One Health E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1401

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

One Health A balanced and multidisciplinary exploration of the One Health concept In One Health: Human, Animal, and Environment Triad, a team of distinguished researchers introduces and explains the concept of One Health by providing an overview of the One Health idea from the perspective of diverse disciplines, from earth and environmental science to ecology and conservation to veterinary and human medicine. The authors also present case studies demonstrating the real-world challenges and opportunities of this interdisciplinary approach to sustainable human well-being. Readers will find insightful discussions of the interactions between chemical pollutants and water, soil, and the atmosphere, as well as detailed examinations of sustainable food supply, waste management, and pathogen control, backed up by extensive reference data. One Health: Human, Animal, and Environment Triad also includes: * The emergence and re-emergence of zoonoses and other infectious diseases * The behavior of microplastics in soil and water * Organic farming and its influence on soil health * The role of light for human well-being Perfect for researchers interested in global health, ecological health, medical geology, toxicology, epidemiology, and zoonotic diseases, One Health: Human, Animal, and Environment Triad will also benefit professionals with an interest in public health and other public services, resource conservation, waste management, and the circular economy.

Leseprobe

One Health

Human, Animal, and Environment Triad

Edited by Meththika Vithanage and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad

Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762–2974, outside the United States at (317) 572–3993 or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Vithanage, Meththika, editor. | Prasad, M. N. V. (Majeti Narasimha Vara), 1953– editor.Title: One Health : human, animal, and environment triad / edited by Meththika Vithanage, Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022056911 (print) | LCCN 2022056912 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119867302 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119867319 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119867326 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: One Health (Initiative) | World health–Case studies. | World health–Environmental aspects–Case studies. | Environmental health–Case studies. | Communicable diseases–Prevention–Case studies. | Zoonoses–Prevention–Case studies.Classification: LCC RA441 .O535 2023 (print) | LCC RA441 (ebook) | DDC 362.1–dc23/eng/20230106LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022056911LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022056912

Cover design: WileyCover image: © dptro/Shutterstock

List of Contributors

N.P.M. AbeysingheDepartment of Export AgricultureFaculty of Agricultural SciencesSabaragamuwa University of Sri LankaBelihuloya, Srilanka

Dipo AldilaDepartment of MathematicsUniversity of IndonesiaDepok, Indonesia

Prasada Rao AlluDepartment of HorticultureSikkim Central UniversityGangtok, Sikkim, India

Nimroth AmbanpolaDepartment of ChemistryFaculty of ScienceUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka

Lakshmi BadrinarayananDepartment of NanobiotechnologyVision Research FoundationSankara Nethralaya, ChennaiTamil Nadu, India

Johannes A.C. BarthGeoZentrum NordbayernFriedrich‐Alexander University Erlangen‐Nürnberg (FAU)Erlangen, Germany

Tanushree BasumataryBioremediation Technology Research GroupDepartment of BotanyBodoland UniversityKokrajhar, Assam, India

Jayanta Kumar BiswasEnviromicrobiologyEcotoxicology and Ecotechnology Research Laboratory (3E‐MicroToxTech Lab)Department of Ecological StudiesUniversity of Kalyani, KalyaniWest Bengal, India

International Centre for Ecological EngineeringUniversity of Kalyani, KalyaniWest Bengal, India

Shermila M. BothejuDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka

Rohana ChandrajithDepartment of GeologyFaculty of ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

GeoZentrum NordbayernFriedrich‐Alexander University Erlangen‐Nürnberg (FAU)Erlangen, Germany

Mitali ChetiaDepartment of ZoologyNanda Nath Saikia CollegeTitabar, Assam, India

Reshma ChoudhuryDepartment of BiotechnologyRoyal Global UniversityGuwahati, Assam, India

Neehasri Kumar ChowdhuryDepartment of ZoologyGauhati UniversityGuwahati, Assam, India

Nalika R. DayanandaDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka

Department of ChemistryFaculty of ScienceUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka

Peninna DeberdtCIRAD, UPR HortSysMontpellier, France

CIRAD, HortSysUniv MontpellierMontpellier, France

Jean‐Philippe DeguineCIRAD, UMR PVBMTCan Tho UniversityCan Tho City, Vietnam

Saranga DiyabalanageInstrument CentreFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Ecosphere Resilience Research CenterFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Sailaja V. ElchuriDepartment of NanobiotechnologyVision Research FoundationSankara Nethralaya, ChennaiTamil Nadu, India

