Nonthermal Food Processing, Safety, and Preservation E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
NONTHERMAL FOOD PROCESSING SAFETY AND PRESERVATION This book is essential for learning how biological processes are translated into commercial products and services under food biotechnology and will significantly broaden users' scope, capabilities, and application of bioprocess engineering, food processes, biochemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and microbiology. Food engineering involves a variety of processes and technologies that deal with the construction, design, operations, and associated engineering principles to produce valuable edible goods and byproducts. There is a dearth of published cutting-edge high-quality original studies in the engineering and science of all types of processing technologies, from the beginning of the food supply chain to the consumer's dinner table. This book seeks to address multidisciplinary experimental and theoretical discoveries that have the potential to improve process efficiency, improve product quality, and extend the shelf-life of fresh and processed food and associated industries. This book is for the students and researchers who are interested in learning how biological processes are translated into commercial products and services with food biotechnology.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Selected Physical Properties of Processed Food Products and Biological Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Physical Properties
1.3 Physical Analysis Methods in the Food Industry
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation—Computer-Aided Food Engineering
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Necessity of Modeling and Simulation in Computer-Aided Food Engineering
2.3 Different Types of Mathematical Modeling Applied in the Food Industry
2.4 The Call for Modeling Frameworks in the Food Industry
2.5 Case Studies in Modeling
2.6 Simulators and Their Synergy with Food Industry Models
2.7 Relevant Simulators Used in Food Packaging
2.8 Challenges Faced by Present-Day Models
2.9 Summary
References
3 Dietary Diversification and Biofortification: An Attempt at Strengthening Food Security
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Dietary Diversification
3.3 Supplementation
3.4 Food Fortification
3.5 Biofortification
3.6 Inference
References
4 Emerging Sensors, Sensing Technology in the Food and Beverage Industry
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sensing Technologies in Food Analysis: Overcoming Challenges for Swift and Reliable Quality Assessment
4.3 Sensors
4.4 Applications
4.5 Summary
References
5 Modern Luminescent Technologies Embraced in Food Science and Engineering
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Principle of Luminescence
5.3 Conclusion
References
6 Combining Different Thermal and Nonthermal Processing by Hurdle Technology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Combinations of Different Thermal and Nonthermal Processing by Hurdle Technology
6.3 Conclusion
References
7 Ultrasonication, Pulsed Electric Fields, and High Hydrostatic Pressure: Most Discussed Nonthermal Technologies
7.1 Introduction
7.2 High Hydrostatic Pressure
7.3 Ultrasonication
7.4 Pulsed Electric Field
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Dietary Diversification, Supplementation, Biofortification, and Food Fortification
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Changing Patterns of Diet (Dietary Diversification)
8.3 Dietary Diversification and Functional Outcomes
8.4 Food Collaborations to Improve the Bioavailability of Micronutrients
8.5 Malnutrition Tendencies
8.6 Need for Nutritional Supplements
8.7 A Balanced Diet and Dietary Supplements
8.8 Formulating Supplements
8.9 Categorization of Supplements
8.10 Malnutrition and Its Impact
8.11 Biofortification
8.12 Mineral Trace Element Biofortification for the Human Diet
8.13 Recent Status of Biofortified Crops
8.14 Food Fortification
8.15 The Efficiency of Food Fortification as a Public Health Intervention
8.16 Consumer Awareness and Communications
8.17 Conclusion
References
9 Role of Nanotechnology in Food Processing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Role of Nanotechnology in Food Science
9.3 Nonthermal Methods of Preparing Food Ultrasonication
9.4 Various Technologies in Nanopackaging
9.5 Food Packaging Containing Nanomaterials
9.6 Safety Issues in Food Nanotechnology
9.7 Nanoparticles in Food Packaging: Toxicological Aspects
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 Effect of High-Pressure Processing on the Functionality of Food Starches—A Review
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Starch and Its Modification
10.3 High-Pressure Processing
10.4 Application of HPP in Enhancing Resistant Starch Content
Conclusion
References
11 Separation, Extraction, and Concentration Processes in the Food and Beverage Processing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Processing Techniques for Beverages
11.3 Extraction Methods for Liquid Food Samples
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Novel Thermal and Nonthermal Processing of Dairy Products: A Multidisciplinary Approach
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Novel Processing Techniques
12.3 Hybrid Technology
12.4 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
13 Modern Evolution in Drying, Dehydration, and Freeze-Drying of Food and Biomanufacturing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Mechanism of Drying Process
13.3 Three States of Water
13.4 Drying Processes are Categorized into Three Methods
13.5 Different Drying Methods Used in Food Drying
13.6 Fundamental Principle of Freeze-Drying
13.7 Types of Freeze-Drying Process
13.8 Another Combined Freeze-Drying
13.9 Freeze-Drying Method for Biomanufacturing
13.10 Quality Attributes and Their Classification
13.11 Conclusion and Future Prospectus
References
14 Biorefinery Processes and Physicochemical Techniques for the Preservation of Food and Beverages
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Bioeconomy: An Overview
14.3 Food Waste Biorefinery
14.4 Fermentation Processes Used in a Biorefinery
14.5 Obtaining Enzymes from Food Waste for Application in Food
14.6 Importance of Preserving Food and Beverages in a Post‑COVID‑19 Pandemic Context
14.7 Conclusion
References
15 Fish Catch: Processing and Preservation
15.1 Introduction
References
16 Genetic Engineering and Designed Promising Preservative in Food Products
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Designed Promising Food Preservatives in Food Products
16.3 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Preservatives
16.4 Nanotechnology-Based Products
16.5 Role of AMPs in the Food Systems
16.6 Bacteriophages as Safer and Natural Antimicrobial Agents
16.7 Essential Oils: Natural Antibacterial Agents
16.8 Bioprotection Technique: Boon for Food Processing Methods
16.9 Role of Metabolites in Food Preservation
16.10 Biopolymers as a Safer Alternative to Artificial Ones
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
17 Microbially Synthesized Food: A Novel Way to High-Quality Food Products in an Environment-Friendly Manner
