Olive Oil Sensory Science E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 614

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

The olive oil market is increasingly international. Levels of consumption and production are growing, particularly in "new" markets outside the Mediterranean region. New features of product optimization and development are emerging, and along with them new marketing strategies, which benefit from a clear understanding of the sensory aspects of foods, as well as adequate sensory techniques for testing them. Recently developed sensory methods and approaches are particularly suitable for studying the sensory properties of olive oils and their function in culinary preparation or in oil-food pairing. Each chapter of Olive Oil Sensory Science is written by the best researchers and industry professionals in the field throughout the world. The book is divided into two main sections. The first section details the appropriate sensory methods for olive oil optimization, product development, consumer testing and quality control. The intrinsic factors affecting olive oil quality perception are considered, as well as the nutritional, health and sensory properties, underlining the importance of sensory techniques in product differentiation. The agronomic and technological aspects of production that affect sensory properties and their occurrence in olive oil are also addressed. Sensory perception and other factors affecting consumer choice are discussed, as is the topic of olive oil sensory quality. The second part of this text highlights the major olive oil producing regions of the world: Spain, Italy, Greece, California, Australia/New Zealand and South America. Each chapter is dedicated to a region, looking at the geographical and climactic characteristics pertinent to olive oil production, the major regional olive cultivars, the principle olive oil styles and their attendant sensory properties. Olive Oil Sensory Science is an invaluable resource for olive oil scientists, product development and marketing personnel on the role of sensory evaluation in relation to current and future market trends.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Olive Oil Sensory Science: an Overview

References

Part I

Chapter 1: Quality Excellence in Extra Virgin Olive Oils

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Part 1. The standards of excellent olive oil

1.3 Part 2. The control of critical processing parameters

1.4 Part 3. The marketing of excellent olive oils

References

Chapter 2: The Basis of the Sensory Properties of Virgin Olive Oil

2.1 Sensory attributes of virgin olive oil

2.2 Agronomic and technological aspects of production that affect sensory properties and their occurrence in olive oil

2.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Sensory Perception and Other Factors Affecting Consumer Choice of Olive Oil

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The sensory system

3.3 Affective responses to salient sensory attributes of olive oil

3.4 Nonsensory aspects of consumer behavior

3.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 4: Sensory Quality Control

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Historical perspective

4.3 Standard methods

4.4 Legislative standards

4.5 Parameters used to evaluate olive oil quality

4.6 Organoleptic assessment – aroma and flavor

4.7 IOC taste panel development

4.8 IOC terminology for virgin olive oils

4.9 IOC profile sheet

4.10 “Ring tests”

4.11 IOC classification of olive oil grades

4.12 Other certification systems

4.13 Designing a sensory quality control program

4.14 New developments and future opportunities

4.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Sensory Methods for Optimizing and Adding Value to Extra Virgin Olive Oil

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Perceptual maps

5.3 Conventional descriptive analysis

5.4 Alternative descriptive methods to conventional descriptive analysis

5.5 Perceptual maps from similarity data

5.6 Temporal aspects of sensory characteristics of olive oils: Time–Intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS)

References

Chapter 6: Consumer Research on Olive Oil

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Applications to olive oil

6.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Sensory Functionality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Temporal Dominance of Sensation method

7.3 Comparing the sensory functionality of extra virgin olive oils with a varied sensory style

7.4 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Investigating the Culinary Use of Olive Oils

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Methodological approaches in the study of oil–food pairing

