Neuroscience-Informed Counseling E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

As professional counselors learn more about neuroscience, they need guidance on how to integrate this new knowledge into counselor education and counseling practice with clients. The purpose of this updated edition is to provide a comprehensive resource for translating and applying neuroscientific concepts to the theory and practice of counseling.

The authors provide guidance as to how counselors integrate neuroscience into their work, with the hope of better understanding and identifying methods for effectively and responsibly incorporating key principles of neuroscience into the profession. This new edition incorporates the 2024 CACREP Standards as markers of learning, to ensure that CACREP-accredited programs have the information needed to apply neuroscientific concepts to all the major areas of counseling practice.

This volume addresses the 2024 entry-level educational standards of the main accrediting body of the counseling profession, CACREP. Each of the eight common core areas of counseling knowledge and skills are covered (professional counseling orientation, social and cultural foundations, human growth and development, career development, helping relationships, group counseling and group work, testing and assessment, research and program evaluation). Several 2024 CACREP Standards that are integrated into the eight common core standards, such as the impact of crises, disaster, and traumatic events; the neurobiology of addictions; wellness and optimal performance; and psychopharmacology are also addressed. Some chapters also focus on doctoral-level 2024 CACREP standards for counselor education and supervision.

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Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

REVIEWS

PREFACE

2024 CACREP Standards

Definition of Counseling

Neurocounseling and Neuroscience-Informed Counseling Defined

Purpose of This Text

Text Organization and Chapters

Text Features

Changes to the Second Edition

Addressing Diversity and Social Justice

Concluding Thoughts

References

About the EDITORS

About the CONTRIBUTORS

Part I: FOUNDATIONS OF CASE CONCEPTUALIZATION

Chapter 1: Anatomy and Brain Development

2024 CACREP Standards

The Brain: Structure, Function, and Systems

How the Brain Communicates

How the Brain Evolved Over Time

My Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Rein

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 2: Neurophysiological Development Across the Life Span

2024 CACREP Standards

Brain Development Over the Life Span

Developmentally Informed Interventions

My Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Rein

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 3: Biology of Marginality: A Neurophysiological Exploration of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Psychological Health

2024 CACREP Standards

Viewing Henrietta’s Case Through a Social Determinants of Health Lens

Chronic Stress: Multiple Pathways to Harm

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Henrietta

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 4: Neurophysiology of Traumatic Stress

2024 CACREP Standards

Nature of Stress

Posttraumatic Stress

Neurophysiology of Posttraumatic Stress

Sex Differences in Posttraumatic Stress

Complex Posttraumatic Stress

Trauma-Focused Interventions

My Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Julian

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 5: Clinical Neuroscience of Substance Use Disorders

2024 CACREP Standards

Foundational Concepts in the Neurobiology of Addiction

The Addiction Cycle

Limitations of the BDMA

Implications for Clinical Intervention

A Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Imara

Quiz

References

Chapter 6: Psychopharmacology Basics

2024 CACREP Standards

Neurobiology of Psychotropic Drugs

Psychotropic Drug Classification

Medication Referrals and Consultation

Conclusion

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Charlie

Quiz

References

Part II: COUNSELING ASSESSMENTS, RELATIONSHIPS, AND INTERVENTIONS

Chapter 7: Neurocounseling Assessment

2024 CACREP Standards

Assessment

Psychosocial-Medical History Interview

Neurological Risk Assessment

Screening Inventories

Personality Inventories

Learning Difficulties Assessments

Quantitative EEG

Assessment-Based Treatments

Carrie’s Treatment Response

My Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Carrie

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 8: Neurocounseling Approaches to Wellness and Optimal Performance

2024 CACREP Standards

Wellness

Neurocounseling Strategies to Enhance Wellness

My Brain-Based Approach to the Case of William

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 9: Neuroscience of Attention: Empathy and Counseling Skills

