Nanotechnology-Assisted Recycling of Textile Waste E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Discover how innovative nanotechnology can turn waste into opportunity, offering insights and strategies to create a greener, more eco-friendly textile industry.
This book investigates nanotechnology-assisted sustainable solutions and their potential to transform waste into opportunity by fostering innovative designs and in-depth knowledge of sustainable waste management and nanotechnology applications.
Divided into four comprehensive parts, comprising 16 chapters, Nanotechnology Assisted Recycling of Textile Waste, provides insights into the potential of nanotechnology in revolutionizing textile recycling and shaping the future of sustainable textiles.
Part I sets the stage with an insightful overview of textile waste and management, exploring the conceptual dimensions and challenges in handling and organizing textile waste. It also describes the innovative realm of textile recycling. In Part II, the spotlight shines on comprehensive, sustainable, and productive recycling of waste using nanotechnology. Here, readers are invited to explore the transformative contributions of nanotechnology in shaping sustainable textile design and characterizing functional properties of novel recycled nano-textiles. Future perspectives of nanotechnology in textile applications, particularly concerning waste recycling, are also examined. Part III explores deeper into the advanced application of recycled and nano-assisted novel textiles generated through waste. From sports textiles to technical textiles, this section explores the diverse applications of recycled waste, bolstered by nano-engineered innovations. Finally, Part IV addresses the critical aspects of quality control and regulatory compliance in the realm of advanced nano-textile materials through an exploration of global legislation, schemes, and standards.
Readers will find in this book:
- research findings and innovative approaches to cope with the challenges and issues of textile waste;
- systematic and scientific knowledge on textile waste recycling techniques using nanotechnology;
- knowledge of complex scientific research findings in a simple and understandable form;
- comprehensive coverage of a broad range of topics, including sustainable textile waste management.
Audience
The book will be read by a range of researchers, engineers and students in technical textiles, textile technology and engineering, textile chemistry, fiber science, textile processing technologies and manufacturing, fashion and apparel technology, materials science, environmental science. This book will help designers and clothing manufacturers, and all those in textile and environmental domains, who are engaged in waste management.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Part I: Overview of Textile Waste and Management
1 Overview of Textile Waste
List of Abbreviations
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Textile Waste
1.3 Classification of Textile Waste
1.4 Pre-Consumer Textile Waste
1.5 Post-Consumer Textile Waste
1.6 Soft and Hard Waste
1.7 Major Reasons for Textile Waste Production
1.8 Textile Waste–Associated Environmental Hazards
1.9 Future Prospect
1.10 Conclusion
References
2 Challenges in Handling and Systematically Organizing Textile Waste
List of Abbreviations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Textile Waste
2.3 Textile Waste Management
2.4 Major Challenges in Managing Textile Waste
2.5 Challenges in Textile Recycling (Solid Waste)
2.6 Challenges in Different Methods for Recovering Waste from the Textile Industry
References
3 Overview of Textile Recycling (Solid Waste)
List of Abbreviations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Overview of Textile Recycling
3.3 Circular Economy
3.4 Waste Management
3.5 Applications of Recycled Fabrics
3.6 Challenges in Fabric Recycling
3.7 Technologies and Innovation Involved in Textile Recycling
3.8 Conclusions
References
4 Nanoparticle-Facilitated Treatment of Wastewater Containing Textile Dye
Abbreviations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Aim, Objectives, and Scope
4.3 Nanoparticle-Based Adsorption Processes for Treatment of Textile Wastewater
4.4 Nano-Photocatalysts and Their Application for Treatment of Textile Wastewater
4.5 Membrane Processes Involving Nanotechnology for Treatment of Textile Wastewater
4.6 Bioremediation Involving Nanomaterials
4.7 Ecotoxicological Impact of Using Nanoparticles for Textile Wastewater Treatment
4.8 Real-Life Textile Wastewater Treatment Using Nanoparticles
4.9 Conclusion
References
5 Innovative Approaches to Recover Waste in the Textile Sector
List of Abbreviations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Innovative Approaches for Solid Waste Management
5.3 Case Studies of Successful Innovations
5.4 Innovative Approaches for Liquid Textile Waste Management
5.5 Nanofibers for Dye Separation
5.6 Waste Cotton Recycling
5.7 Mixed Solid Waste Recycling
5.8 Challenges and Prospects
5.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Comprehensive, Sustainable and Productive Recycling of Waste Using Nanotechnology
6 Role of Nanotechnology in Recycled Textiles
List of Abbreviations
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Textile Waste Reuse or Recycle
6.3 Challenges in Textile Recycling
6.4 Nanotechnology in Textiles
6.5 The Circular Economy and Nanotechnology: The Case of Recycled Textile Waste
6.6 Environmental Hazards Associated with Nanomaterials in the Textile Industry
6.7 Nanomaterials From Textile Industry and Health Effects
6.8 Industrial Applications of Recycled Textiles
6.9 Conclusion
References
7 Contribution of Nanotechnology in Shaping Sustainable Textile Design and Future Fashion Trends
List of Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sustainable Design Principles
7.3 Promoting Conscious Fashion Choices
7.4 Sustainable Practices in Textile Production
7.5 Role of Technological Advancements in Achieving Sustainability
7.6 Technological Innovations in Material Production
7.7 Nanotechnology in Fabric Production
7.8 Innovations in Nanotechnology Transforming Textile Sector
7.9 Nanotextile Market Trend
7.10 Emerging Technologies and Future Trend
7.11 Conclusion
References
8 Understanding and Characterization of Functional Properties of Novel Recycled Nano-Textile
List of Abbreviations
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Current and Future Trends in Novel Nano-Textiles
8.3 Nanotechnology (NT)
8.4 Nanomaterials (NMs)
8.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials (NMs)
8.6 Characterization of Nanomaterials
8.7 Applications of Nanotechnology
8.8 Novel Nano-Textile
8.9 Environmental and Health Concerns Connected with Nanomaterials
8.10 Overpowering the Threats Connected with Nanomaterials
8.11 Conclusion
References
9 Future Perspective of Nanotechnology in Relation to Textile Applications Using Textile Waste
List of Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nanotechnology and Its Emergence