8.3 An original approach to studying the sensory functionality of oils in culinary preparations

8.4 Conclusion

References

Part II

Chapter 9: Olive Oils from Spain

9.1 Historical perspective

9.2 Geographic and climatic characteristics

9.3 Main sensory properties of Spanish olive oils

References

Chapter 10: Olive Oils from Italy

10.1 Introduction

10.2 PDO and PGI extra virgin olive oils in Italy

10.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Olive Oils from Greece

11.1 Historical perspective

11.2 Geographical and climatic characteristics

11.3 Overview of olive-producing regions

11.4 Messinia–Kalamata

11.5 Sensory characteristics of the major Greek olive varieties

11.6 Three typical examples of sensory analysis

References

Chapter 12: Olive Oils from California

12.1 Overview of olive oils from California

12.2 California climate and geography

12.3 History

12.4 Consumption and production

12.5 Production systems

12.6 California designations of olive oils

12.7 Chemistry of California olive oils

12.8 Olive varieties in California

12.9 Olive oil regions in California

12.10 Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Olive Oils from Australia and New Zealand

13.1 Overview of olive oil industry

13.2 Main chemical characteristics of olive oils

13.3 Principal olive varieties in Australia and New Zealand

13.4 Overview of olive growing regions and principal olive oil styles

13.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14: Olive Oils from South America

14.1 The origins of olive growing in South America

14.2 Olive growing in Argentina

14.3 Other olive-growing countries in South America

14.4 Brief geographic description of Argentina

14.5 Characterization of San Juan's olive oils

14.6 Sensory profiles

14.7 Correlations between sensory and chemical parameters

14.8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Further reading

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Monteleone, Erminio. Olive oil sensory science / Erminio Monteleone and Susan Langstaff. pages cm Includes index. ISBN 978-1-118-33252-8 (cloth) 1. Olive oil. 2. Olive oil industry. 3. Olive oil--Analysis.4. Food--Sensory analysis.I. Langstaff, Susan. II. Title. TP683.M577 2013 664′.362–dc23

2013024199

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover illustration by www.cargocollective.com/hannaherreraCover design by www.hisandhersdesign.co.uk

List of Contributors

Efi Christopoulou, Chemist, Taster of VOO, external expert of EU, IOC, and former Ministry of Development expert, Athens, Greece

Anna Claret, Researcher, IRTA, Food Technology Centre, Monells, Spain

Claudia Delgado, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA. Current: Science Leader – Sensory and Statistics, Gustatec Division, Chromocell Corporation, North Brunswick, NJ, USA

Caterina Dinnella, Senior Researcher, Dipartimento di Gestione dei Sistemi Agrari, Alimentari e Forestali – GESAAF, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Margaret Edwards, Owner, Matiatia Grove/The Waiheke Olive Oil Company Ltd, Oneroa, Waiheke Island, New Zealand

Sonia Esposto, Researcher, Dipartimento di Scienze Economiche Estimative e degli Alimenti (DSEEA), University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Aurora Gómez-Rico, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA. Current: AINIA, Parque Tecnológico de Valencia, Paterna Valencia, Spain

Luis Guerrero, Researcher, IRTA, Food Technology Centre, Monells, Spain

Jean-Xavier Guinard, Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Alexandra Kicenik Devarenne, Owner, CalAthena, Petaluma, CA, USA

Kostas Kontothanasis, Journalist, Olive and Olive Oil Magazine, correspondent in Kalamata, Greece

Susan Langstaff, Owner, Applied Sensory LLC, Fairfield, CA, USA

Susana Mattar, Researcher, CRESA: Laboratorio de Análisis Sensorial de Aceite de Oliva y Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias de la Alimentación, Universidad Católica de Cuyo, Rivadavia, San Juan, Argentina

Marzia Migliorini, Head of Research Division, Metropoli, Azienda Speciale della Camera di Commercio di Firenze – Divisione Laboratorio Chimico Merceologico, Florence, Italy

Erminio Monteleone, Associate Professor, Dipartimento di Gestione dei Sistemi Agrari, Alimentari e Forestali (GESAAF), University of Florence (Università degli Studi di Firenze), Florence, Italy

Claudio Peri, Professor Emeritus, University of Milan, Milan, Italy

Leandro Ravetti, Technical Director, Modern Olives/Boundary Bend Ltd, Lara, Victoria, Australia