2024 CACREP Standards

Neuroscience of Attention

Attention and Empathic Understanding

Counseling Skills, Calming, and Activating

Rewiring Memories Into Positive, Resilient Action

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Gloria

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 10: Leveraging the Neuroeducation Process to Enhance Outcomes

2024 CACREP Standards

Introduction to Neuroeducation

10-Step Process for Providing Neuroeducation

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Enzo

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 11: Neuroscience-Informed Counseling Theory

2024 CACREP Standards

Neuroscience-Informed Theoretical Orientation

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Natasha

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 12: Neuro-Informed Career-Focused Counseling

2024 CACREP Standards

Principles of Neuro-Informed Career-Focused Counseling

Neuro-Based Metaphors in Career-Focused Counseling

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Larissa

Quiz

References

Chapter 13: Neuro-Informed Group Work

2024 CACREP Standards

Group Facilitation Fundamentals

Establishing Group Norms

Focusing on Process: The Neuroscience of Group Therapeutic Factors

Our Brain-Based Approach to the Case of Ricky

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Part III: ADVANCED APPLICATIONS

Chapter 14: Enhancing Counseling Practice With Neuroscience-Informed Research

2024 CACREP Standards

Understanding Neuroscience-Informed Counseling Research

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 15: Neuroscience-Informed Clinical Supervision: An Emerging Transtheoretical Approach

2024 CACREP Standards

Supervisory Relationship

Case Conceptualization

Treatment Planning

Conclusion

Quiz

References

Chapter 16: Ten Guidelines for Integrating Neuroscience Into Your Practice

Ten Guidelines for Integrating Neuroscience Into Your Practice

Conclusion

Quiz

References

GLOSSARY

Appendix: Explanation of Quiz Answers

INDEX

Technical Support

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Key Neurotransmitters, Peptides, and Hormones and Their Related Fun...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Neurotransmitters and Their Binding Effects

Table 6.2 Neurotransmitters Targeted by Psychopharmacological Drugs

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Neuroscience of Therapeutic Factors

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Conventions Used With Effect

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

FIGURE 1.1 Lobes of the Brain

FIGURE 1.2 Subcortical Structures of the Brain

FIGURE 1.3 The Nerve Cell

FIGURE 1.4 The Brain in the Palm of the Hand

Chapter 3

FIGURE 3.1 Linking Health and Mental Health to Marginality

Chapter 4

FIGURE 4.1 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) and Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medull...

Chapter 5

FIGURE 5.1 Major Dopaminergic Pathways

Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.1

FIGURE 7.2 Head Map of Functions

Chapter 8

FIGURE 8.1 The Healthy Mind Platter for Optimal Brain Matter™

Chapter 9

FIGURE 9.1 Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs

FIGURE 9.2 The Microskills Hierarchy: A Pyramid for Building Cultural Intentio...

Chapter 13

FIGURE 13.1 Blind Spot Experiment

Chapter 15

FIGURE 15.1 Neurofeedback Problem Rating Form

Guide

Title Page

Table of Contents

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

Reviews

Preface

About the Editors

About the Contributors

Begin Reading

Glossary

Appendix

Index

Technical Support

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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NEUROSCIENCE-INFORMED COUNSELING

Brain-Based Clinical Approaches,

Second Edition

edited by

Thomas A. Field

Laura K. Jones

Lori A. Russell-Chapin

2461 Eisenhower Avenue • Suite 300Alexandria, VA 22314www.counseling.org

Copyright © 2024 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.

