisecond to attosecond, and repetition rates from a few hertz to mega hertz and continuous research and development on lasers have fueled research and development in the area of laser processing of nanostructured materials and their characterizations. Lasers have the utility not only in the processing of nanostructures but they can also modify the size, shape, phase, morphology, and hence the properties of the nanostructured materials. All the methods of laser processing of nanostructures are almost simple, quick, one-step and green, and produce materials having surfaces free from chemical contamination. Such materials are highly important for biological and medical applications, where purity of the materials is of highest impact.

There are a number of laser-based nanomaterial processing methods that can produce 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructures in the gaseous as well as in liquid phases, and can produce nano-/microstructures at the selective sites of bulk solid materials. Pulsed laser deposition, laser vaporization controlled condensation (LVCC), laser pyrolysis, laser chemical vapor deposition, photolithography, laser-induced direct surface writing for nano-/microfabrication, two-photon polymerization, laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT), laser ablation in liquids (LALs), laser-induced melting and fragmentation for resizing and reshaping of particles, laser-induced photodissociation of liquid precursors, and so on are some laser-based approaches of generation of nanoscaled materials.

Characterization of nanomaterials remains incomplete without the use of lasers. Laser excitation provides information about structural, compositional, electrical, optical, thermal, and lasing properties of nanomaterials. Raman, photoluminescence (PL), laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICPMS), light dynamic scattering, laser-photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS), fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), ultrafast laser spectroscopy, laser-induced thermal pulses for space charge measurements, laser scanning microscopy, coherent diffractive imaging, and so on are some laser-based characterization techniques of nanoscaled materials.

The intention behind this book is that it serves as a platform for the state-of-art laser-based nanomaterials processing and characterization techniques. This book will be an effective medium to help retain scientists and researchers in the field of laser material processing and characterization. Optical and lasing characterization of nanomaterials using PL and Raman investigation for structural and size determination will be highly helpful in the development and industrialization of photonic devices and inexpensive lasing materials.

The researchers who are using lasers for other purposes might be promoted to do research in the filed of laser-based nanomaterial processing and characterizations, while beginners who have just entered the field will be guided effectively. Moreover, UG and PG students might be stimulated to start their research career in this field.

The contents of the book are arranged in the following manner.

Thefirst three chapters are devoted to the basic introduction of lasers, nanomaterials, and interaction of lasers with atoms molecules and clusters. Chapter 1 sheds light on the history of laser development in short, basic construction, and principles of lasing, different types of active media for lasing, representative active media and lasers from each category and their operations, characteristics of laser light, and modification in the basic laser structure such as mode locking, pulse shaping, and so on.

Chapter 2 starts with the origin and historical development and introduction of nanomaterials, flows through the band theory of solids, quantum confinement, defects and imperfections of nanomaterials, metal, semiconductor, and insulator nanoparticles (NPs), various synthesis methods and techniques of nanomaterials characterizations, self- and induced assembly as well as aggregation and agglomeration, application of lasers in the synthesis, modification, and characterization of nanomaterials and ends with summary and future prospects.

Chapter 3 forms a bridge between lasers and materials. It deals with the interaction of lasers with atoms, molecules, and clusters. This chapter starts with introduction, flows through laser–atom interaction, laser–molecule interaction, high-pressure atomic physics, strongly coupled plasmas, laser cluster production and interaction, aerosol monitoring, and ends with the conclusion and outlook.

Chapters 4–13 are partitioned into two parts. Part I has been classified into three chapters based on the technique and ablation environment. For example, Chapter 4 is a group of subchapters devoted to the gas-phase laser-based processing techniques, Chapter 5 has sub-chapters related to laser-based nano-/microfabrication, and Chapter 5 has a collection of subchapters associated with liquid-phase laser-based nanomaterial processing techniques. Chapters 7–13 are grouped into Part II. Chapter 7 describes Raman spectroscopy, while Chapter 8 is devoted to dynamic light scattering (DLS). PL and fluorescence-based characterization techniques are given under Chapter 9, and Chapter 10 describes PAS for material characterization. Chapter 11 discusses ultrafast spectroscopy of nanomaterials, while Chapter 12 describes nonlinear optical spectroscopy of nanomaterials. Laser-based thermal pulse technique for the polarization and space charge characterization is the subject of Chapter 13.