Annamaria Recchia, Postdoctoral Fellow, Dipartimento di Gestione dei Sistemi Agrari, Alimentari e Forestali (GESAAF), Università degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy

Agustí Romero, Researcher, IRTA, Mas de Bover, Olive Production, Oil Technology and Nuts, Constantí, Spain

Metta Santosa, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA. Current: Sensory Scientist and Consultant, Hayward, CA, USA

Maurizio Servili, Professor, Dipartimento di Scienze Economiche Estimative e degli Alimenti (DSEEA), University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Sara Spinelli, Consultant in Communication, Sensory, and Consumer Research, SemioSensory, Carmignano – Prato, Italy

Agnese Taticchi, Researcher, Dipartimento di Scienze Economiche Estimative e degli Alimenti (DSEEA), University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

Hely Tuorila, Professor, Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Adriana Turcato, Directora Área Extensión, CRESA: Laboratorio de Análisis Sensorial de Aceite de Oliva y Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias de la Alimentación, Universidad Católica de Cuyo, Rivadavia, San Juan, Argentina

Vassilis Zampounis, Agroeconomist, Axion Agro Ltd, Athens, Greece

Olive Oil Sensory Science: an Overview

Erminio Monteleone1 and Susan Langstaff2

1Dipartimento di Gestione dei Sistemi Agrari, Alimentari e Forestali (GESAAF), University of Florence (Università degli Studi di Firenze), Florence, Italy

2Applied Sensory LLC, Fairfield, CA, USA

According to data from the International Olive Council, the olive oil market is increasing in a global dimension. Consumption and production are particularly growing in “new” areas outside the Mediterranean region and new needs in product optimization and development as well as in marketing strategies are emerging (Delgado and Guinard, 2). For instance, in the United States, interest in and consumption of olive oil have been growing exponentially during the past 20 years (an increase of 228%). Both traditional and new olive oil consumers are interested in olive oil for two main reasons: health benefits and flavor.

The sensory properties of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) vary widely depending on a number of factors. Differences in genetic resources, environmental conditions, process specifications, and local know-how induce sensory differences among oils (Caporale et al., 1). The success of olive oils in the market can be built on these differences and on the skill of producers in controlling the critical factors of sensory quality and in interpreting consumer hedonic and sensory expectations.

Currently, most of the attention on sensory properties of olive oil is focused on how to evaluate whether a given oil is free of defects and how EVOO is qualified. It is known that International Olive Council standards for the sensory evaluation of oils represent an effective method to qualify oils in categories such as Extra Virgin or Virgin. These standards consist in evaluating both “positive” and “negative” attributes. The latter are the category of defects that have to be absent in an EVOO. Positive sensory attributes are Bitterness, Pungency, and Fruity notes. It should be underlined that this necessary evaluation is not sufficient to describe the sensory diversity among EVOOs.

Modern product development and hard competition within the oil–food industry require a clear understanding of sensory aspects of EVOOs, and adequate sensory and consumer research techniques. The use of sound sensory methods is rarely applied in olive oil production and in olive oil consumer studies. There is a clear need for information on when and how to apply them. From an operative point of view, sensory evaluation is essential to understanding the marketplace since it provides information on how to manipulate the sensory properties or the culinary use of products in relation to consumers' hedonic responses.

Analytical sensory evaluation serves to identify perceived product attributes and differences. In this capacity, its function is similar to the chemical, physical, and microbiological characterization of products. However, being closer to consumer perceptions than physicochemical and biological assays, sensory analysis helps in interpreting the consequences of process modifications and the culinary use or the sensory functionality of EVOOs. Also, by using methodologies applicable to consumers, sensory research can directly acquire information about consumer response to products (Tuorila and Monteleone 4). The need to combine the information on product characteristics and consumer behavior in product development has led sensory scientists to adopt methods from other scientific disciplines that can be successfully applied to investigating consumer appreciation of EVOOs.