American Counseling Association2461 Eisenhower Avenue, Suite 300Alexandria, VA 22314

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Field, Thomas A., editor. | Jones, Laura K., editor. | Russell-Chapin, Lori A., editor.Title: Neuroscience-informed counseling: Brain-based clinical approaches | edited by Thomas A. Field, Laura K. Jones, Lori A. Russell-Chapin.Description: Second edition. | Alexandria, VA : American Counseling Association, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.  Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: 2023042589 (print) | LCCN 2023042590 (ebook) | ISBN 9781556204142 (paperback) | ISBN 9781394222902 (epub) | ISBN 9781394222926 (pdf)Subjects: LCSH: Counseling psychology. | Brain. | Neurophysiology.Classification: LCC BF636.6 .N487 2024 (print) | LCC BF636.6 (ebook) | DDC 158.3--dc23/eng/20240131LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023042589LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023042590

We dedicate this book to everyone who has been working toward integrating neuroscience into the counseling field and to the next generation of counselors, eager to understand the connections between brain, mind, body, and behavior.

REVIEWS

Thomas A. Field, Laura K. Jones, and Lori A. Russell-Chapin have individually written some of the most inspiring and practical textbooks that integrated neuroscience and neuroscientific concepts into the counseling field. Here in the second edition of their edited book, Neuroscience-Informed Counseling: Brain-Based Clinical Approaches, they contribute to the continued significance of enhancing the relational work that counseling professionals and counseling students do by being informed by neuroscience research and literature. This book not only speaks to the dialogues between brain, mind, body, and behavior in a deficit-focused way but also helps counseling professionals conceptualize biological, neurological, and physical factors that play a role in from human development over the life span to overall wellness. Additionally, the organization of the book’s chapters aligns with the step-by-step approach addressed in a training model established for development of neuroscience competencies in counseling professionals.

— Yoon Suh Moh, PhD, LPC, CRC, NCC, BC-TMH, BCN, author of Neurobiology of Stress-Informed Counseling: Healing and Prevention Practices for the Helping Professions

The latest edition of Neuroscience-Informed Counseling successfully bridges the gap between neuroscience research and practical clinical application. Packed with insightful case illustrations, this invaluable book translates emerging brain science into clear interventions clinicians can employ immediately for improved treatment outcomes. I am thrilled to recommend the newest edition of this essential guide to brain-based therapies. The authors have vastly expanded the clinical utility for frontline counselors through enhanced psychopharmacology content, lifespan neurodevelopmental context, and demonstrating neuroscience-aligned skills via rich case scenarios. Connecting neurophysiological processes with counseling best practices, this multidimensional resource truly empowers therapist capabilities. From illuminating how neurobiology interacts with substance abuse to providing neuroscience interventions across specialty areas, practitioners now have an accessible framework for harnessing this knowledge toward evidence-based care.

— Carl Sheperis, PhD, NCC, CCMHC, MAC

An excellent and accessible read to get therapists up to speed on the brain. Practicing counselors have limited time to stay on top of current research, and we all know how mentally draining it can be trying to piece together real world applications from abstract publications. This updated edition of Neuroscience-Informed Counseling: Brain-Based Clinical Approaches does the heavy lifting for you, summarizing thousands of hours of reading into key observations and practical suggestions specifically relevant to the modern clinician. As a licensed therapist who has spent 20 years designing clinical applications for neurotechnology, I have seen many deeply curious counselors who want answers but don't know where to begin. This book is the solution: the perfect starting place for busy, overwhelmed clinicians to learn how to counsel mind, body, and brain.

— Penijean Gracefire, LMHC, BCN, qEEG-D

About the EDITORS

Thomas A. Field, PhD, LMHC (MA, WA), LPC (OR, VA), LPC-MH (SD), NCC, CCMHC, ACS, is an associate professor and head of counselor, adult, and higher education in the College of Education at Oregon State University. He was previously a faculty member at Boston University School of Medicine. Thom holds a PhD in counseling and supervision from James Madison University. His research focuses on the integration of neuroscience into counseling practice and professional and social justice advocacy. He has published numerous articles and authored two books on the topic of neuroscience integration. Thom is currently a member of a research team that is studying the development of an emerging counseling theory called neuroscience-informed cognitive behavior therapy. Since 2017, Thom has served as the associate editor of the Neuroscience-Informed Counseling section of the Journal of Mental Health Counseling. He is a former coeditor of the “Neurocounseling: Bridging Brain and Behavior” column in Counseling Today magazine. In addition to performing faculty responsibilities, he has actively helped clients with mental health concerns since 2006. He has provided counseling to more than 1,000 clients during his career and currently maintains a small private practice.