9.3 What is Textile Waste?
9.4 Potential of Nanotechnology in the Utilization of Textile Waste
9.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Concerns of Nanotechnology
9.6 Conclusion
References
Part III: Advanced Application of Recycled and Nano-Assisted Novel Textile Generated Through Waste
10 Utilizing Textile Waste in the Production of Nanotechnology-Based Sports Textiles
List of Abbreviations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Integration of Textile Waste and Nanotechnology
10.3 Sport Textiles
10.4 Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in Sport Textiles
10.5 Textile Waste
10.6 Health and Safety Measures
10.7 Present Scenario
10.8 Composites
10.9 Nanotechnology is Applied to Enable Self-Cleaning Properties in Textile Waste
10.10 Innovations
10.11 Conclusion
References
11 Functional Textiles from Agro-Industrial Waste
List of Abbreviations
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Socio-Economic Perspective
11.3 Agro-Industrial Waste
11.4 Extraction and Formulation of Natural Compounds
11.5 Functional Properties of Agro-Industrial Waste-Based Formulations
11.6 Future and Challenges
11.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12 Potential Application of Recycled Waste in Technical Textiles
List of Abbreviations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Overview of Technical Textiles
12.3 Textile Waste: Sources and Challenges
12.4 Recycling Technologies
12.5 Benefits of Using Recycled Waste in Technical Textiles
12.6 Application of Recycled Waste in Technical Textiles
12.7 Environmental and Economic Impact
12.8 Conclusion
References
13 Nano-Engineered Protective Textiles Using Recycled Wastes
List of Abbreviations
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Recycled Waste Materials for Protective Textiles
13.3 Nano-Engineering in Protective Textiles
13.4 Characterization of Nano-Engineered Protective Textiles Using Recycled Wastes
13.5 Applications of Nano-Engineered Protective Textiles Using Recycled Wastes
13.6 Future Prospects and Challenges
References
14 Advanced Application of Recycled Textile Generated from Waste in Military Application Using Nanotechnology
List of Abbreviations
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Types and Sources of Waste
14.3 Fiber Waste Recycling Procedures
14.4 Approaches in Fiber Recycling
14.5 Textile Modification with Nanotechnology for Military Applications
14.6 Defense Applications of Nanotechnology-Based Textiles
14.7 Utilization of Sustainable Nanotextiles for Military Applications
14.8 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Quality Control and Regulatory Aspects of Advanced Nano Textile Material with Respect to Industries
15 Global Legislation, Schemes and Standards to Control Environmental Concern for Textile-Generated Waste
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Textile Industry and Environmental Impact
15.3 Global Legislation for Textile Waste Management
15.4 International Schemes and Initiatives
15.5 Standards and Certifications
15.6 Challenges and Limitations
15.7 Benefits and Impacts of Legislation and Standards
15.8 Case Studies
15.9 Future Prospects and Recommendations
15.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
16 Prevailing Eco-Parameters and Protocols for Nanotechnology in the Textile Industry
List of Abbreviations
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Environmental Implications of Nanotechnology
16.3 Industrial Use of Nanotechnology in Textiles
16.4 A Brief Note on Textile Recycling
16.5 An Overview of the Industrial Process in Textile Industry
16.6 Textile Waste and Its Environmental Problems
16.7 Pollution Output
16.8 Restricted Substances
16.9 Protocols for Industrial Use of Nanotechnology
16.10 Nanotechnology-Based Textiles and Nano-Safety Concerns
16.11 Regulation Methods for Nanomaterials
16.12 Principles for the Safe Handling of Nanomaterials
16.13 Risk Management and Assurance in Quality for Nano-Coated Textile Products
16.14 Good Practices and Test Guidelines
16.15 Applications for Nanotextiles
16.16 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Waste production during various textile manufacturing processes. Was...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Definitions of terminology related to textile recycling.
Table 2.2 Cotton waste contents [32].
Table 2.3 Reliable conditions for biogas production by cotton waste [32, 33, 3...
Table 2.4 Optimum operating conditions for ethanol production using cotton was...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Waste cotton recycling methods and final products.
Table 3.2 Mixed waste recycling methods and final products.
Table 3.3 Waste polyester recycling methods and final products.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Typical composition of textile wastewater.
Table 4.2 Hazards of a few chemicals used in textile industries.
Table 4.3 Hazard/toxicity of a few common organic dyes.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Various methods for lowering the production of textile waste and inc...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 List of desirable characteristics in novel nano-textiles [2].
Table 8.2 Global contribution of nano products in textile industry [6].
Table 8.3 The types of nanomaterials with contribution in textiles [7].
Table 8.4 List of nanomaterials and functionalities in textiles [5].
Table 8.5 Applications of nanomaterials in the various fields [5].
Table 8.6 List of desired properties for material selection for nanoparticle s...
Table 8.7 Characterization of functional properties of recycled nano-textiles ...
Table 8.8 Characterization of nanoparticles by various techniques [10].
Table 8.9 List of novel nano-textiles [2, 29].
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Exploring textile material utilization for functionalization in tex...
Table 10.2 Overview of leading companies and their key innovations in cutting-...
Table 10.3 Cutting-edge products and applications in the field of sports texti...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Different types of agro-industrial waste, their composition, and ap...
Table 11.2 Various natural extract and their applications.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Classification of protective textiles and used materials.
Table 13.2 Classification of textile waste and the recycled product.
Table 13.3 Different nano-engineering techniques and their application in the ...
Table 13.4 Future prospects and challenges in nano-engineered protective texti...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 List of possible releases generated during manufacturing of textile...
Table 16.2 List of restricted substances with limit values and regulations.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Classification of textile waste.
Figure 1.2 Production chain of textile manufacturing.
Figure 1.3 Diagrammatic representation of the wet-processing process.
Figure 1.4 Major impact of textile waste.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Disposed textile cloths.
Figure 2.2 Disposed cloths collection by NGOs.
Figure 2.3 Type of textile waste.
Figure 2.4 Importance of 3Rs in textile recycling.
Figure 2.5 Textile recycling.
Figure 2.6 Classification of textile recycling.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Textile waste dumped in places.
Figure 3.2 Waste generated and recycled country wise.
Figure 3.3 Types of various solid textile waste.
Figure 3.4 Difference between linear and circular economy.
Figure 3.5 Waste management hierarchy.
Figure 3.6 Various recycling methods of PET.
Figure 3.7 Classification of textile recycling routes.