Sensory evaluation of olive oils requires many skills, but this is not always appreciated. In fact, sensory data may appear easy to collect because human subjects respond to questions and perform tasks, even when a task is obscure or inappropriate. This creates an insidious potential for collecting data of poor validity (Tuorila and Monteleone 4).

This book, Olive Oil Sensory Science, is aimed at covering the lack of information on “why,” “how,” and “when” to apply conventional and new sensory methods in relation to the specific properties of olive oils. Thus its topic is the potential contribution of sensory science to the success of EVOOs in the market. Appropriate sensory methods for product optimization/development and consumer testing purposes are presented. For each method, procedures and tools necessary to guarantee the quality of data are reported. Furthermore, the book considers methods suitable to investigate the sensory functionality of olive oils and multidisciplinary approaches to communicate the culinary use of this product.

Three introductory chapters precede the description of the sensory methods and methodologies. In the first, the quality dimensions of EVOO are critically reviewed. The concept of excellence in olive oil production, including chain control and certification, is presented and in this vision, sensory profile and health components are proposed as characterizing elements of brands based on origin, cultivar, and processing conditions. The second chapter is dedicated to agronomic and technological aspects of production that affect sensory properties and their occurrence in olive oil. Finally, the third chapter introduces the reader to the importance of sensory perception in determining consumer choice of olive oil. The authors clearly and specifically explain why robust sensory and consumer studies are needed to guarantee the success of EVOOs in the market. They highlight the importance of identifying the existing and forthcoming segments of consumers who are inclined to like and use EVOOs, and of providing information (on sensory properties and culinary uses) to support specific interest in the product. Given the special nature and prestige of EVOOs among consumers, segmentation based on involvement, familiarity with and knowledge of EVOOs is expected, and instruments measuring these aspects are described.

The core of the book is represented by four chapters dedicated to the application of sensory methods and approaches in quality control, product development, and consumer studies. The chapter on sensory quality control reviews the background and development of the official International Olive Council methods for olive oil sensory quality evaluation and categorization. Chapter 5 presents sensory methods used in product optimization. A large part of this contribution is dedicated to definitions and reference standards of sensory descriptors of olive oils. Statistical tools used to validate both panel and assessor performance and to analyze the data are described in detail, offering the olive oil world the opportunity to know more about how to interpret sensory data. Particular relevance is given to the appropriate methods used to obtain the so-called perceptual maps, pictorial representations describing differences and similarities among a set of EVOOs.

In addition to the conventional Descriptive Analysis (DA) and the Free Choice Profiling (FCP), other recent sensory methods, such as sorting and napping, are presented, considering their specific applications to olive oils. Perceptual mapping based on descriptive data is proposed as an effective tool when the description of the sensory style of an oil is of interest. The term “style” is referred to the sensory profile that describes an oil (or a group of oils) as different from others. The description of the sensory profile of oils is suggested as a necessary step to link the world of production with the world of use and consumption. In relation to the production system, the sensory profile of an oil represents a product specification describing characteristics due to cultivar type, climatic conditions, and operational process conditions; it also represents the product specifications necessary to verify the producer's capability to control the critical factors affecting the sensory characteristics and to guarantee the consistency of the sensory profile of an oil over time. In relation to the use and consumption of oils, the sensory profile is necessary to the communication of the sensory style and the culinary use of a product; it is also necessary to study the sensory functionality of an oil in dish preparations and oil–food pairings and to understand and interpret consumer likes and dislikes. Furthermore, methods that analyze temporal aspects of sensory characteristics of olive oils such as Time Intensity (TI) and Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) are presented. The latter method is presented in Chapter 7 as a reference method to study the sensory functionality of EVOOs. Current methods used to classify EVOOs into sensory quality categories and to test consumer preferences involve evaluations of oils on their own and thus do not consider the conditions that consumers experience when consuming olive oil in real life (i.e., mixed with other food) (Dinnella et al. 3). EVOOs are never consumed in isolation – they are used as an ingredient in the preparation of dishes or paired with other food, hence they should not be judged for their sensory attributes per se, but for their sensory functionality in combinations. In this book, the sensory functionality is defined as the ability of an EVOO to modify the sensory profile and acceptability of a given oil–food combination. Hence the study of sensory functionality of EVOOs requires the collection of both analytical (DA and TDS) and affective responses. Possible approaches to investigate the sensory performance of EVOOs are proposed and the many factors involved are identified and described.