Chapter 4 is collection of four subchapters (subchapters 4.1–4.4) related to gas-phase laser-based materials processing. Subchapter 4.1 describes synthesis and analysis of nanostructured thin films prepared by laser ablation of metals in vacuum, while subchapter 4.2 deals with the fabrication of nanostructures with pulsed laser ablation in a furnace, also known as high-temperature pulsed laser deposition (HTPLD). Ablation of metals under high-pressure ambience causes synthesis of NPs, which assist in the fabrication of one-dimensional nanostructure, is termed as high-pressure pulsed laser deposition (HPPLD), or nanoparticle-assisted pulsed laser deposition (NAPLD), and is the subject of subchapter 4.3. Removal of material from the target surface using laser vaporization and its transport to the substrate through controlled condensation using a temperature gradient between target and substrate is known as laser vaporization controlled condensation, and is the subject of subchapter 4.4.

Chapter 5 is subdivided in the four subchapters. Subchapter 5.1 deals with femtosecond laser nanostructuring and nanopatterning on metals. It starts with the introduction and flows through the basic principle of surface nanostructuring by femtosecond laser, periodic structuring by femtosecond laser, nanostructure-textured microstructures, single and array nanoholes, and ends with the application of femtosecond laser-induced surface structures and the summary. Subchapters 5.2–5.4 are devoted to the LIFT approach of transfer of film from a transparent substrate to the other substrates. Subchapter 5.2 is a review of the characteristics and features of various films transferred by LIFT with light shed on the principles and methods. Subchapter 5.3 describes basic fundamentals and processes involved in LIFT and discusses effects of various laser and target film parameters on the morphology of fabricated patterns. Application of LIFT in the fabrication of devices is the subject of subchapter 5.4. It begins with the introduction, discusses the various LIFT techniques such as traditional and modified LIFT, and ends with the conclusion and future aspects.

LALs for particle generation are cheaper, simpler, and quite recent than the gas-phase ablation, and is highly emerging in recent years. Chapter 6 presents liquid-assisted laser ablation for generation of particles and comprises four subchapters (subchapters 6.1–6.4). Subchapter 6.1 deals with the fundamentals of LALs, basic differences between LALs and gas phase, advantages of liquid-phase ablation over the gas phase, laser irradiation of liquid suspended particles for resizing and reshaping, and so on. Reactive laser ablation, described in subchapter 6.2, produces NPs that have elemental contributions from targets as well as from the liquid medium, is useful for the synthesis of oxide, hydroxide, carbide, and nitride NPs. Subchapter 6.3 presents liquid-phase laser ablation of fourth group elements (C, Si, Ge) for the synthesis of their elemental and compound nanomaterials.

Raman spectroscopy, Chapter 7, is an important nondestructive laser-based characterization technique that provides information about the structure, size, and shape, and electronic-, and defect-related properties of nanomaterials. Chapter 7 consists of two subchapters. Chapter 7.1 describes the fundamentals of Raman spectroscopy and some case studies and applications of Raman spectroscopy in the characterization of devices. Size and shape of nanomaterials affect the characteristics of Raman spectra, and is the subject of Chapter 7.2.

When a beam of monochromatic light passes through the colloidal solution of NPs, it gets scattered after the interaction with the moving particles under Brownian motion, and is termed as dynamic light scattering. The characteristic of the scattered light depends on the size of the particle and the wavelength of the incident beam. Chapter 8 describes size determination of particles using DLS.

PL/fluorescence is another important and nondestructive technique for the characterization of nanomaterials, which provides information about size, morphology, bandgap, defect, and crystallinity of nanomaterials. It tests the properties of nanomaterials for their possible applications in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes, solar cells, lasers, and as a fluorescence marker. Some of the PL-/fluorescence-based characterization techniques are presented in Chapter 9. This chapter encompasses three subchapters (subchapters 9.1–9.3). Chapter 9.1 presents a basic understanding of PL spectroscopy initiated by the introduction and experimental arrangements, flows through the applications of general PL spectroscopy on nanomaterial ensembles, and application of PL spectroscopy on single nanomaterials, and ends with the conclusion. FCS, presented in subchapter 9.2, is a new laser spectroscopic technique for single molecule detection that has recently been applied, in vitro and in vivo, to study the dynamical behavior of NPs in solution and the NP–cell interactions inside the biological environment. Subchapter 9.3 is focused on the time-resolved spectroscopy of nanomaterials, which is able to diagnose femtosecond and picosecond time-scaled dynamical processes.

PAS, described in Chapter 10, is a nondestructive and flexible spectroscopic tool, which offers an easy way to obtain the optical absorption spectra of any kind of samples. In the present age of nanotechnology, PAS has great importance in characterization of nanomaterials, since nanomaterials scatter light significantly and have large electron–phonon coupling.