Figure 3.8 Implementation of IoT in sorting waste.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Steps of process as sources of pollutants in textile wastewater.
Figure 4.2 Various techniques for degradation dye-polluted textile wastewater.
Figure 4.3 Schematics of photocatalytic process.
Figure 4.4 FESEM image of iron-doped ZnO nanoparticle.
Figure 4.5 Pore sizes and application of several nano-membrane processes.
Figure 4.6 Different players and their interactions in bioremediation.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Recovery procedures for both solid and liquid textile waste.
Figure 5.2 Treatment of both solid and liquid waste out of the textile factory...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 According to SCOPUS, publications on textile recycling were (a) com...
Figure 6.2 Principles for a circular textile industry.
Figure 6.3 Nanomaterial lifecycle [28].
Figure 6.4 Nanoparticles (NPs) are released into the environment from textiles...
Figure 6.5 Uses of recycled textile waste across various sectors.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Sustainability principles.
Figure 7.2 Process of textile waste recycling with nanotechnology.
Figure 7.3 Role of nanotechnology in transforming textile waste.
Figure 7.4 Role of nanotechnology in textile sector.
Figure 7.5 Types of nanomaterials.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Systematic representation of nanomaterials on textile materials for...
Figure 8.2 Pictorial representation of recycled nanomaterials (Self-developed)...
Figure 8.3 Scheme illustration of the synthesis of super hydrophobic polyester...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Application of nanotechnology in textiles.
Figure 9.2 Smart polymeric nanocoatings.
Figure 9.3 Harmful impact of textile waste.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Key stakeholders in the relocation of major sports textile categor...
Figure 10.2 Market share among different fiber types.
Figure 10.3 Promoting sustainable waste management through the 3R’s eco-effici...
Figure 10.4 Key characteristics of high-performance sports textiles.
Figure 10.5 Exploring the potential of nanotechnology in textile.
Figure 10.6 Deposition of nanoparticles: techniques from physical and chemical...
Figure 10.7 Critical factors for successful implementation of textile applicat...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Applications for recycled agro-industrial waste.
Figure 11.2 Classification of agro-industrial waste.
Figure 11.3 Agro-textile market growth.
Figure 11.4 Classification of biopolymeric extraction.
Figure 11.5 Soxhlet apparatus.
Figure 11.6 Pressurize hot water extraction technique.
Figure 11.7 Solvent-free microwave extraction.
Figure 11.8 Ultrasound extraction technique.
Figure 11.9 Supercritical extraction process.
Figure 11.10 Biocidal and biostatic activity [50, 51].
Figure 11.11 Relationship between biosurfactant concentration, surface tension...
Figure 11.12 Green synthesis route, applications, and advantage.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Different segments of technical textiles.
Figure 12.2 (a) The graph illustrates the amount of textile waste produced wit...
Figure 12.3 Various broad recycling methodologies for textile waste.
Figure 12.4 Numerous advantages of recycling textiles.
Figure 12.5 Several applications for recycled textile waste in the technical t...
Figure 12.6 Schematics of manufacturing quilt fabric using recycled cotton fib...
Figure 12.7 The sequential stages involved in the development of composite spe...
Figure 12.8 A typical sports shoe with main parts and their commonly used mate...
Figure 12.9 Synthetic fibers and regenerated fibers in agrotextiles: (a) insec...
Figure 12.10 Mercedes-Benz incorporates sustainable materials into new vehicle...
Figure 12.11 Recycled fibers combat slope erosion: Meandrical geotextiles inst...
Figure 12.12 A second-hand sweater and raincoat (a) before and (b) after disso...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Recycled fibers and uses [17].
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Strategies for treatment of textile waste generated post-consumpti...
Figure 14.2 Schematic representation of ionic-liquid based recycling of agricu...
Figure 14.3 (a) Nanotechnology-based textile modifications for making smart te...
Figure 14.4 Schematic representation of melt spinning, wet spinning, and elect...
Figure 14.5 Types of nanomaterial modification used for the fabrication of eng...
Figure 14.6 Modification of military gears via nanotechnology-based approaches...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Positive influence of nanoparticles on the environment.
Figure 16.2 Negative influence of nanoparticles on the environment.
Figure 16.3 Outline image for the process of textile recycling.
Figure 16.4 Steps of industrial process in textile industry.
Figure 16.5 Environmental impact of textile industry.
Figure 16.6 Manufacturing process of cotton clothes.
Figure 16.7 Pictorial representation of protocols.
Figure 16.8 Pictorial representation of classification of controls.
Figure 16.9 Applications of nanotextiles.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Nanotechnology-Assisted Recycling of Textile Waste
Sustainable Tools for Textiles
Edited by
Prashansa Sharma
Dept. of Home Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
and
Shilpi Shree Sahay
Department of Home Science, MMV, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-17449-2
Cover image: Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
In an era where innovation drives progress, the realm of textiles stands at the forefront of transformation, propelled by the convergence of nanotechnology and recycling, we are delighted to present this significant volume, “Nanotechnology-Assisted Recycling of Textile Waste: Sustainable Tools for Textiles,” edited by Prashansa Sharma and Shilpi Shree Sahay. This book represents a collaborative effort to explore the intersection of nanotechnology, recycling, and sustainable textile practices.
Divided into four comprehensive parts, comprising a total of 16 chapters, this book provides insights into the potential of nanotechnology in revolutionizing textile recycling and shaping the future of sustainable textiles.
Part I sets the stage with an insightful overview of textile waste and management, delving into the conceptual dimensions and challenges in handling and organizing textile waste. It also explores the innovative realm of textile recycling.
In Part II, the spotlight shines on comprehensive, sustainable, and productive recycling of waste using nanotechnology. Here, readers are invited to explore the transformative contributions of nanotechnology in shaping sustainable textile design and characterizing functional properties of novel recycled nano-textiles. Future perspectives of nanotechnology in textile applications, particularly concerning waste recycling, are also examined.
Part III explores deeper into the advanced application of recycled and nano-assisted novel textiles generated through waste. From sports textiles to technical textiles, this section explores the diverse applications of recycled waste, bolstered by nano-engineered innovations.
Finally, Part IV addresses the critical aspects of quality control and regulatory compliance in the realm of advanced nano-textile materials. Through an exploration of global legislation, schemes, and standards.