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microorganism Classification
17.3 Status of Microorganism Use as Food
17.4 Nutritional Value, Functional Properties, and Safety Aspects of Edible Microbial Biomass
17.5 Different Food Products
17.6 Fermentation (Biological Process): Food Preserving and Processing Method
17.7 Conclusion
17.8 Future Perspectives
References
Appendix
18 Sustainable Metabolic Engineering and Epigenetic Modulation: A New Biotechnological Approach for Developing Functional Foods
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Functional Foods
18.3 Omics for Nutrient Research
18.4 Metabolic Engineering
18.5 Epigenetic Modulation
Conclusion
References
19 Effects of Ripening Status on Polyphenolic Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Nutritional Quality of Unexplored High-Value Wild Edible Fruit Himalayan Bayberry (
Myrica esculenta
) from the Indian Himalayan Region
Abbreviations
19.1 Background
19.2 Methods
19.3 Polyphenolics Analysis
19.4 Nutritional Analysis
19.5 Results
19.6 Discussion
19.7 Conclusions
Authors’ Contributions
References
20 The Extraction of Valuable Phenolic Compounds from Food By-Products Using Neoteric Solvents
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Solvents
20.3 Bioactive Compounds from By-Products of Food Industries
20.4 Phenolic Compounds and Their Applications
20.5 Traditional Phenolic Component Extraction from Agricultural Food Waste and By-Products
20.6 Extraction Using Neoteric Solvents in Food By-Products
20.7 Comparison Among Types of Solvents
20.8 Conclusion
References
21 Traditional and Modern Biotechnology in Food and Food Additives
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Traditional Biotechnology in Food
21.3 Modern Biotechnology in Food
21.4 Conclusion
References
22 Molecular Approaches for Improving Nutritional Quality in Crops
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Evaluation of Germplasm for Desired Phytochemical and Micronutrient Content
22.3 Digging Into the Genome: Linking the Metabolic Traits with Genes
22.4 Genetic Engineering Approach
22.5 Conclusions
22.6 Acknowledgements
References
23 Role of Bioinformatics Tools in the Food Processing Industry
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Bioinformatics’ Importance for Food
23.3 Bioinformatics An Important Area in the Food Industry
23.4 Bioinformatics Technology Applied for Food Processing
23.5 Bioinformatics Tools Used in the Food Processing Industry
23.6 Databases in Food Sciences
23.7 There Are Several Databases in Food Sciences That Focus Specifically on Food Safety, Such as the Following:
23.8 Several Databases in Food Sciences That Are Commonly Used by Researchers and Industry Professionals
Conclusion
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Biosensors developed by using dietary components and enzymes (Muru...
Table 4.2 Applications of the biosensors-in food analysis (contaminants & ad...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Summary of different sensors used for detection in food science.
Table 5.2 Application of luminescent technology in food quality and safety....
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Novel non thermal techniques and its application.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Classification of supplements [8].
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Cold plasma effects on packaging [32].
Table 9.2 Results of nonthermal plasma deactivation of bacteria and spores [...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Properties of starch.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Impact of nonthermal methods on various dairy products.
Table 12.2 Effect of ultrasonic waves on different types of dairy products....
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Comparative characteristics and applications of different dryers ...
Table 13.2 Mechanism and various applications of advance method of freeze-dr...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Enzyme production from food waste.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Categorization of fish by their habitat [2].
Table 15.2 Benefits of processing [14].
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Applications of sophorolipids in the food and health sectors.
Table 16.2 Bacteriocins of Gram-negative bacteria.
Table 16.3 Antimicrobial preservatives along with their applications.
Table 16.4 Antioxidant preservatives along with their applications.
Table 16.5 Therapeutic and food-based applications of AMPs.
Table 16.6 Nanotechnology-based products with their applications in the dair...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Functional properties of fermented food microorganisms.
Table 17.2 Role of edible mushrooms in treating different diseases.
Table 17.3 Microbial pigments with different applications in the food indust...
Table 17.4 List of different microorganisms involved in food preservation an...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Functional food: Phytochemical, sources, and their biological rol...
Table 18.2 Advanced techniques anticipated for metabolic assessment.
Table 18.3 Some enzymes involved in chromatin modifications.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Description of the selected maturity stages for sample collection...
Table 19.2 Polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity in fruits of
Myrica
...
Table 19.3 Nutritional quality in fruits of
Myrica esculenta
harvested at di...
Table 19.4 Correlation between analyzed parameters.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Categorization of organic solvents with the level of toxicity and...
Table 20.2 Phenolic compounds extracted using organic solvents.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Summary of the major genes used for modulating micronutrient cont...
Table 22.2 Summary of the major genes used for modulating vitamin content in...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Physical properties of processed food.
Figure 1.2a Structural characterization of food powders (Modied from Bhandari ...
Figure 1.2b Effect of water content on the Tg of dry food materials [51].
Figure 1.3 (a) Physical analysis methods. (b) Physical properties with their m...
Figure 1.4 The thickening power of biopolymers depends on their molecular char...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Mechanism of foam mat drying, a general schema.
Figure 2.2 Mechanism of vacuum cooling - A process flow diagram showcasing eac...
Figure 2.3 Schema diagram indicating the overall processes that occur within m...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Overlapping of different kinds of nutrition.
Figure 3.2 This figure is an illustration of different groups that can benefit...
Figure 3.3 Methods of biofortification.
Figure 3.4 The above flowchart shows us the process of biofortification from t...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Working of biosensor.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Different types of luminescence.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1a Representation of the process of pasteurization of milk. The milk ...