Chapter 6 reports the methods appropriate to understanding the perceptions of and preferences for olive oil, and the knowledge and attitudes of consumers towards olive oil. It describes a possible approach to the study of consumer behavior as it pertains to olive oil. A three-factor consumer research model is proposed. The model relates consumer behavior to three types of variables – product variables, consumer variables, and context variables. Product variables are all the characteristics of the product, such as price, brand image, package, label information, and sensory properties, among others. Consumer variables are mostly demographics and psychographics, but also include anatomy, physiology, and genetics. Context variables include the physical environment of consumption but also the nonphysical context (e.g., the location of consumption, the presence or absence of others, the political, economic, and social climate, and societal trends and pressures). The consumption behavior measures that can be modeled with this model are variables such as preferences, liking, purchase intent, repeat purchase, and satisfaction, among others. Both qualitative and quantitative consumer research methods are presented, such as focus group, means–end chain analysis, sorting, and preference mapping, and a range of multivariate statistical techniques necessary to interpret consumer responses are described.

Current ways to communicate EVOO sensory quality are unable to differentiate among products. Information on the sensory properties of oils is confusing because general terms (such as “robust,” “fragrant,” “delicate,” and “gentle”) are often ambiguous. On the other hand, even when sensory information is correctly given (e.g., green or ripe fruity), it can be very difficult for consumers to understand what olive oil producers would hope to communicate. This happens because brands usually resort to the experts' descriptive language. Although technically correct, this language can be difficult or meaningless for consumers without any previous knowledge of olive oil. In this kind of communication, consumers are invited to play the role of experts, namely of skilled tasters who have the pleasure of experimenting with different sensory properties. Very often, particularly in new markets, this approach does not work. A possible alternative is to focus the communication on the culinary use of varied sensory styles of EVOOs. Studies are required on the role that oils with different sensory profiles could have in culinary preparations, showing which “oil sensory styles” best highlight which food flavor. Chapter 8 presents possible methodological approaches in investigating the culinary use of oils by chefs in order to gather information that can be used effectively for marketing purposes. In particular, the contribution highlights the need for multidisciplinary methodologies that involve sensory and human sciences such as semiotics.

Olive oil is on an upward trajectory, globally, in terms of production and consumption. Six chapters in this book are dedicated to the sensory diversity among olive oils from around the world, considering traditional and new production countries. Chapters 9, 10, and 11 examine the major European olive-growing countries: Spain, Italy, and Greece, respectively. These “Old World” countries are also the leading consumers of olive oil and they have developed their own geographical guarantee for many of their oils based on the Appellation Contrôllée system begun in France for wine. This system attempts to ensure consistency of quality, determines which olive varieties can be grown where, and what the essential qualities of their oils should be. This approach assumes that the composition of virgin olive oils is related to the geographical area where they are produced. The belief is that the sensory and chemical characterization of the geographical origin of virgin olive oils is needed not only to protect denominations of controlled origin, but also to identify the “best” olive oil for certain consumers.

Olive growing and the making of olive oil were all but unknown outside Europe and the Mediterranean basin until the olive tree was exported by Europeans who settled in new lands over the past 500 years. Now, olive oil is a part of these “New World” countries where the climate allows the trees to prosper. The United States – California in particular – Australia, New Zealand, and many countries in South America all have healthy olive oil industries that strive to stand on their own merits. Chapters 12, 13, and 14 examine these areas as producers of olive oil as they continue to experiment and challenge accepted norms from the Old World.