To our readers, we extend a warm welcome. Within these chapters, you’ll find a wealth of information waiting to be uncovered.
As editors, we express our heartfelt gratitude to each author who has shared their expertise and insights, enriching this book with a diverse array of perspectives and knowledge. Special acknowledgment is owed to Martin Scrivener, the publisher, whose efforts have ensured the realization of our vision. In closing, we express our heartfelt appreciation to all those who have contributed to this endeavor, whether through their writing, support, or encouragement. We hope this book sparks inspiration and helps pave the way for a more sustainable and responsible future.
Prashansa Sharma
Shilpi Shree Sahay
December 2024
Part IOVERVIEW OF TEXTILE WASTE AND MANAGEMENT
1Overview of Textile Waste
Amisha Singh, Shilpi Shree Sahay and Prashansa Sharma*
Department of Home Science (Clothing and Textile), MMV, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P., India
Abstract
The textile sector is one of the oldest sectors. After food, clothing comes as the next primary human necessity. Rapid population growth encourages the textile sector to boost production to meet the demand for clothing and apparel, which leads to a significant amount of textile waste. The resulting waste is handled via landfilling or incineration procedures, both of which have a detrimental environmental impact. A significant volume of textile effluent is produced through wet processing because it uses a lot of water and chemicals. When textile waste is dumped on the ground or in water sources, it contaminates both the land and the water bodies. The improper disposal of textile waste leads to soil and water pollution.
By using effective waste management techniques, it is possible to reduce environmental contamination and thus establish a circular economy by turning waste into valuable goods. The present paper provides a thorough description of the various types and categories of textile waste and effluents, as well as the sources that produce them. This paper also discusses the major causes of textile waste and also highlights the impact of textile waste on the environment and human health. This study examines diverse textile processing steps along with a wide range of pollutants produced during textile processing and their toxic effects on weavers, employees, and the environment (air pollution, soil pollution, water, and noise pollution).
Keywords: Textiles, waste, fiber, production, pollution, environmental hazard, clothing
List of Abbreviations
CAGR
Compound annual growth rate
CO
2
Carbon dioxide
PET
Polyethylene terephthalate
BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand
COD
Chemical oxygen demand
PVA
Polyvinyl alcohol
VOCs
Volatile organic compounds
TDS
Total dissolved solids
GHG
Greenhouse gases
CMW
COVID-19 medical waste
PPE
Personal protective equipment
OEF
Organization environmental footprint
PEF
Product environmental footprint
REACH
Registration, evaluation, authorization, and restriction of chemical
5R
Refuse, reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover
1.1 Introduction
Fabrics and fibers have been integral to human existence since ancient time, serving as the fundamental elements of clothing. Today, textiles play diverse roles from shielding the body against weather conditions to symbolizing social status and expressing individual style all while keeping pace with evolving trends. With market values of almost USD 1.3 trillion and employment opportunities for over 300 million people along the whole value chain, the textile industry is one of the largest and oldest industries in existence [1]. The dominant industry for clothing and apparel is the textile sector, which is regarded as a key sector for consumer goods. Over the past few decades, fast population expansion, rising global incomes, and improved living standards have all enabled an increase in both clothing manufacturing and demand. The average yearly consumption of textiles has increased by two times in the last two decades, from 7 to 13 kg per person, and reached the maximum amount of 100 million tons worldwide [2].
In the present era, Clothes are designed and produced for rapid trend transitions via depreciation, early disposal, and discard, which facilitates fast income, instead of considering how design and production might accommodate consumer needs and lead toward sustainability. By 2025, the textile industry’s demand for textile fibers is anticipated to grow, by around 400%, to reach 130 million tons, with an annual growth rate of 4.3% [3].
Between 2025 and 2026, the Indian textile and apparel market is forecasted to expand by a Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 10%, reaching over US$190 billion. India holds a 4% share in the global textile and clothing trade, and it is the leading producer of cotton worldwide. In the 2021–2022 cotton season, approximately 362.18 lakh bales were harvested, with an anticipated domestic consumption of 338 lakh bales. By 2030, India’s cotton production is expected to rise to 7.2 million tons (around 43 million bales of 170 kg each) due to increasing consumer demand. [4] As can be shown from statistics, as demand grew, the manufacturing sector developed, and mechanized manufacturing techniques acquired the place of manual labor incentive systems. This enabled to manufacture textiles at affordable prices along with higher productivity and a wide range of variety. This has led to an excessive stock of economical, mass-produced products that tend to low quality as well as a significant amount of textile fiber waste, having restricted end uses.
One of the most intricate and harmful industries is the textile sector. This is challenging because it entails a very extensive and diverse procedure, including raw material production, fabrication of textiles, apparel development, transportation, and waste disposal. It is polluting because a significant amount of waste is generated while manufacturing and consuming it. The processing and manufacturing procedure of textile materials such as the harvesting, extraction; agriculture; process to make fiber, fiber to yarn, and yarn to fabric; wet-processing of fiber or fabric; blow room; carding; draw frame; combing; roving frame; ring frame; spinning process sequences; weaving/knitting, dyeing/printing, and finishing steps; and transportation are additionally required an excessive number of natural resources and non-renewable resources. Aspects related to the environmental impact of fiber production and the subsequent disposal activities have also become more prominent as the demand for fabrics has increased. Several recent studies highlighted the threat and hazard the textile industry generates due to the use of large volumes of industrially dangerous and toxic chemicals during the manufacturing process and the discharge of pollutants during the lifecycle of a textile product in aquatic systems and the atmospheric micro-system. The textiles industry emits over 1.2 billion tons of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (more than all of the emissions from international flights and maritime shipping combined). Sixty-three percent of textile fibers are composed of petrochemicals, whose manufacture and disposal result in significant carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions [5]. One of the top three industries for water waste is the textile industry, which severely degrades freshwater supplies. For the production of one pair of jeans and one single t-shirt, respectively, approximately 8,500 and 2,600 liters of water are needed [6]. The mean lifespan of a piece of fabric is approximately 3 years, and more than one million tons of textile materials are discarded annually, the majority of which comes from domestic sources. About 3% of the total volume of residential waste is made up of textiles. Currently, about 80%–90% of textile waste produced is no longer biodegradable because it consists of polyester, which contains PET (polyethylene terephthalate). Compared to natural fibers, synthetic materials are non–eco-friendly and non-biodegradable. Developing nations produce more than 60% of the world’s apparel. The world’s leading producer of apparel today, accounting for over 32% of global exports, is Asia. The global supply is generated by arranging raw materials and finished products in shipping containers and then transported by rail and vehicles. The health and well-being of people living in coastal and rural regions around the world are commencing to be impacted by marine shipping pollution, which has expanded dramatically over the preceding 20 years. Because there is insufficient information and details available regarding the quality of the discarded textiles, it is difficult to determine whether they can be recycled, transformed, reduced, and recovered or should simply be disposed of and discarded as waste materials. Therefore, it becomes essential to inquire into how textile waste is managed in the most environment-friendly manner [7].