Laura K. Jones, PhD, MS, is an associate professor at the University of North Carolina Asheville, where she teaches coursework in both health and wellness promotion (health sciences) and neuroscience. She also serves as athletics mental health coordinator and health care administrator for the university’s Division I athletics program, helping athletes and coaches better understand how mental health physiologically influences peak performance. In addition to having a PhD in counseling and counselor education from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, she holds an MS in psychology–cognitive neuroscience from the University of Oregon. Laura has professional experience conducting functional MRI (fMRI) research and has presented at numerous conferences on the intentional and informed integration of neuroscience into the counseling field and counselor training programs. She has authored and coauthored publications and book chapters detailing the application of neuroscience and related physiology (e.g., endocrine, immune, and gastrointestinal functioning) to clinical mental health counseling and trauma and crisis intervention. Laura is a member of the American Counseling Association’s Neurocounseling Interest Network. Laura previously served as the inaugural chair of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision’s Neuroscience Interest Network and was a founding coeditor of the “Neurocounseling: Bridging Brain and Behavior” column in Counseling Today magazine.

Lori A. Russell-Chapin, PhD, NCC, CCMHC, LCPC, BCN, is a professor of counselor education at Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois. Lori earned a PhD in counselor education from the University of Wyoming and a master’s in counselor education from Eastern Montana College. Currently, Lori teaches graduate counseling courses in Bradley University’s campus-based and online brain-based master’s programs. She codirects the Center for Collaborative Brain Research, a partnership among Bradley University, OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, and the Illinois Neurological Institute. Board certified in neurofeedback, Lori has authored or coauthored 13 books on topics ranging from practicum internship and supervision to neurocounseling and neurofeedback. Lori is the chair of the ACA Neurocounseling Interest Network and has served as coeditor of the “Neurocounseling: Bridging Brain and Behavior” column in Counseling Today magazine. Lori maintains a small private practice. In addition to being an award-winning researcher and teacher at Bradley University, she is an American Counseling Association fellow and past recipient of the ACA Trailblazer Award for her work in neurocounseling.

About the CONTRIBUTORS

We are very fortunate to have been able to gather together some of the best minds (pun intended!) within the field of neurocounseling to share with you their expertise related to core counseling content areas. The authors who contributed to this book are listed here in alphabetical order.

Ravza N. Aksoy, MEd,

is a doctoral student in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at The Pennsylvania State University.

Eric T. Beeson, PhD

, is a professor and department chair of counselor education at Marshall University. He is coauthor of

The Neuroeducation Toolbox: Practical Translations of Neuroscience in Counseling and Psychotherapy.

Isaac Burt, PhD,

is an associate professor in the School of Education at Johns Hopkins University. His research interests include integrating scientific principles with Africana counseling and combining neuroscience concepts (flow state) with multiculturalism.

Theodore J. Chapin, PhD,

is the president and clinical director of Resource Management Services and the Neurotherapy Institute of Central Illinois, a private business consulting and counseling firm in Peoria, Illinois. He is board certified in neurofeedback.

SeriaShia Chatters, PhD

, is an assistant vice provost of educational equity at The Pennsylvania State University and adjunct associate professor in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education at The Pennsylvania State University.

Thomas Daniels, PhD,

is a retired professor of psychology at Memorial University of Newfoundland (Grenfell Campus). He is known internationally for his work in microcounseling and microskills.

Joel F. Diambra, PhD,

is associate professor and director of graduate studies in the Educational Psychology and Counseling Department at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. Before becoming an academic, Joel worked as an employment specialist for clients who had sustained a traumatic brain injury.