Figure 6.1b Different factors affecting thermal processing.
Figure 6.2a Factors affecting the efficiency of decontamination.
Figure 6.2b Figure elucidating the principle of dielectric heating by radio fr...
Figure 6.3 Diagrammatic representation of Infrared-microwave Combination Oven ...
Figure 6.4a Factors affecting ozone processing.
Figure 6.4b Working of Ozone processing unit used in preservation of foods lik...
Figure 6.5 Different types of radiations used in the process of ionizing radia...
Figure 6.6 Inactivation of microbes using HPP.
Figure 6.7 Depiction of Process of high intensity ultrasound using an ultrasou...
Figure 6.8 Image showing the process of pulsed electric field technology where...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Representation of a typical high-hydrostatic pressure system.
Figure 7.2 Depiction of ultrasound processing.
Figure 7.3 The PEF system.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Nanotechnology application in food science.
Figure 9.2 Atmospheric pressure glow discharge.
Figure 9.3 Atmospheric-pressure plasma jet (APPJ) configuration.
Figure 9.4 Resistive-barrier discharge (RBD) configuration.
Figure 9.5 Types of food packaging.
Figure 9.6 Schematic representation of active packaging [60].
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Working of the HPP chamber.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Strategies for the production and packaging of beer.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Novel thermal and nonthermal techniques for dairy products.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 States of matter triangle.
Figure 13.2 Graphical representation of triple point of water.
Figure 13.3 Diagrammatic illustration of different drying instruments.
Figure 13.4 Various steps involved in the freeze-drying of food and biomanufac...
Figure 13.5 Graphical form of the phases of freeze-drying process, freezing, p...
Figure 13.6 Schematic diagram of the vacuum freeze dryer used in pharmaceutica...
Figure 13.7 Schematic diagram of fine-spray freeze-drying system.
Figure 13.8 Schematic diagram of the microwave-assisted pulse fluidized bed fr...
Figure 13.9 Diagrammatic representation of ultrasonic-assisted freeze-drying....
Figure 13.10 Schematic diagram of pulse-assisted freeze-drying.
Figure 13.11 Schematic diagram of osmotic dehydration.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic representation of the concept of circular bioeconomy thr...
Figure 14.2 The food waste hierarchy.
Figure 14.3 Food waste biorefinery processes, adapted from Dahiya
et al.
(2018...
Figure 14.4 (a) Extraction, bioconversion, and transformation of food-based wa...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Identification of freshly caught fish.
Figure 15.2 Various techniques involved in proper processing.
Figure 15.3 Steps involved during the canning process.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Classes of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) antibiotics.
Figure 16.2 Effects of CNM use as a biopreservative against EHEC infection.
Figure 16.3 Different classes of plant-based AMPs with examples.
Figure 16.4 (a) Origin, (b) production, and (c) applications of antimicrobial ...
Figure 16.5 Methods involved in the enhancement of wild-type microbial strains...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Schematic representation showcasing the use of synthetic biology i...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 An illustration of the components of functional foods.
Figure 18.2 Chemical structure of important phenolic secondary metabolites.
Figure 18.3 Integrated omics-based studies for enhancing functional foods.
Figure 18.4 The schematic representation of the pathway involved in the biosyn...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Description of selected maturity stage (a) unripe green, (b) unrip...
Figure 19.2 Principal component analysis (PCA) at different maturity stages in...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Classification of phenolic components.
Figure 20.2 Twelve principles of green chemistry.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Bioinformatics an important area in the food industry.
Figure 23.2 The many faces of food bioactive peptides.
Figure 23.3 Bioinformatics-based modeling can be a useful tool for predicting ...
Figure 23.4 Examples of sequence alignment software used in the food processin...
Figure 23.5 Examples of gene expression analysis software used in the food pro...
Figure 23.6 Examples of metabolomics software used in the food processing indu...
Figure 23.7 Examples of proteomics software used in the food processing indust...
Figure 23.8 Examples of microbial identification software used in the food pro...
Figure 23.9 Examples of quality control software that are commonly used in the...
Figure 23.10 Examples of how machine learning software can be applied in the f...
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Nonthermal Food Processing, Safety, and Preservation
Edited by
Anand Prakash
and
Arindam Kuila
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781394185863
Front cover images supplied by Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Food engineering involves a variety of processes and technologies that deal with the construction, design, operations, and associated engineering principles in order to produce valuable edible goods and by-products. The main goal of integrated food and bioprocess technology is to capture the important aspects of both food science and engineering education, to develop high-quality value-added products from food materials in large quantities, and to provide opportunities to work on pilot-plant studies and manufacturing systems. There is a dearth of published cutting-edge high-quality original studies in the engineering and science of all types of processing technologies, from the beginning of the food supply chain to the consumer & to dinner table. This book seeks to address multidisciplinary experimental and theoretical discoveries that have the potential to improve process efficiency, improve product quality, and extend the shelf-life of fresh and processed food and associated industries.
This book will significantly broaden the scope, capabilities, and application of bioprocess engineering, food processes, biochemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and microbiology. This book is for the students and researchers who interested to learn how biological processes are translated into commercial products and services under food biotechnology.
This book has 23 chapters that discuss current technology and future prospect of food and bioprocessing. First three chapters introduces the food in terms of physical properties, food security and mathematical models. Next two chapters describes about the new detection technologies involved in food and beverage industry. Eight chapters has been grouped under food processing technologies, which focuses upon detail discussion about the non-thermal food processing technologies relevant to modern food processing industry. Next three chapters describes the importance of food preservation to enhance the self-life of food products. The group of next four chapters emphasize on assessment of food and valuable product from food waste. The last three chapters describes about the emerging new technologies in modern era food and beverage industry.
The book will be useful for students, researchers in the areas of various branches of food engineering, food technology, biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, chemical engineering, nanotechnology, microbiology etc.