Waste
Waste is defined as any material or goods that has reached the end of its shelf life. They are considered a challenge because they degrade and diminish precious resources, the environment, and human health; occupy landfill space; and increase the expense of using current landfills and building new ones.
1.2 Textile Waste
Textiles perform a variety of purposes and are constructed from a variety of fiber types, blended in a range of ratios. Three classes—apparel, home furnishings, and industrial—can be used for classifying the applications of fiber. Growing product consumption is an indication of rising waste production globally, which prompted greater social responsibility and environmental awareness, reinforced by stringent legal restrictions in developed nations, and led to the development of more effective waste management techniques. Green consumerism has encouraged industries to portray a positive environmental picture to the general public. The producers of clothing and apparel have employed recycling initiatives and environment-friendly techniques of manufacturing.
1.3 Classification of Textile Waste
The textile sector emits a lot of pollutants into the environment, including air emissions, noise pollution, solid waste, and textile effluent (liquid discharge). The waste from the textile sector is generated via numerous industries, including (the step from the production of fiber to fabric and its commercialization and maintenance of the clothing) textile industry, the apparel manufacturing industry (including loom, wet-processing, and finishing), dyeing and printing industries, consumers, and the retail and service sectors. Hence, textile industry is a complex entity. Industrial manufacturing operations are one cause of the production of toxic or harmful waste, which may exist in a variety of forms such as liquids, solids, gases, and sludges. Textile waste can be majorly classified as (a) pre-consumer textile waste, (b) post-consumer textile waste, (c) factory waste, and (d) post-consumer technical textile waste as shown in Figure 1.1.
1.4 Pre-Consumer Textile Waste
Every stage of textile production and manufacturing that contributes to the production of finalized textile material yields some waste known as “pre-consumer textile waste.” It is also known as “production waste” and is eliminated from the initial phase of the supply chain. Pre-consumer textile wastes are waste materials that originated straight from the initial steps of the manufacturing process, i.e., all the steps involved before the final product reaches actual customers. It includes all waste associated with processing steps for spinning, weaving, knitting, and non-woven, as well as dyeing, printing, and finishing as illustrated in Table 1.1. It consists of remnants of fabric from cutting, damaged or flawed material samples, fabric selvages, and scraps of other materials. In other words, it counts from fiber to fabric manufacturing procedures, including their maintenance. The wastes produced during spinning, weaving, dyeing, printing, and finishing processes are present in the form of fibers, yarns, and fabric that have been combined with chemicals (finishing agents, coloring agents, and chemical auxiliaries), correspondingly [8]. In one of the studies, it was found that 15% of the fabric needed for the creation of clothing was wasted, whereas, in another investigation, the figure was 10% or more for shirts, jackets, jeans, and undergarments sometimes reaching as high as 25% or 30% [9]. The various kinds of pre-consumer textile waste are examined in particular. Hence, the waste percentage depends on many factors such as garment type, design, and print of the surface of the textile.
Figure 1.1 Classification of textile waste.
Production Chain
Fabric production requires yarn, and yarns are made by fibers. The figure below (Figure 1.2) is a diagrammatic representation of this process.
Figure 1.2 Production chain of textile manufacturing.
1.4.1 Fiber Production–Based Waste
Different types of fiber require different types of chemicals or fertilizers/pesticides for production purposes; it depends on the nature of the fiber to be produced. For instance, pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers are the most frequently applied chemicals to produce cellulosic fiber, fertilizers are used when the natural resources alone are insufficient to support in cellulosic plant growth; whereas, as for the protein fiber, chemicals are essential to suppress parasites in animals and also in the scouring process after the fiber had been shredded. In the case of synthetic fiber (polyester, polypropylene, nylon, etc.), petrochemicals serve as a basic raw material for the processing of synthetic fibers; moreover, dye and pigment can be easily applied to textile materials to obtain desired yarn or fabric. The ginning, blow room, card, draw frame, comber, roving frame, and ring frame machine processes are linked with several kinds of textile spinning wastes. A blow room is an equipment in the spinning phase of textile production, that cleans and opens the fiber flocks, after which several types of fiber waste, such as filters, lap-cut waste, and floor sweep waste, are produced. Equivalently, carding is a mechanical process that separates the fibers to form a continuous web or sliver, resulting in wastes such as taker-in, licker-in, and sliver-cut waste. The ring frame is the final step used for inserting a required amount of twist to impart strength into yarn, resulting in wastes like bonda waste, pneumafil waste, and waste thread [8, 10].
1.4.2 Yarn Production–Based Waste
In the conversion of fiber to yarn, spinning oil is required to enable the strengthening of the fiber and limit spinning friction. The majority of yarn-based waste is produced during the warp processing process, in the winding operation, and as well as the weaving operation, where yarn is prepared and processed for the manufacturing of woven, knitted, and non-woven textiles. These leftover yarns may be recycled or thrown away as garbage. This is determined by several variables, including the quality and state of the yarn, the desired fiber size, strength, and cleanliness, and has the potential for harmonious mixing and blending [8, 10].
The three main categories of yarn waste are natural yarn (cotton, jute, linen, silk, wool, pina, etc.), synthetic/manmade yarn (polyester, polypropylene, nylon, rayon, etc.), and blended or mixed yarn (polyester-viscose blend, a polyester-cotton blend, cotton-wool, etc).