Kathryn Z. Douthit, PhD

, is a faculty member in counseling and human development at the University of Rochester. Before her counseling training, she earned an MA in microbiology and immunology.

Sean B. Hall, PhD

, is an assistant professor of counselor education at Florida Gulf Coast University. He earned his doctorate in counseling, specializing in clinical mental health and educational research methods, from Old Dominion University.

Allen E. Ivey, EdD

, is a distinguished professor (emeritus) at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. He is a fellow of the American Counseling Association. Board certified by the American Board of Professional Psychology, he is also a fellow of the American Psychological Association.

Mary Bradford Ivey, EdD

, is former vice president of Microtraining Associates, an educational publishing firm, and an independent consultant. She is a fellow of the American Counseling Association.

Chad Luke, PhD,

is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling at St. Bonaventure University. Among his many books is a classic titled

Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists: Integrating the Sciences of Brain and Mind

, now in its second edition.

Raissa Miller, PhD,

is an associate professor of counselor education at Boise State University. She is coauthor of

The Neuroeducation Toolbox: Practical Translations of Neuroscience in Counseling and Psychotherapy

.

G. Michael Russo, PhD

, is an assistant professor of professional counseling at the University of Oklahoma. He holds board certification in neurofeedback and a graduate minor in applied statistics.

Justin Russotti, PhD,

is on the research faculty at the University of Rochester Medical College and leads a research lab examining the sequelae of childhood trauma.

Christine J. Schimmel, PhD

, is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling and Well-Being at West Virginia University. She has authored numerous books, including

Applying Neuroscience to Counseling Children and Adolescents: A Guide to Brain-Based, Experiential Interventions

.

Nancy E. Sherman, PhD,

is a professor emeritus in the Department of Leadership in Education, Nonprofits, and Counseling at Bradley University.

Kiera Walker, MA,

is a licensed professional counselor and works as a clinical counselor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Kiera has over 10 years of research experience, with expertise in molecular biology techniques.

Carlos P. Zalaquett, PhD

, is a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education in the College of Education at The Pennsylvania State University. He is a coleader of the neurofeedback laboratory at Penn State’s College of Education.

Part IFOUNDATIONS OF CASE CONCEPTUALIZATION

This first section of the text reviews foundational knowledge needed to conceptualize client cases from a neurophysiological perspective. You will first be introduced to basic brain anatomy and systems before learning about neurophysiological development across the life cycle and the impact of neurophysiological marginality and traumatic stress on psychological health. This knowledge is considered fundamental to understanding the client’s presenting problem from a neurophysiological perspective, leading to more effective counseling relationships, assessments, and interventions.

Chapter 1Anatomy and Brain Development

Laura K. Jones

Learning about brain anatomy and the functioning of related systems may not be the first thing that comes to mind when you think about counselor education and training. You may wonder how your clinical decisions with a client, supervisor, or community would be influenced by your knowledge of the brain and body. As you read this and later chapters, you might find yourself becoming fascinated by the many wonders of the brain and body and how this information affects your work as a counselor.

Interest in the application of neuroanatomy to mental health has been long-standing. Sigmund Freud (1914/2014) suggested in his classic paper On Narcissism that “we must recollect that all of our provisional ideas in psychology will presumably one day be based on an organic substructure” (p. 78). Since Freud’s early conjecture, limitations in technology have hampered understanding of the effect of the workings of the brain on mental health functioning. On April 2, 2013, a paradigm shift in mental health research began with the launch of the National Institutes of Health’s Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative. The mission of this initiative is to understand “the circuits and patterns of neural activity that give rise to mental experience and behavior” (National Institutes of Health, 2014, p. 12) and, in doing so, to cultivate an integrative understanding of brain-behavior processes. As technology and science continue to develop, so may our understanding of mental health as being a result of an intricate interplay between the brain, immune, endocrine, and gastrointestinal systems (Anisman et al., 2018; Brown et al., 2020; Hou et al., 2022; Peirce & Alviña, 2019; Skonieczna-Żydecka et al., 2018). This chapter is a first step in introducing you to the inner workings of the brain in an effort to inform your case conceptualizations, treatment plans, and clinical effectiveness with clients.