We are grateful to Wiley-Scrivener Publishing Inc.’s Linda Mohr and Phil Carmical for their complete cooperation and assistance in the timely publishing of this book. We would like to express our gratitude to the writers and the publication staff for their efforts for publishing this book.
Dr. Anand Prakash
Dr. Arindam Kuila
1Selected Physical Properties of Processed Food Products and Biological Materials
Poornima Pandey*, Riya Maheswari and Pooja Kumari
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Tonk, Rajasthan, India
Abstract
Food products are made up of numerous diverse micro and macro components, and they have unique physical, thermal, mechanical, electrical, and optical characteristics. The first and most fundamental characteristics of food products are their physical properties. The physical properties of processed food products are defined as those properties that can be measured by physical means rather than chemical means. It provide relationship between product quality and their effect on the behavior of processed food. Here, a variety of physical properties of processed food materials and their measurement techniques are taken into account. Because customers nowadays seek sustainable and nutritious processed foods in their busy schedules, it is essential to look at their physical properties such as size, shape, texture, color, flavor, and many more, with that many measuring techniques to analyze these properties.
Keywords: Crystal, porosity, texture, rheology, crispness, thermal, frequency, velocity
1.1 Introduction
Food has a diverse hierarchical structure, making it one of the most complicated types of soft matter. Foods are typically formed mostly of some basic macromolecules like proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids, each of which is built of even smaller repeating units. The other component of food is water [1]. Additionally, air and minerals are present in food material, which all help food to acquire sophisticated structural complexity [2]. In terms of processed food’s structure, stability, and nutritional content, the original food components are crucial. The majority of foods are capable of being seen as complicated colloidal multiphase systems made up of several aggregation phases, including liquid, solid, crystalline, glassy, and even liquid crystalline. However, due to its multiple advantages, food processing is frequently used. Four broad categories may be used to classify these advantages:
An increase in food safety by elimination or inactivation of microorganisms, pathogens, toxins, constituents, etc.
Intensifying food product quality by releasing flavorable compounds and constructing enhancements of texture, palatability, and taste.
Enhancing nutritional value via intensifying bioavailability and digestibility and intensifying food product quality by releasing flavorable compounds and constructing enhancements of texture, palatability, and taste.
The release or synthesis of molecules having bioactive qualities, such as those that are antibacterial or antioxidant, among others.
Processing technology and food formulation are crucial for food preservation and provide millions of people access to healthy, inexpensive, enticing, and sustainable food worldwide.
Consumer demand for foods that are both fresh and little processed, have their nutritional and organoleptic qualities intact and can be kept in the refrigerator for a long time (without compromising safety), and then heated up fast before eating is expanding. Numerous procedures may or cannot entail heating, as they are used to prepare foods to increase their quality and safety.
Because enzymes and bacteria become inactive beyond a certain temperature, thermal procedures have been widely employed in food technology. Additionally, certain heat treatments, such as baking and roasting, may enhance the sensory and textural qualities of food while denaturalizing enzymes or managing microbiological food safety. Through the destruction of cell walls, dissociation of chemical bonds between food components, and disintegration of intricate molecular structures, this process results in the release of natural bioactive substances. For instance, secondary plant metabolites including glucosinolates, carotenoids, polyphenols, and glucosinolates are among the components that are released.
Thermal procedures can generate fresh bioactive molecules through various chemical processes. Among these, the Maillard reaction, the carbonyl-amine reaction caused by reactive carbonyls produced from carbohydrates, is a crucial chemical process occurring during heat food preparation. Another significant source of reactive carbonyls, which are used in carbonyl-amine processes similar to those involving reactive carbonyls produced from carbohydrates, is lipid oxidation. As an alternative to conventional heating methods, microwave heating has been created and has been used, for instance, to deactivate enzymes in fruits and vegetable products. This procedure may also increase the overall antioxidant capacity of meals due to the probable release of natural antioxidants and the chemical reactions.
Nowadays, microwave cooking is often used as a thermal treatment in both household and commercial systems. Smart valves were first introduced as a component of sealing plastic trays or films, which provide a distinctive chance for rapid vapor cooking technologies modify to fresh or barely, ready-to-eat food, catering, which are now more often employed in conjunction with microwave cooking.
Therefore, it has been shown in several studies that the use of microwave radiation may promote carbonyl-amine reactions that include reactive carbonyls generated from either lipids or carbohydrates. In addition to these thermal processes, various nonthermal methods are used to preserve food and may also contribute to the production of antioxidants.
Because of the selectivity of their reactions under pH and temperature, enzymes are often utilized in the food industries. Enzymes have been used to aid in the creation of antioxidant peptides, for example, in the manufacture of antioxidants. Additionally, fermentation is used as a nonthermal process to increase food nutritional content, remove antinutrients, and enhance the sensory qualities of the meal. The structural breakdown of plant cell walls during this process results in the release of several chemicals, including an increase in the quantity of phenolic and flavonoid molecules. Other products are also created, some of which could have antioxidant characteristics.
By eradicating or harming bacteria, irradiation also enhances the sanitary quality of food materials.
Additionally, it affects the antioxidant content of meals as a result of improved enzyme activities and improved ability of natural antioxidants to be extracted from tissues in which they are present. Both ionizing radiation and nonionizing radiation fall under this category. Increases in reactive carbonyls produced from lipids and carbohydrates in carbonyl-amine reactions may potentially contribute to reported increases in antioxidant activity. In food preparation, high pressures are also used as a reverse to nonthermal inactivation of bacteria and pathogens.
Irradiation, high pressure, and microwave procedures are unique in that they allow for the direct treatment of food within the packaging materials, so it is called in-package food technologies, which has the benefit of shielding processed food items from unfavorable posttreatment encounters like oxygen and microorganisms. Since the packaging materials are treated and then sterilized during the food processing techniques without extra handling and sources of contamination. Irradiation treatment or industrial microwave for prepacked food products has low cost with this, the requirement to predisinfect or sterilize containers when food and packaging cannot be prepared simultaneously so producers has time and quality benefits.