1.4.3 Fabric Production–Based Waste
Fabric construction processes primarily consist of three types: weaving, which involves the intertwining of warp and weft yarns; knitting, where yarns are inter-looped; and nonwoven, which is produced through the felting process. All the waste generated during these operations falls under fabric-related waste generation; moreover, during their coloration, printing, and finishing procedure, various types of quality defects in the fabric are also generated. Sometimes, fabric waste occurs as a result of weaving machinery malfunctions, including issues with primary motions (such as shedding, picking, and beating up), secondary motions (like take-up and let-off), and auxiliary motions (such as warp stop motion, weft stop motion, warp protector motion, and temple), or due to friction of yarn [8].
1.4.4 Wet Processing–Based Textile Waste
Wet processing is a process that consists of pre-treatment, coloration, and finishing stages. It is a process in which dyes and auxiliaries or other chemicals are applied to the textile (fibers, yarn, woven, and knitted) to eliminate fabric impurities such as fats, oils, waxes, dirt, lubricants, protruding fiber ends, sizing agents, and cotton seed husks and to enhance some attributes like improved absorbency and/or whiteness of the fabric; minimum fiber damage; and uniform residual size, pH, alkalinity, and moisture content. This step involves a variety of pre-treatment, coloration, and finishing procedures, including sizing, singeing, de-sizing, pre-treatment, printing (including digital printing), finishing, and laundering, scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing processes as shown in Figure 1.3.
The de-sizing procedure is responsible for approximately 50% of the wastewater’s substantially elevated biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) content [11]. Through the scouring process, the volatile organic compounds from glycol ethers and scouring solvents are released into the air. The disinfectant and insecticide residues, surfactant, oil, lubricants, etc., contaminate water bodies. The chemical used during the bleaching process such as organic stabilizers and sodium silicate is alkali or base in nature, which leads to high pH, in water bodies. Chlorine is an extensively utilized bleaching agent that is extremely harmful to both ecosystems and humans.
It has been reported that the textile sector utilized between 700,000 and 1,000,000 tons of dyes, of which 280,000 tons ended up being released into textile wastewater [10]. The effluent produced by the textile industry is extremely difficult to decompose, is toxic, has a substantial chemical oxygen demand (COD), contains a significant number of surfactants, and has strong color along a pH and temperature range that are extremely changeable.
Figure 1.3 Diagrammatic representation of the wet-processing process.
Table 1.1 Waste production during various textile manufacturing processes. Waste generated during textile manufacturing process
Process
Emission
Water effluent
Solid waste
Fiber preparation
Minimal
Negligible
Fiber and packaging waste
Yarn spinning
Minimal
Minimal or negligible
Packaging waste, sized yarn, fiber waste, processing waste
Sizing
Starch by-products, synthetic and semisynthetic sizing (PVA, urea, waxes, and oils) VOCs
BOD, COD, metals, and temperature
Fiber lint; yarn waste, unused starch, and sizes
Singeing
Minimal
none
Fabric waste by an error in processing
Desizing
VOCs from glycol ethers
BOD, COD, temperature (70°C–80°C) lubricants, and biocides
Yarn waste: maintenance materials and fiber lint
Scouring
Scouring solvent and VOCS from glycol ethers
NaOH, insecticides residues, oily fats and detergents, and spin finishes; temperature (70°C–80°C), BOD, and high pH
None
Bleaching
None
High pH, H
2
O
2
, NaOCl, stabilizers, wetting agents, and TDS
Little
Mercerizing
Minimal or negligible
High pH, NaOH, BOD, and dissolved matters
Minimal or negligible
Dyeing
VOCs
Toxicity, BOD, high pH, organohalogens (toxic), heavy metals, sulfide, formaldehyde, and surfactant
None
Printing
Acetic acid, steaming and curing oven emission, and gases
High pH, BOD, COD, urea, solvent, metals, foam, pigments
None
Finishing
VOCs, formaldehyde vapors, and combustion gasses
COD, toxic materials, chlorinated compounds, resins, and waxes
Fabric scraps, trimming wastes, and packaging waste
Common heavy metals associated with contrasting dyes include nickel, chromium, copper, zinc, cobalt, and lead. After getting into bodies of water and soil, heavy metals can be hazardous to both human beings and the environment as a whole. On average, the level of total nitrogen in the effluent is 300 mg/L. Phosphorous in the effluent is a by-product of the phosphor of the cleaning agent. Due to its low cost and efficacy as a dye, sulfide is another substance that is frequently present in water effluent. Consequently, it has been prohibited in a few nations because it is extremely hazardous to the environment and water bodies. The effluent from the textile sector is typically distinguished by its high BOD (200 mg/L), COD (700 mg/L), and pH (11) values [10]. Aquatic life is harmed by the highly concentrated of this chemical.
1.5 Post-Consumer Textile Waste
This includes clothing, home textiles (such as bedding and towels), and other fabric-based items that are no longer wanted or usable by their owners. They are thrown away in the waste bin and ultimately end up in municipal landfills. These wastes are produced at the consumer level as a result of low fabric performance, changing fashion or design, ill-fitting issues, or other factors. There are two types of post-consumer textile waste.
1.5.1 Garment-Based Waste
Garment-based waste refers to the discarded materials generated during the production, use, and disposal of clothing items. This type of waste includes fabric scraps, offcuts, trimmings, and damaged or unsold garments. Garment-based waste can occur at various stages of the garment lifecycle, from manufacturing to consumer use and disposal.
1.5.2 Home-Furnishing Textile Waste
These types of textile waste include used household goods (including cloth, bags, bedding, carpet, and draperies) and packaging, and masks.
Any textile is supposed to have an end-of-life cycle of 3 to 4 years. According to a research study, approximately 10.5 million tons of post-consumer textile waste are disposed of in landfills annually in the United States, 350,000 tons in the United Kingdom, and 287,000 tons in Turkey [12].
Traditionally, old clothing materials were recycled, to be used again as a mop or washcloth for various household tasks such as a duster or handmade quilted matt, but, regarding the present invasion of disposable textiles and due to fast fashion, the use-and-throw philosophy is highly popular, leading to the old textile’s being discarded off. The depressing truth is that most people no longer know how to fix or mend clothing and accessories, and this evolution in consumer behavior has made the world a dangerous place.