In the end, what has made olive oil fascinating has been the array of different oils with different sensory properties, from different olive types, grown by different growers, in different conditions, in different corners of the planet. This book is aimed at all those working in the olive oil field: research and development scientists and food technologists with olive oil companies, olive oil producers and marketers, sensory and consumer food researchers, students of food science and technology, and culinary students. Also, those in the health and wellness communities will be interested because of the health aspects of olive oil.

The twenty-first century consumer in affluent countries is sophisticated and savvy and is ready to spend money on products that meet his or her needs. Olive oil companies need to understand their products better and be able to explain their products to these consumers using the sensory techniques presented in this long overdue book.

References

Caporale, G., Policastro, S., Carlucci, A., and Monteleone, E. (2006). Consumer's expectations for sensory properties in virgin olive oils. Food Quality and Preference, 17, 116–125.

Delgado, C., and Guinard, J. (2011). How do consumer hedonic ratings for extra-virgin olive oil relate to quality ratings by experts and descriptive analysis ratings? Food Quality and Preference, 22, 213–225.

Dinnella, C., Masi, C., Zoboli, G., Monteleone, E. (2012). Sensory functionality of extra-virgin olive oil in vegetable foods assessed by Temporal Dominance of Sensations and Descriptive Analysis. Food Quality and Preference, 26, 141–150.

Tuorila, H. and Monteleone, E. (2009). Sensory food science in the changing society: opportunities, needs, and challenges. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 20, 54–62.

Part I

1

Quality Excellence in Extra Virgin Olive Oils

Claudio Peri

University of Milan, Milan, Italy

1.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present the standards of excellence for extra virgin olive oil and the critical factors in the production and marketing process. The topics are presented in three parts (Table 1.1):

Part 1 defines the standards of excellence for extra virgin olive oil.Part 2 presents the problems of process control as critical points for achieving the standards of excellence.Part 3 presents some conditions and opportunities for successfully marketing excellent olive oils.

Table 1.1 Topics covered in this chapter.

Part 1 – The standards of excellent olive oil

1.1. Genuineness as the prerequisite to excellence

1.2. Product traceability from field to table

1.3. The chemical standards of excellent olive oils

1.4. Sensory standards I: absence of sensory defects

1.5. Sensory standards II: sensory characteristics and performances

1.6. Nutritional and health properties

1.7. Conclusion: the standards of excellent olive oil

Part 2 – The control of critical processing parameters

2.1. Coordination of the harvesting and milling operations

2.2. Control of time–temperature conditions in malaxation

2.3. The problems of “hygienic design” and “residence time distribution”

2.4. Storage conditions of excellent oils

Part 3 – The marketing of excellent olive oils

3.1. Conditions and opportunities for successfully marketing excellent olive oils

1.2 Part 1. The standards of excellent olive oil

The first part is an itinerary into the main aspects of extra virgin olive oil quality, aimed at defining coherent, selective, measurable, and controllable standards of excellence.

1.2.1 Point 1. Genuineness as the prerequisite of excellence

We define genuineness as conformity with legal prescriptions or, in general, as the agreement – validated by documents and data – between what is claimed about the product and what is actually offered to the consumer. In the idiom of quality experts, an expression representing such a commitment of producers is:

We declare what we want to do;We do what we declare; andWe document what we do.

This is the foundation of producers' trustworthiness and hence the prerequisite of excellence in olive oil.

1.2.1.1 The fundamental criterion of genuineness

The law that defines extra virgin olive oil is motivated most of all by the concern to prevent fraud. It is sufficient to scan the articles and annexes of the European laws on the definitions of olive oil (European Commission, 2007) to see that the aim of a large number of parameters is to expose the fraudulent practice of mixing of virgin olive oils with refined oil or with other vegetable oils. These mixings are a violation of the fundamental criterion of genuineness that defines The “purely mechanical systems” include cleaning and washing of the olives, crushing, malaxation, extraction with a decanter or by pressure or percolation, centrifugal separation, and filtration. Except for potable water, considered as an adjuvant, no additive can be used.