Marina E. EremeevaJiann‐Ping Hsu College of Public HealthGeorgia Southern UniversityStatesboro, GA, USA

G.A.H. GalahitigamaDepartment of Export AgricultureFaculty of Agricultural SciencesSabaragamuwa University of Sri LankaBelihuloya, Srilanka

Naleen Chaminda GanegodaDepartment of MathematicsUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Bhoirob GogoiBioremediation Technology Research GroupDepartment of BotanyBodoland UniversityKokrajhar, Assam, India

Viraj GunarathneLaboratory of Soil‐ and Groundwater‐ManagementWater‐ and Waste‐ManagementInstitute of Foundation EngineeringSchool of Architecture and Civil EngineeringUniversity of WuppertalWuppertal, Germany

Yasodhara GunasekaraDepartment of Veterinary Public Health and PharmacologyFaculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science University of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

H. HarischandraGenetics and Molecular Biology UnitFaculty of Applied ScienceUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Narayanan JanakiramanDepartment of NanobiotechnologyVision Research FoundationSankara Nethralaya, ChennaiTamil Nadu, India

Randika JayasingheFaculty of TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Nimanthi JayathilakaDepartment of ChemistryFaculty of ScienceUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka

Luhan JiangDepartment of Obstetrics and GynecologyLi Ka Shing Faculty of MedicineThe University of Hong KongHong Kong SAR, China

Rasika JinadasaDepartment of Veterinary PathobiologyFaculty of Veterinary Medicine & Animal ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Ruwani KalupahanaDepartment of Veterinary Public Health and PharmacologyFaculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

V. KantonoDepartment of Environmental ManagementCollege of Agriculture and Environmental SciencesMakerere UniversityKampala, Uganda

Niwantha KanuwanaDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka

M. KaziroDepartment of ZoologyEntomology and Fisheries SciencesCollege of Natural SciencesMakerere UniversityKampala, Uganda

Suranga P. KodithuwakkuDepartment of Obstetrics and GynecologyLi Ka Shing Faculty of MedicineThe University of Hong KongHong Kong SAR, China

Department of Animal ScienceFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal SciencesEstonian University of Life SciencesTartu, Estonia

Pabasari Arundathi KoliyabandaraFaculty of TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Sanda KottawattaDepartment of Veterinary Public Health and PharmacologyFaculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

J. KyayesimiraDepartment of Biological SciencesFaculty of ScienceKyambogo UniversityKampala, Uganda

Kai‐Fai LeeDepartment of Obstetrics and GynecologyLi Ka Shing Faculty of MedicineThe University of Hong KongHong Kong SAR, China

Shen Zhen Key Laboratory of Fertility RegulationThe University of Hong Kong‐Shenzhen HospitalShenzhen, China

H.M.S.P. MadawalaDepartment of BotanyFaculty of ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Dhammika N. Magana‐ArachchiMolecular Microbiology and Human Diseases UnitNational Institute of Fundamental StudiesKandy, Sri Lanka

Thibaud MartinCIRAD, UPR HortSysMontpellier, France

CIRAD, HortSysUniv MontpellierMontpellier, France

F. MuheirweDepartment of Educational Foundation and PsychologyFaculty of ScienceMbarara University of Science and TechnologyMbarara, Uganda

Progya MukherjeeEnviromicrobiologyEcotoxicology and Ecotechnology Research Laboratory (3E‐MicroToxTech Lab)Department of Ecological StudiesUniversity of Kalyani, KalyaniWest Bengal, India

Bhagya NallaperumaDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka

R.M. NalwangaDepartment of ZoologyEntomology and Fisheries SciencesCollege of Natural SciencesMakerere UniversityKampala, Uganda

J. NattabiDepartment of ZoologyEntomology and Fisheries SciencesCollege of Natural SciencesMakerere UniversityKampala, Uganda

S.U. NimalratnaCentre for BiotechnologyFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Thilini NisansalaFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversiti Malaysia KelantanKota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia

Sandun J. PereraDepartment of Natural ResourcesFaculty of Applied SciencesSabaragamuwa University of Sri LankaBelihuloya, Sri Lanka

Majeti Narasimha Vara PrasadSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of Hyderabad, HyderabadTelangana, India

Rupika S. RajakarunaDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Sanchayita RajkhowaDepartment of ChemistryThe Assam Royal Global UniversityGuwahati, Assam, India

Tharaka RanathungeDepartment of ZoologyFaculty of ScienceEastern University of SrilankaChenkaladi, Sri Lanka