Even though textile garbage also consists of organic substances, it takes a long time for them to decay in landfills (6 months to 20 years) and requires ample space. The degradation rate depends on the fabric compositions and landfill habitat. Wool requires half a year to break down while cotton textiles lose 50%–70% of their weight after 3 months in the trash [10]. Polyester is a synthetic fiber and is non-biodegradable in nature. Additionally, landfilling has the potential to release harmful compounds and produce methane, a gas that enhances global warming. Methane and carbon dioxide, two GHGs that play a significant role in climate change, are produced as post-consumer textile waste breaks down in landfills or outdoor dumping sites. So, it is safe to say that this mass of waste contributes a major portion to the problem of climate change.
1.5.3 Factory-Based Textile Waste
Factory waste can be categorized into two parts: one of them is factorial trash is the type of waste, which originated from commercial and industrial textile utilization of such as filtration, conveyor belting, and the use of textiles for things like carpets and durries. Factorial textile waste is typically referred to as “dirty waste” because this group has the lowest likelihood of the recovery process due to accumulation and chemical contamination difficulties. However, other organizations and companies, especially the carpet industry, are actively researching to find effective ways of waste management. The second type of waste is defective pieces of clothing or unused textile materials that originated from industry or factory. Toxic chemicals and GHGs are emitted into the environment as a consequence of the decomposition of textile garbage during landfilling and incineration process. The dependence of South Asian nations like India, China, and Bangladesh on petroleum and coal for power supply has led to an upsurge in the carbon footprint of every garment manufactured [13].
1.5.4 Post-Consumer Technical Textile Waste
Recently, the need for technical textiles in today’s society is steadily rising because the market for them was recently established. Textiles for medical applications, agro-textiles, automotive textiles, geotextiles, and industrial textiles are the sources of post-consumer technical textile waste.
For instance, one of the technical textile domains, medical textile, is expanding more quickly as a result of advancements in polymer science and technology as well as innovation in the creation of novel textile structures.
Medical textile includes post-consumer textile waste that has been used by the consumer like dressing, implants, surgical sutures, health care textiles, diapers, surgical gowns, menstrual pads, wipes, gloves, PPE kits, and barrier fabrics, which have been used by the consumer. Globally, a significant amount of medical textile waste was produced during COVID-19 and is specifically referred to as COVID-19 medical waste (CMW).
Geotextile waste generated from textiles has been used for geotechnical applications such as road and separation of the soil layer, drainage, and reinforcement.
Agro-textile waste is produced from textiles that have been used in agriculture, including for growing crops, raising livestock, and other activities. Similar to this, the textiles used for industrial purposes and the textiles used for automotive purposes (such as tire cords, seat covers, and belt materials) are used and discarded, resulting in industrial and automotive textile waste.
Because they are technical textiles and contain various chemicals and dangerous compounds, their disposal requires particular consideration to ensure environmental safety. Due to environmental safety concerns, landfilling and incineration are given less importance than reuse and recycling. Before final disposal, there must be some type of physical and/or chemical modification through the degradation and removal of harmful materials from the post-consumer technical textile wastes.
1.6 Soft and Hard Waste
Production wastes or pre-consumer textile waste can also be classified based on recovery span into two categories:
Soft Waste and (b) Hard Waste
Soft Waste: This type of waste has a more porous web of fiber and can be recycled. These are generally obtained from earlier stages of production. Low-grade yarn is produced using these soft wastes. It is produced from the blow room to ring frame such as during carding, combing, and drawing
[14]
.
Hard Waste: It is non-recyclable trash. The fibers in this trash are compressed densely and require a further approach to be recycled. It is produced through the processes of spinning and twisting, weaving preparation, weaving, and knitting
[14]
.
1.7 Major Reasons for Textile Waste Production
1.7.1 Overproduction
One of the major reasons for textile waste is overproduction. The population across the world increasing and the demand for textile goods is also rising day by day. The demand increases, and, then, the production rate also increases to fulfill the demand of consumers. With the advent of revolutionary industrial and technological developments in the 18th century, machines could produce thousands of apparel in a single minute with minimal effort and expense. These machines could generate desired textile materials far more quickly than humans could. For instance, John Kay developed the flying shuttle in 1733, which employed cords with selecting pegs. The loom could be operated by a weaver with just one hand. James Hargreaves developed the spinning jenny in 1764 to spin by numerous threads. A tool was made such that eight threads may be spun at once by rotating a single wheel at a time. Richard Arkwright designed the water frame, which worked with a water wheel in which spindles impart the twist in the fibers and rollers generate yarn. These are the major advantage of industrialization.
The major technological advances in spinning and loom, for instance, air jet loom, water jet loom, rapier loom, projectile loom, and multiphase loom increased the manufacturing rate of all types of textiles and apparel goods that enabled manufacturers to export inexpensive cloth and other items worldwide.
After the arrival of synthetic textiles in the market, textiles became cheaper and easily accessible due to enhancements in the production rate and supply chain. But these machines require additional energy and utilized fossil fuels. Synthetic materials are non-biodegradable and release GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, and O3), which leads to climate change.
1.7.2 Fast Fashion
Fast fashion is characterized by the rapid availability of the latest and trendiest clothing items, which quickly respond to customers’ demands for various design, style, and color options. For example, Zara selects 12,000 styles annually from a pool of 40,000 designs created by 200 in-house designers [12]. In fast fashion, the product development process from initial design to final product takes only a few weeks, with H&M’s marketing span being as short as 3 weeks [12], contrasting with the traditional six-month timeframe for apparel sector commercialization. Fast fashion is presently influencing the apparel and textile market, which leads to excessive consumption where customers purchase more than their actual needs. Consequently, besides basic needs, the demand for fashionable and attractive articles encourages a greater extent of consumption.
Numerous renowned fast fashion enterprises, for instance, H&M and Zara, supply products that were swiftly replaced while they proceed quickly across the cupboards or shelves and lastly end up in the trash can.
The globe still purchases 80 billion fresh pieces of apparel annually. According to statistics, a typical American produces 82 pounds of textile trash annually, and, in 2018, the USA disposed of around 14 million tons of textile waste, of which, only 17.8% material was recycled. On a worldwide scale, 92 million tons of textile waste are produced yearly, and, by the end of 2030, approximately 134 million tons of waste will be anticipated annually [15]. This statistical finding indicates the consequences of fast fashion.