Methods that are becoming more popular in food processing include irradiation or hydrogen peroxide, ozone, cold plasma therapy, or UV light.
The packing material is engaged in all of these processes and is subjected to various processing conditions that might change its mechanical, structural, and mass transfer (barrier and migration) capabilities. Three different mass transfer types must be taken into account:
The transfer of vapors or gases (such as water vapor, fragrance compounds, oxygen, etc.) from the external environment into the food products or the headspace via the packing materials.
Migration of low-molecular weight chemicals (such as monomers, plasticizers, and solvents) from the packaging into the food, which requires regulatory and toxicological studies.
The removal of low-molecular weight hydrophobic components from the food, such as aromatic compounds, which may have a significant impact on both the mass transfer characteristics of packing materials and the quality of the food.
1.2 Physical Properties
The characteristics of food products that can only be assessed physically rather than chemically have been described by their physical properties as seen in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Physical properties of processed food.
1.2.1 Shape
As the turgor pressure forms, it retains the cells under an elastic tension and preserves the tissue’s shape, hardness, and crispness. The fruit’s structure will collapse if the turgor pressure is eliminated. Once the natural turgidity has vanished, it cannot be replaced.
1.2.2 Texture
One of the most crucial factors in determining a food product’s quality is its texture. We accept the food products based on their texture and how creamy and spreadable a culinary product is. This has an impact on flavor perception [3]. The primary factors affecting the texture of semisolid food products are proteins or polysaccharides. When a force is applied to food, it deforms, disintegrates, and flows about the texture, which is a sensory and functional expression of the mechanical, structural, and surface qualities of the food that is sensed by the senses of hearing, sight, touch, and kinesthetics.
Furthermore, the notion of texture incorporates crucial ideas like the following:
It is a sensory characteristic that people may sense.
It has many parameters that cover a variety of distinct qualities.
It comes from the food’s macroscopic, microscopic, and molecular structures.
It is felt by a variety of senses.
There is evidence in the literature that the protein microstructure network affects how food textures form. It is observed that rheology influences food texture in addition to food structure and its surface characteristics. There are three basic disciplinary perspectives that affect texture perception: sensory, physiology, and food structure. Porosity and density are also used to describe various textural aspects of dried materials in addition to mechanical qualities. The final texture of dried items may be considerably influenced by state variables such as moisture, temperature, and deformation during drying as well as material states such as rubbery and glassy. Finite element modeling has also been used to forecast the textural characteristics of meals based on their microstructure [4].
1.2.3 Crystalline Structure and Amorphous State
The powder particle matrix can have different types of molecular arrangements. This leads to the formation of different structures in food powders. These can be in the form of amorphous structure, crystalline structure, or even mixed. The stability, usability, and application of powders in the manufacturing of food are significantly influenced by their structural makeup. Powders may unnecessarily have an undesired structure during manufacture.
To maintain the product quality throughout storage and future processing, it is crucial to characterize the structure of the powder and quantify the crystalline amorphous proportions present in the powders. Numerous analytical methods with vastly different levels of selectivity and sensitivity have been developed for these reasons.
Food powders are bulk dry solids that comprise extremely small discrete particles ranging in size from nanometers to millimeters. Powdered variants of many commercial food items are available, including starches, flours, sugars, instant coffee, salts, and powdered milk. Food powders can be formed by following different types of processes on either solid ingredients or even from liquid ingredients. Solid ingredients can go through processes like crushing, milling, grinding, granulating, pulverizing, and combining to break the large pieces into small pieces to form a powder-like form. Liquid ingredients like slurry, paste, etc., can also be dehydrated (spray, freeze, and drum and belt dry) to form food powders. The crystallization of supersaturated solutions can also be used as part of the process [5].
The resulting molecular arrangement (amorphous, crystalline, or mixed) in food powders depends on the process used to manufacture them [6]. While crystalline structures are created when the molecules are arranged in a certain sequence, amorphous ones are created when the molecules are haphazardly aligned. Amorphous and crystalline phases may coexist in certain products like icing sugars made by crushing granular sugars, which is referred to as a mixed structure (Figure 1.2a).
The stability and utility of powders in the manufacture of food and subsequent uses are significantly influenced by their structure. In general, certain commercial food powders have a stable crystalline structure (like sugar and salt), with that, the inclusion of an amorphous phase will significantly affect the stability and qualities of the overall powder. Amorphous phases may undergo physically undesired changes during storage, handling, and processing due to their thermodynamically unstable states, provided that the proper preventive measures are taken. By changing the molecular arrangements in food powders from ordered to random or vice versa, several beneficial qualities may be produced [5]. Many food products’ appearance, shelf life, texture, and quality depend on their crystalline structure.
Figure 1.2a Structural characterization of food powders (Modied from Bhandari B, Roos YH) [50].
Figure 1.2b Effect of water content on the Tg of dry food materials [51].
Amorphous states are often seen in dry food items. Therefore, during the dehydration-rehydration process, they go through glass to rubber transition (glass transition). Rheological qualities drastically shift as a result of this transition, which entails a physical change between a condition that resembles a solid (glassy) and a state that resembles a liquid (rubbery) Figure 1.2b. The temperature at which the transition of glass happens is known as Tg or the glass transition temperature. Because the Tg of hydrophilic amorphous materials lowers with rising water levels, glass transition may also happen without a change in temperature if the water content varies [7]. The glass transition hypothesis, according to which significant alterations in the apparent porosity (reduction in pore formation) and the collapse of the structure take place at or near Tg, cannot be applied to all dry products [8]. The crucial water content is defined as the water content at which Tg is 25°C (Wc). Using a Tg curve, the glass transition behavior may be explained.