2024 CACREP Standards

This chapter addresses 2024 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) Standards pertinent to the Foundational Counseling Curriculum (Section 3) area of Lifespan Development (Standard C):

Theories of learning (Standard C.3.)

Biological, neurological, and physiological factors that affect lifespan development, functioning, behavior, resilience, and overall wellness (Standard C.10.)

Clinical Case Study: Rein

Rein is a 12-year-old female preadolescent of Native American descent. Her home environment is intact; she lives with both parents and a brother. Rein describes having an attentive but reserved family with limited communication regarding emotions, physiological changes to the body, or interpersonal relationships. Her parents scheduled an appointment because of a marked decrease in Rein’s grades at school—Rein previously having been a straight A student—and a noticeable withdrawal from group activities during class. Rein reports feeling very sad and lonely and indicates that she has been feeling increasingly more distant from friends in the past 6 months. Rein denies feeling bullied or victimized, but she does not feel that anyone likes or understands her and has a hard time connecting with others. She also reports feeling lethargic. Her mother confirms that Rein often cries and isolates herself from her family. Her mother also shared that Rein recently reached menarche and was concerned that Rein may feel embarrassed about this.

The Brain: Structure, Function, and Systems

Despite incredible advances in science, the human brain in many ways remains a mystery. Part of its enigmatic nature rests in its complexity. Not only are various internal and external structures of the brain specified for certain functions, but those parts directly and indirectly influence one another and other parts of the body by way of various chemical messengers and electrochemical networks. Furthermore, several areas of the brain can work in concert to govern other aspects of an individual’s mental and physical functioning. Something as simple as reading the word “counselor” requires a remarkable succession of processes that involve virtually the entire brain.

In addition, researchers are now discovering more about how a person’s physical health, and even the nature of the microbes in their gut, influences the functioning of the brain and vice versa. Some of the paradigms of mental health are now shifting as researchers begin to further investigate the reciprocal functioning of the body and brain, such as the role of inflammation (the process by which white blood cells help to protect people from infection) in depression (Miller & Raison, 2016). Thus, let us explore some of what is known about the various parts and coordinated systems of the brain and body.

External Structures

What is your first thought when you hear the word “brain”? Most people think of a gray folded mass that sits inside the skull. This folded mass is the outer layer or lateral part of the brain, called the cerebral cortex, or cortex for short. You may also know that in the interior of this folded cortex are other exceedingly important parts of the brain. These internal and external structures control virtually everything about you. They allow you to think, feel, behave, breathe, and survive.

The cerebral cortex, or outermost part of the brain, is actually a 2- to 4.5-millimeter-thick mass of gelatinous tissue (Fischl & Dale, 2000). Even though it is often thought of as gray (and parts of it are called gray matter), it is actually pink when it is healthy living tissue, much like other tissue in the body. This folded mass includes the ridges of cortex known as gyri (singular, gyrus) and the shallower grooves between the gyri known as sulci (singular, sulcus). Fissures are similar to sulci but are deeper and more clearly divide regions of the brain. The gyri, sulci, and fissures help to demarcate different regions of the brain.

Hemispheres

The cortex is made up of two hemispheres: one on the left and one on the right. Connecting these two hemispheres is a thick band of nerve fibers known as the corpus callosum. It is the largest collection of nerve fibers in the entire nervous system, containing roughly 200 million interhemispheric connections (Luders et al., 2010). This band of fibers allows the two hemispheres to communicate back and forth and integrate the information being processed on either side of the brain. A common misconception in popular culture is that individuals are either “left brained” or “right brained.” It is accurate that certain functions may be predominantly controlled by brain regions in one hemisphere or another; for example, the area of the brain responsible for language production is typically located in the left hemisphere. Yet the notion that a person can be either left brained or right brained is an overgeneralization and a misrepresentation of brain functioning. More often than not, both sides of the brain are working in coordinated action to allow people to more fully perceive, respond, and adapt to their internal and external environments.