1.7.3 Needs, Fashion, and People
The standard of living is high in developed countries. Most people can easily fulfill their daily needs, and they have enough income to spend on fashion. Clothing and apparel are a tool to maintain status, so people, in general, want to be up-to-date and follow the latest style. Eventually, this leads to an enhancement in the demand for fashion and hence textile waste. Shopping addiction is also one of the causes of waste generation. Currently, numerous apps and websites for fashion stores facilitate easy shopping and are accessible for consumers to expend more capital on fashion and accessories. The manufacturers and retailers design the apparel as per the trend but use low-quality fabric and materials to reduce the cost of the product. Along with this, many people in the name of brands try to sell low-quality products to middle and lower-income groups. Consequently, almost all groups of society can afford “fashion” in their own ways, and, thus, unnecessary textile consumption will be increased. Although this may be beneficial to the chain of industries involved but the youth need to understand the need of the hour. These days’ quick fashion trends are based on an inexpensive, “buy in bulk” mindset that leads to the mass production of clothing and a consequent rise in carbon emissions and global warming. If each and every citizen of “the planet Earth,” no matter a celebrity or a college student, could adopt sustainability in their own life, then the severity of the problem might get reduced.
1.7.4 Textile Waste: Policy Framework
For the textile industry to thrive sustainably, the legislative and regulatory framework is of utmost importance. There is a dire need for regulation and laws at every stage of manufacturing textiles. Textile and fashion industries are very complex and hard to manage due to various production chains. The textile and fashion industries develop a worldwide market link, within which multiple production phases are carried out in a variety of nation-states; these intricate links, which are closely linked to one another, include the designing, the production of raw materials and fashion goods (such as textiles and clothing, footwear, leather products, technical and health and hygiene textile, and fur products), along with their transportation and sale at retailers till they reach to consumers. Currently, Sri Lanka has no regulations for controlling textile waste regulation [16]. There are developing countries that are not enough attentive toward textile waste such as India, which has strict environmental laws but insufficient enforcement of those laws [6]. Although the policies are effective, they are not consistently followed. The EU entity has approved several regulations that are necessary for the textile and apparel industry and assist to manage value chains in this industry sustainably, even having an impact on third-party nations that are a part of these systems. To provide customers with adequate information and safety concerns, the EU issued a regulation in 2011 setting standardized norms on the labeling and markings of textile commodities. Additionally, the EU introduces the EU Ecolabel, an opt-in label for commodities having minimal negative environmental effects across their entire lifespan, from raw material extraction to manufacturing and consumption to disposal. The adoption and implementation of the Ecolabel standards, such as the usage of biocides, water utilization, water releases, emissions into the atmosphere, and the employment of harmful compounds, must be thoroughly examined and validated. Furthermore, the EU adopted a package to measure the environmental performance of the product and organization, such as both the Organization Environmental Footprint (OEF) and the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) pilot particularly focused on leather, footwear, and t-shirt; besides, this OEF also handles retail enterprises. The REACH Regulation, which controls the production, importation, sales, marketing, and final consumption of chemicals, is an especially significant rule for the industries. The rule concerns enterprises and industries that use colorants, auxiliaries, adhesives, and related products and additional materials to modify raw materials into commercial final products, such as textile and apparel producers, and shoemakers [17].
1.7.5 Consumer Awareness Toward Sustainability
Consumers have to be responsible for their waste and what they have created, because it contributes to carbon footprint and global warming. Consumers should be aware of the materials and chemicals that have been used for the manufacturing of textiles and apparel goods. Advertisement is another factor that drives the buying decision of consumers; as a result, this action leads to unwanted textile waste. Consumer disposal habits and environmental consciousness are very important in the life cycle of any textile product in terms of minimizing waste. If customers choose to keep utilizing an item till the end of its life and recycle it rather than putting it in a landfill, then the amount of textile waste will undoubtedly be significantly reduced.
1.8 Textile Waste–Associated Environmental Hazards
The textile sector produces around 1.2 billion tons of CO2, approximately 10% of the world’s total emissions of GHGs. Natural resources are required due to the rising demand for apparel, which becomes worse with the expansion of the rapid fashion business model. By 2050, it is projected that the fashion industry will use more than a quarter world’s carbon budget. Synthetic fibers emit a higher amount of carbon dioxide as compared to cotton and contribute a considerable portion to climate change. To fabricate one polyester t-shirt, approximately 5.5 kg of CO2 is released, in contrast to 2.1 kg CO2 for a cotton t-shirt [13]. Due to faulty dyeing procedures, 10%–15% of the synthetic dyes are discharged into industrial waste, which poses severe environmental risks. For instance, contaminating surface waters results in sunlight penetration, decreased activity for photosynthesis, and oxygen deprivation, all of which can destabilize ecosystems.
1.8.1 Water Pollution
There are numerous types of auxiliaries such as surfactants, binders, starch, dyes, and other chemical materials that are used, of which some are very toxic to humans and as well as environment. They can endanger aquatic life, diminish dissolved oxygen levels in the water, and degrade the overall quality of the water. Short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) impacts of these substances on living beings in the ecosystem are both possible.
There are primarily four possible tracks for colorants reaching the environment that must be taken into account:
By regular procedures discharge or emission
By disposing of surplus supplies and processing waste
By accidental emission
By discarding plastic packets and other toxic materials
Water pollution carried out by the emission of untreated wastewater is often one of the environmental issues affiliated with the textile sector as shown in Figure 1.4. These discharges have a mostly strong odor and are extremely hot and alkaline in nature. Some dyes have been identified to be mutagenic and carcinogenic and include poisonous compounds like aromatic amines. The carcinogenicity is related to the development of nitremium or carbonium. It also persists in the food chain and is resistant to biodegradation and decomposition. The known hazardous consequences of dyes in both humans and animals include cancer, immune system diseases, and dermal impacts, and these have all been frequently recorded in employees who have encountered benzidine.
Figure 1.4 Major impact of textile waste.
Primarily, zinc, cadmium, lead, mercury, chromium, arsenic, iron, cobalt, aluminium, and copper are the heavy metals that have been known to cause a variety of health issues. If heavy metals come into contact with the human body, then they may result in several health issues. These heavy metals have been responsible for memory issues, neurotoxicity, abnormalities, kidney failure, brain damage, neutral damage, bone disorders, numerous malignancies, kidney failure, brain damage, and other issues [18].