The food product is glassy in the region beneath the Tg curve. Due to their great elasticity, glassy food items have a hard or brittle texture. Additionally, because of their limited molecular mobility, glassy food items should be more physically stable than rubber ones. The food items are in a rubber condition in the area above the Tg curve. The majority of plant-based food products constituent their ingredients in an amorphous condition. It is essential to keep this state to preserve the flavor, taste, and color of the fresh food components.
Glass transition temperature
The critical temperature at which a food’s characteristic changes from being glassy to rubbery is known as the glass transition temperature. Water migration causes the matrix of plant-based food products to harden; eventually, it leads to a decrease in the distinctness of the mechanical properties of the matrix and fibers, which may result in the food becoming brittle and glassy.
1.2.4 Flavor
As viscosity increases, flavor perception on the tongue diminishes. Intense flavor is delivered to the tongue during mastication via higher pores with more exposed surface area. In other words, a product has a stronger flavor when more of its surface area comes into touch with the tongue or another sensory organ. It recognized those food elements including polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, which interact with favorable compounds.
1.2.5 Color
Due to the pores and air voids present, the porous structure of dried food products may have an impact on how light or dark a color is described. It is crucial to establish the dried goods’ color characteristics because the color is one of the main quality factors that consumers take into account. The unintended heat breakdown of several beneficial chemicals may manifest as color changes in dried foods. The enzymatic activity of the tissue can have a significant impact on color. The visual appeal of plant-based foods is sometimes enhanced by the addition of colorings and flavorings. To make plant-based products look and taste like their animal-based counterparts, certain additives are often necessary. The temperature has an impact on product color as well. The color of the food product varies with temperature [9].
For example, freeze-drying red pepper puree at three distinct temperatures (20°C, 40°C, and 60°C) was employed in certain studies to determine how storage conditions affected the final product’s hue. The time required for the procedure was cut in half by raising the shelf temperature by 20°C to 60°C. Cranberry-drying trends were comparable when the temperature of the heating plate was increased from 30°C to 70°C for whole and pulped berries [10]. Approximately 40% less time was required for drying. When compared to fresh material, the puree of peppers after freeze-drying is more light and yellow. However, at 20°C, redness decreased while rising to 40°C and 60°C. In general, the degradation of carotenoids caused by the prolonged 20°C drying time and 60°C application led to a reduction in the color intensity [11]. The redness, lightness, and color intensity increased as the shelf temperature rose while the cranberry pulp and whole fruits were freeze-dried. Due to the degradation of reddish anthocyanin pigments brought on by the intense heat treatment, the color changed [10]. A possible indicator of color changes was the glass transition temperature.
1.2.6 Thickening
To enhance the viscosity of the water-based component in liquid or semisolid food products derived from plants, such as creams, milk, liquid eggs, dressings, sauces, and condiments, plant-based biopolymers are commonly employed as functional additives. These additives serve multiple purposes, including improving texture and mouthfeel or retarding the gravitational separation of particulate matter (such as fat droplets, oil bodies, plant tissue fragments, herbs, or spices).
1.2.7 Water Activity
The quantity of water that is accessible for chemical reactions and microbial development in food is measured by water activity (Aw). Additionally, the degree of food processing for several commodities may be greatly influenced by the product’s water activity. Due to its critical role in meeting demands for product stability, quality management, and maintaining food safety throughout its shelf life, Aw measurement is thus crucial to the food sector, e.g., the capacity of sucrose to lower the Aw to a level where the microbial growth and undesirable chemical reaction rates are slowed down is essential for the shelf life stability of jams, fruits in syrup, marmalades, and other sweetened food items. The type and content of solutes present in the dietary system are two important factors that affect Aw. Raoult’s Law of Mole Fraction states that a rise in the solute concentration in a system should ideally lead to a predicted decrease in Aw. Raoult’s Law does not apply to all solutes, including the disaccharide sucrose. This behavior may be explained by the interactions of various dietary qualities. For instance, sugar inversion results from the addition of acids to a system that contains sucrose. According to several studies, inverted sucrose lowers Aw in meals more effectively than sucrose alone.
1.2.8 Porosity
The percentage of the air void volume in the overall volume is known as porosity. The final food structure and quality are significantly impacted by the porous nature of the food material. Food samples often develop pores as a result of the physical processes of dehydration. The mechanism of heat and mass transmission during drying also impacted porosity. In dried food, pores may develop as a result of intracellular and intercellular gaps, and the porosity level of the materials can also affect moisture diffusivity. Due to variations in the drying process, the same food item has a varied range of porosity. Pore formation characteristics are influenced by product qualities, drying process parameters, and processing time. A crucial influencer of heat and mass transport processes, as well as the quality features during drying, is the porous structure of plant-based materials. Additionally, pore formation influences the positive attributes of dried food. Additionally, it was discovered that the porosity of food materials is directly proportional to the diffusivity of the gaseous phase.
In the context of drying kinetics and modeling the drying of food products, understanding the process of pore formation and evolution is crucial. The porosity of the final dried product is influenced by the drying process and environmental factors, resulting in different pore characteristics for the same raw food materials [12].
Porosity is closely related to the texture and mechanical qualities of food. For example, a study on apple samples found that the porosity (ranging from 0.83 to 0.54) varied with the torsional stiffness (ranging from 0.5 to 7 MPa) [51]. Porosity is a significant factor affecting the overall firmness of dried foods. It also indicates the extent of shrinking during the drying process, which impacts the shape and size of the final product.
Porosity directly influences other physical characteristics such as mass diffusion coefficient, thermal diffusivity, and thermal conductivity. On the other hand, shrinkage and collapse negatively affect fluid volatility and the rehydration capacity and rate. Porosity plays a vital role in the overall firmness of dried foods and affects the fluids’ behavior during drying and rehydration.