Ultrafast spectroscopy of nanomaterials, described in Chapter 11, determines the lifetimes of fast dynamical processes such as the transition time of electrons, carrier dynamics, times for phonon–phonon, electron–phonon, and electron–electron interactions, and so on. It can determine the rate of reaction, electronic processes involved during the synthesis, and functionalization of nanoparticles.

Nonlinear spectroscopy of nanostructured materials, described in Chapter 12, and its novel applications in optoelectronics, optical switchers and limiters, as well as in optical computers, optical memory, and nonlinear spectroscopy, has attracted much attention in recent days. High- and low-order nonlinearity in refractive indices, susceptibility, and conversion efficiency in higher harmonic generation through laser-produced plasma on the surface of nanostructured materials are the subject of this chapter. Influence of laser ablation parameters on the optical and nonlinear optical characteristics of colloidal solutions of semiconductor NPs, high-order harmonic generation in silver NP-contained plasma, and studies of low- and high-order nonlinear optical properties of BaTiO3 and SrTiO3 NPs are the main topics of Chapter 12.

Chapter 13 presents applications of laser-generated thermal pulses in the polarization and space charge profiling of some polymer films and nanomaterials. This chapter starts with the basic overview and history of thermal techniques for polarization and space charge depth profiling, passes through the theoretical foundation, data analysis, and experimental techniques, and finishes with some applications on polymers and nanomaterials.

Subash Chandra Singh

List of Contributors

Weiping Cai

Key Laboratory of Materials Physics

Institute of Solid State Physics

Chinese Academy of Sciences

350 Shushanghu Road

Hefei

Anhui 230031

China

Bingqiang Cao

University of Jinan

School of Materials Science and Engineering

106 Jiwei road

Jinan 250022

Shandong

China

Filippo Causa

University of Naples Federico II

Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Biomaterials

P.le Tecchio 80

80125 Naples

Italy

Avinash Chandra Pandey

University of Allahabad

Nanotechnology Application Centre

Allahabad

India

Guoxin Chen

National University of Singapore

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

4 Engineering Drive 3, 117576

Singapore

Tow Chong Chong

Singapore University of Technology and Design

287 Ghim Moh Road #04-00

279623

Singapore

Yashashchandra Dwivedi

Universidade de São Paulo

Departamento de Física e Cincia dos Materiais

Instituto de Física de São Carlos

Caixa Postal 369, 13560-970

São Carlos - SP

Brasil

M. Samy El-Shall

Virginia Commonwealth University

Department of Chemistry

College of Humanities and Sciences

1001 West Main Street

Richmond

VA 23284-2006

USA

Rashid Ashirovich Ganeev

Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan

Institute of Electronics

33 Dormon Yoli Street

Akademgorodok

Tashkent 100125

Uzbekistan

Haibo Gong

University of Jinan

School of Materials Science and Engineering

106 Jiwei road

Jinan 250022

Shandong

China

Ram Gopal

University of Allahabad

Department of Physics

Laser spectroscopy & Nanomaterials lab.

Allahabad 211002

India

Chunlei Guo

University of Rochester

The Institute of Optics

275 Hutchison Road

Rochester

NY 14627-0186

USA

Ruiqian Guo

Fudan University

Laboratory of Advanced Materials

2205 Songhu Road

Shanghai 200438

China

Alan M. Heins

University of Rochester

The Institute of Optics

275 Hutchison Road

Rochester

NY 14627-0186

USA

Jung-Il Hong

Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST)

Daegu 711-873

Korea

and

School of Materials Science and Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta 30332

USA

Minghui Hong

National University of Singapore

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

4 Engineering Drive 3 117576

Singapore

Aditya Kumar Singh

Department of Ceramic engineering

IT, BHU

Varanasi

India

Haruhisa Kato

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)

Tsukuba Central 5

Higashi 1-1-1

Tsukuba

Japan

Kaushal Kumar

Italian Institute of Technology

Centre for Advanced Biomolecules for Healthcare (CRIB)

80125 Naples

Italy

and

Department of Applied Physics

Indian School of Mines

Dhanbad 826004

India

Thomas Lippert

Paul Scherrer Institute

Materials Group, General Energy Research Department

OFLB U110 CH-5232

Villigen-PSI

Switzerland

Patrick J. McNally

Dublin City University

Nanomaterials Processing Laboratory

The Rince Institute

School of Electronic Engineering

Dublin 9

Ireland

Axel Mellinger

Central Michigan University

Department of Physics

222 Dow Science Complex

Mount Pleasant

MI 48859

USA

Matthias Nagel

EMPA

Laboratory for Functional Polymers

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology

Überlandstrasse 129

CH-8600 Dübendorf

Switzerland

Paolo Antonio Netti

Italian Institute of Technology

Centre for Advanced Biomolecules for Healthcare (CRIB)