Lobes

The cerebral cortex is further divided into four sets of primary lobes, with analogous lobes in each hemisphere. Each lobe is specialized for certain functions, such as sight, somesthesis (e.g., skin senses and proprioception), hearing and language comprehension, motor control, and executive functioning. The four lobes are the occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and frontal lobe. Figure 1.1 depicts the general location of each of the four lobes.

FIGURE 1.1Lobes of the Brain

Note. From Anatomy of the Human Body (20th ed., Plate 728), by H. V. Carter, 1918, Lea & Febiger. In the public domain. Vectorized by Mysid, 2008, via Wikimedia Commons.

Occipital lobe. At the very back of the brain sits the occipital lobe, which is the smallest of the four lobes. This is the visual center of the brain. The occipital lobe pieces together the visual components of the surrounding world. This allows people to interpret and understand what their eyes are seeing, such as shape, color, size, depth, and motion. However, visual processing is limited, meaning that people cannot process everything in the world around them. Visual perception is determined by several factors, including how many objects are present, how long the objects are in the visual field, and to which objects people allocate their attention.

Parietal lobe. The parietal lobe is located between the frontal lobe and the occipital lobe toward the crown of the head. This part of the brain contains the primary somatosensory cortex, which regulates the sensations that are perceived by the physical body, such as touch (e.g., temperature, pressure, pain), and the awareness of bodily movement and the orientation of the body in space (i.e., proprioception). The most anterior (i.e., toward the front) gyrus of this cortex (i.e., the postcentral gyrus) extends across both hemispheres and contains a map of one’s entire body. For example, regions of this gyrus represent the thumb, tongue, arm, stomach, and even pinky toe. Every part of the body that one can feel is allocated a certain area of cortex on this gyrus, with the number of sensory receptors on the skin of that area governing how much of the cortex it represents. For example, the hands, face, and tongue are all represented by very large areas of cortex because people need to have very refined sensations of touch for these areas. The body maps are also contralateral (as opposed to ipsilateral), meaning that the right side of the body is mapped onto the left postcentral gyrus and vice versa.

Temporal lobe. The temporal lobe is located just behind the ears, below the parietal lobe and between the frontal lobe and the occipital lobe. The primary function of the temporal lobe is hearing and language comprehension. This region of the brain allows people to put together and comprehend the various sounds that are coming into their ears. Wernicke’s area is the region of the temporal lobe that allows people to process spoken language. The temporal lobes are also involved in memory. The hippocampus is located in the medial (i.e., interior) region of the temporal lobes and is responsible for the formation of long-term, explicit (i.e., consciously declared or declarative) memories.

Frontal lobe. The front section of the brain contains the largest cortical lobe—and the largest of any mammal—which covers nearly half of the entire cortex. Aptly named the frontal lobe, this area is also the most extensive in terms of the functions that it controls. The most posterior (i.e., toward the back) gyrus of the frontal cortex (neighboring the parietal lobe) contains the primary motor cortex. Like the postcentral gyrus (i.e., somatosensory cortex), this area contralaterally maps out the entire body, not for the purpose of feeling those parts but for the purpose of moving them. So as you reach to turn the page of this book, neurons (i.e., brain cells) in the upper left side of this gyrus (or the right side if you are using your left hand) are firing.

At the base of this primary motor cortex, extending down and forward and typically in the left hemisphere, is Broca’s area, which is responsible for language production. Note that the area for language comprehension is different from that for language production. Broca’s area is located at the base of the primary motor cortex because that