Modeling heat and mass transport during drying can benefit from understanding the porous nature of dehydration materials. Additionally, developing an effective drying system can be facilitated by considering porosity. Porosity can be determined using various relationships. One of the common relationships is given by the equation:
Porosity can also be determined from the apparent density and true density of the product using the equation:
Initial porosity (ε₀) refers to the void spaces present in the plant-based products in the fresh state. It can be expressed using the equation:
In these equations, Va represents the volume of air, Vs represents the volume of solid particles, Vw represents the volume of water, V represents the total volume, ε represents porosity, ρb represents the bulk density, and ρp represents the true density. The subscript 0 denotes the initial values.
Models of Porosity
Models used in the field of food science can be broadly categorized into two types: theoretical models and empirical models. Theoretical models are based on the interpretation of the composition and structure of food ingredients, while empirical models are derived from analyzing experimental data.
The texture of food, particularly its crispness and crunchiness, is strongly influenced by the size and distribution of pores within the material. Various studies have explored the relationship between freeze-dried product density, shrinkage, porosity, and shelf temperature [8].
For example, researchers have observed a decrease in apparent porosity and an increase in apparent density as the shelf temperature rises from 45°C to 15°C for freeze-dried potatoes, carrots, bananas, abalone, potatoes, and brown dates. However, freeze-dried fruits like yellow dates and apples exhibit an increase in apparent porosity with the rise in plate temperature. Moreover, these materials experience less shrinkage.
In a study conducted at a shelf temperature of 5°C, it was discovered that the porosity consistently increases as the water content of the material decreases during the drying process. However, at lower shelf temperatures, the porosity fluctuates (decreases) once the critical moisture content is reached. At this stage, the impact of temperature on pore development is no longer observed, as it is assumed that all of the ice has been eliminated from the dried product.
1.2.9 Measurement
Properly measuring the numerous physical characteristics of any food item is essential for understanding and controlling how time, temperature, processing, treatment, and exposure cause changes in the original physical property. Since many different outcomes might be achieved, it is important to employ reliable methods of measuring the physical characteristics of food materials [13–16]. With the help of evolving digital technology, new high-end equipment with state-of-the-art capacities are being introduced to the market, along with novel ways of measuring a wide range of physical attributes of different food products. These tools can now measure and estimate changes in food’s physical qualities in real time with nearly little product loss [17, 18].
Additionally, the new measurement techniques provided accurate data on the physical properties and functional behavior of food material, which is essential for food processors to consider when weighing the pros and cons of possible ingredient substitutes in new or existing food products.
To ensure new product development, shelf life extension, and most crucially, product safety and quality requirements, accurate measurements of numerous physical parameters of food items are essential. Innovative food processing methods that include microwave cooking, high-pressure treatment, irradiation technique, ozone, UV light, and cold plasma treatments have drawn a lot of attention in recent years in response to customer demand. Without significantly changing the product’s sensory or nutritional qualities, nonthermal processing methods like high pressure kill the bacteria and enzymes that limit shelf life [14–16].
1.3 Physical Analysis Methods in the Food Industry
In the food sector, physical testing refers to the procedures used to assess the various physical attributes of a food product. Common food product characteristics including color, weight, viscosity, thickness, texture, and granulation size are all examined. Physical testing may also be used to ensure product consistency in the food business, where it is often utilized as a quality indicator (Figure 1.3).
1.3.1 Techniques for Nondestructive Physical Methods
Ultrasonic Wave-Based Analysis
Ultrasound scanning systems have proven to be effective for diagnosing food properties in specific categories such as meat, honey, cereals, soybean, and aerated foods [19–27]. These systems allow for the assessment of various physicochemical characteristics, including structure, rate flow, composition, and physical state. Ultrasound technology has been successfully applied to tasks like volume estimation, firmness measurement, maturity evaluation of fruits, rheological property analysis of cereal products, fat percentage determination in meat, and defect detection in cheese. The mechanical or acoustic waves used in these processes typically operate at a frequency of approximately 20 kHz.
Figure 1.3 (a) Physical analysis methods. (b) Physical properties with their measurement techniques.
When studying food materials using ultrasound, several properties are considered, such as ultrasound velocity, attenuation coefficient, signal and wave amplitude, acoustic impedance, and relative delay.
There are multiple advantages associated with using ultrasound scanning systems for food analysis. These systems are lightweight, user-friendly, cost-effective, adaptable to both liquid and solid samples, and environmentally friendly [24]. However, it is important to note some limitations as well. These include the potential degradation of the product and the formation of undesirable flavors due to radical formation. Additionally, the effectiveness of testing and the occurrence of mass transfer resistance may be influenced by factors such as product homogeneity and surface features [19].
1.3.2 Techniques for Mechanical Impact Assessment
Vibration Study and Mechanical Impact-Based Method
The hardness of a fruit may be measured with the use of an elasticity modulus by analyzing its vibrational characteristics [28]. Since ripeness is correlated with wave propagation velocity, multiple studies have shown that waves transmitted through the fruit’s surface at high velocities provide highlights of fruit texture features including hardness. Monitoring of texture is possible. A number of commercially available sensors are now available to supplement well-established signal evaluation techniques for predictive maintenance in a variety of operational contexts. Limitations include the inability to accurately identify the cause of a problem, the difficulty in monitoring the development of fractures, and the many requirements for the creation of a sound system design [29].
(a) Texture Analysis
When discussing the instrumental examination of texture, the first ever working instrument in the field that comes to mind is the texturometer. Texture may be assessed by employing both instrumental and sensory approaches.
Research into the correlation between instrumental and sensory evaluations of texture is important due to several different reasons.
It might help design tools for use in the quality control of food items during the manufacturing process.