80125 Naples

Italy

Tatsuo Okada

Kyushu University

School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering

744 Motooka, Nishi-ku

Fukuoka 819-0395

Japan

Hironobu Sakata

Tokai University

Department of Optical and Imaging Science & Technology

4-1-1 Kitakaname

Hiratsuka

Kanagawa 259-1292

Japan

Vahit Sametoglu

University of Alberta

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Edmonton

Alberta, T6G 2V4

Canada

Luigi Sanguigno

Italian Institute of Technology

Centre for Advanced Biomolecules for Healthcare (CRIB)

80125 Naples

Italy

Vasant G. Sathe

University Campus

UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research

Khandwa Road

Indore-452017

Madhya Pradesh

India

Rajeev Singh

University of Allahabad

Department of Electronics & Communication

Allahabad 211002

Uttar Pradesh

India

Subhash Chandra Singh

National Centre for Plasma Science and Technology & School of Physical Sciences

Dublin City University

Dublin-9

Ireland

Ying Yin Tsui

University of Alberta

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Edmonton

Alberta T6G 2V4

Canada

Anatoliy Vorobyev

University of Rochester

The Institute of Optics

275 Hutchinson Road

Rochester

NY 14627

USA

Moriaki Wakaki

Tokai University

Department of Optical and Imaging Science & Technology

4-1-1 Kitakaname

Hiratsuka

Kanagawa 259-1292

Japan

Qing Wang

University of Alberta

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Edmonton

Alberta T6G 2V4

Canada

Rusen Yang

University of Minnesota-Twin cities

Department of Mechanical Engineering

111 Church Street SE

Minneapolis

MN 55455

USA

Shikuan Yang

Key Laboratory of Materials Physics

Institute of Solid State Physics

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Hefei

Anhui 230031

China

Haibo Zeng

Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics

State Key Laboratory of Mechanics and Control of Mechanical Structures

Key Laboratory for Intelligent Nano Materials and Devices of the Ministry of Education

College of Material Science and Technology

Nanjing 210016

China

Chapter 1

Lasers: Fundamentals, Types, and Operations

Subhash Chandra Singh, Haibo Zeng, Chunlei Guo, and Weiping Cai

The acronym LASER, constructed from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, has become so common and popular in every day life that it is now referred to as laser. Fundamental theories of lasers, their historical development from milliwatts to petawatts in terms of power, operation principles, beam characteristics, and applications of laser have been the subject of several books [1–5]. Introduction of lasers, types of laser systems and their operating principles, methods of generating extreme ultraviolet/vacuum ultraviolet (EUV/VUV) laser lights, properties of laser radiation, and modification in basic structure of lasers are the main sections of this chapter.

1.1 Introduction of Lasers

1.1.1 Historical Development

The first theoretical foundation of LASER and MASER was given by Einstein in 1917 using Plank's law of radiation that was based on probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for absorption and spontaneous and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. Theodore Maiman was the first to demonstrate the earliest practical laser in 1960 after the reports by several scientists, including the first theoretical description of R.W. Ladenburg on stimulated emission and negative absorption in 1928 and its experimental demonstration by W.C. Lamb and R.C. Rutherford in 1947 and the proposal of Alfred Kastler on optical pumping in 1950 and its demonstration by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter two years later. Maiman's first laser was based on optical pumping of synthetic ruby crystal using a flash lamp that generated pulsed red laser radiation at 694 nm. Iranian scientists Javan and Bennett made the first gas laser using a mixture of He and Ne gases in the ratio of 1 : 10 in the 1960. R. N. Hall demonstrated the first diode laser made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) in 1962, which emitted radiation at 850 nm, and later in the same year Nick Holonyak developed the first semiconductor visible-light-emitting laser.

1.1.2 Basic Construction and Principle of Lasing

Basically, every laser system essentially has an active/gain medium, placed between a pair of optically parallel and highly reflecting mirrors with one of them partially transmitting, and an energy source to pump active medium. The gain media may be solid, liquid, or gas and have the property to amplify the amplitude of the light wave passing through it by stimulated emission, while pumping may be electrical or optical. The gain medium used to place between pair of mirrors in such a way that light oscillating between mirrors passes every time through the gain medium and after attaining considerable amplification emits through the transmitting mirror.