Estimating the share of buyers who will appreciate the new product
Recognizing how the mouth’s senses contribute to the overall judgment of texture
Developing and refining instrumental methods to enhance sensory assessment
Although meat and some crunchy goods, in which texture is an important sensory trait that may dominate their quality, have received more attention than semisolids and liquid food material, this scenario has been altering as society as a whole is becoming older. More populations that need diets based on soft foods are developing mastication and swallowing difficulties, such as dysphagia, as a result of the aging population. According to results from a texture analyzer, evaluating the texture of liquid and semisolid foods takes more than just force. It may be possible to gain a deeper understanding of the textural properties of food through rheological experiments that characterize their reaction under shear stress. The results of such experiments depend on the rate and amount of the force and the time period for which the force is applied. The microstructure of the food material may also contribute to these results.
The mechanical nature of food materials may be quantitatively described by rheological measurements, since they are carried out under well-defined geometries and provide basic relationships between physical parameters. Nondestructive (small deformation) oscillatory experiments on semisolid foods show the mechanical spectra linking storage and loss moduli to frequency, whereas destructive (huge deformation) assays on fluid foods yield flow curves that could correlate shear stress versus strain rate.
(b) Rheological Analysis
According to many researchers with some modifications, the rheological measurements were taken by an instrument that is AR-2000EX rotational rheometer (TA Instruments, New Castle, DE) at 25°C utilizing geometry of serrated parallel plates (40 mm) and a gap of 500 m. Now, 2.0-ml samples were placed in the rheometer and given 2 minutes to settle there, so they could attain the measuring temperature. A fresh sample was utilized for each replicate of each test, which was all run in triplicate. To prevent the sample surface from drying out, the rheometer’s accessory solvent trap was used, and a Peltier system was used to regulate the temperature.
(c) Techniques for Texture Profile Analysis
Texture profile analysis (TPA) is an instrumental procedure that works by compressing the test items by twice the amount of mechanical characteristics that are measured using the force deformation curve.
TPA Performance-The sample height, compression speed, sample and probe diameter ratios, and TPA performance all affect each other. Advantages include the technique being a well-known one for analyzing food texture because of how simple and inexpensive it is. Limitations include, since there have been so many research on that topic, using instrumental TPA to define solid food products cannot be regarded as a consistent approach. This is due to several fundamental flaws that the instrumental TPA, in all of its versions, possesses (e.g., calibration-related issues and mechanical issues) [30]. The sample height is crucial for calculating the TPA. Similar to this, the results of the analysis may be impacted by friction between the sample and the plates, sample size overall, and aspect ratio.
1.3.3 Emerging Techniques of Measurement of Firmness
(a) Nondestructive Impact-Based Measurements
The two techniques for measuring impact are fruit impact with sensing components and dropping the fruit on the force transducers. The use of nondestructive detectors or sensors for impact analysis has been shown in several studies [31].
(b) Nondestructive Microdeformation-Based Sensors
Fruits may get deformed when compressed. Nondestructive sensors that can measure the degree of deformation during compression are utilized to address this problem. The issue of damage is resolved by indenting the fruit surface with a spherical plunger. The nondestructive force-deformation curve that is located at the back of the compression plunger is recorded by a piezoelectric sensor or analog device [32–34]. Limitations of this approach include the plunger’s slope and maximum pressure that may be applied [35].
(c) Vibration-Based Technique
In this technique, a small hammer is used to blow the fruit. Accelerometers or laser vibrometers are used to estimate the mechanical vibration that was produced. To calculate the frequency response spectrum derived from the time domain signal, a computer system is connected to a measurement device. The mechanical characteristics of the fruit are intimately correlated with the resonance frequencies. As a result, these statistics may be used to describe fruit firmness. Limitations include the necessity to connect the device to the fruit surface, which might result in surface patches by the usage of an accelerometer in this procedure. Other limitations of this method include nonuniformity and concentration of excitation energy.
(d) Image Analysis-Based Methods
Fruit characteristics may be evaluated using a machine vision system. The fruit’s structural characteristics are reflected by light scattering. Thus, it can be used to assess the firmness of the fruit. Light scattering was carried out with a 670-nm laser. The stereomicroscope and camera were set up to measure their scattering. Limitations include the region of interest that can be chosen by the studies targeted using hyperspectral imaging (HI) of juncture assessment and/or background noise. With this method, both spectral and spatial data can be collected [36]. Limitations for HI include complexity, financial commitment, and sensitive detectors. Digital image analysis is constrained by the need for a sizable database, computational complexity, and the need for lots of storage space and quick computers.
(e) Ultrasonic Wave Propagation Methods
It is a nondestructive method that helps to determine how fresh food materials are. To evaluate the mealiness of food, two ultrasonic transducers operating at an 80-kHz frequency are used. Based on the internal texture of the food, one of the transducers transmits a pulse through food tissue, causing the tissue to absorb energy. The transmitted pulse is received by a different transducer as an emerging signal. The transmitted signals’ peak frequency, attenuation, flight, and wave velocities are examined to ascertain the firmness properties, including elastic modulus and bioyield strength.
1.3.4 Techniques for Crispness Measurement
The crispness is one of the many characteristics that can be used to assess the quality of dry food, but it is challenging to define crispness across all food commodities because it can vary from one product to another. Fruits and vegetables are considered crisp when they produce a crackling sound as a result of a sudden fracture that occurs when pressure is applied [37–39]. For measuring crispness, there are instrumental methods in addition to sensory analysis.
(a) Mechanical Measurement of Crispness
Compression, shear, and flexure tests are mechanical procedures used to measure crispness.
Different foods’ levels of crispness have been evaluated using the sensory and Instron tests. Different cutting tools are used to conduct this test, and it has been discovered that, in cereals, shear force may be the indicator of crispness [40].
Advantages include the process is quick and easy, and the output results are straightforward to understand and economically viable [41