Alain RatnadassCIRAD, UPR AïdaRéunion, France

CIRAD, AïdaUniv MontpellierMontpellier, France

Dhanashree RatraShri Bhagwan Mahavir Department of Vitreo Retinal ServicesMedical Research FoundationSankara Nethralaya, ChennaiTamil Nadu, India

Jörg RinklebeLaboratory of Soil‐ and Groundwater‐ManagementWater‐ and Waste‐ManagementInstitute of Foundation EngineeringSchool of Architecture and Civil EngineeringUniversity of WuppertalWuppertal, Germany

Hemen SarmaBioremediation Technology Research GroupDepartment of BotanyBodoland UniversityKokrajhar, Assam, India

Jyotirmoy SarmaDepartment of ChemistryAssam Don Bosco UniversityGuwahati, Assam, India

Kapila N. SeneviratneDepartment of ChemistryFaculty of ScienceUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka

Mathilde SesterCIRAD, AïdaUniv MontpellierMontpellier, France

CIRAD, UPR AïdaInstitut Technologique du CambodgePhnom Penh, Cambodia

Suprity ShyamBioremediation Technology Research GroupDepartment of BotanyBodoland UniversityKokrajhar, Assam, India

B.G.D.N.K. de SilvaCentre for BiotechnologyFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Genetics and Molecular Biology UnitFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Ayona Silva‐FletcherDepartment of Veterinary Clinical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeUniversity of London, United Kingdom

T.M.A.H. TennakoonDepartment of PathologyFaculty of MedicineUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Lahiru UdayangaDepartment of Bio‐Systems EngineeringFaculty of Agriculture & Plantation ManagementWayamba University of Sri LankaKuliyapitiya, Sri Lanka

Meththika VithanageEcosphere Resilience Research CentreFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka

Rasika P. WanigatungeDepartment of Plant and Molecular BiologyFaculty of ScienceUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka

Karunia Putra WijayaMathematical InstituteUniversity of KoblenzKoblenz, Germany

Jithya WijesingheDepartment of Indigenous Medical ResourcesFaculty of Indigenous Health Sciences and TechnologyGampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous MedicineYakkala, Sri Lanka

Novil WijeskaraHumphrey Fellowship ProgramDepartment of Global HealthRollins School of Public HealthEmory UniversityAtlanta, GA, USA

Disaster Preparedness and Response DivisionMinistry of HealthColombo, Sri Lanka

K.K. WijesunderaDepartment of Veterinary PathobiologyFaculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal ScienceUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka

Ewa WiśniowskaDepartment of Sanitary Networks and InstallationsCzęstochowa University of TechnologyCzęstochowa, Poland

Preface

One Health is a multi‐sectoral and trans‐disciplinary strategy comprising local, national, regional, and international cooperative efforts to achieve optimal health for humans, animals, and the environment, which are interrelated. A significant change in the global health system is needed to maintain the well‐being of people, animals, and the environment through cooperative problem resolution on a local, national, and international level. Various chapters in this book talk about this paradigm shift.

Many nations will expand investment in this field as society develops, particularly in light of the COVID‐19's effects on the nation's present public health systems. It is encouraged by the fact that scientists from many disciplines and various professions collaborate to address major issues. Various health and illness issues can be resolved through this field of study. Issues that affect individuals and improve our capacity to tackle taking real‐world health issues to a new level.

The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene

Emergence and Re‐emergence of the Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs): Looking at “One Health” Through the Lens of Ecology

Environmental interfaces for One Health

Zoonoses: The Rising Threat to Human Health

Microplastics in Soil and Water: Vector Behavior

Cyanotoxin in Hydrosphere and Human Interface

Contributions to One Health Approach to Solve Geogenic Health Issues

Disasters: Health and Environment Interphase

Role of Microorganisms in Bioavailability of Soil Pollutants

Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Migration from Water to Soil–Plant Systems, Health Risks, and Implications, for Remediation

One Health Relationships in Microbe–Human Domain

Biomedical Waste During COVID‐19: Status, Management, and Treatment

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Disease Transmission: Learning from COVID‐19 Data

Organic Farming: The Influence on Soil Health

Chronic Kidney Disease with Uncertain Etiology in Sri Lanka: Selected Case Studies

Waste in One Health: Building Resilient Communities Through Sustainable Waste Management

One Health Approach for Eye Care: Is It a Boon or Hype?

Waste in One Health: African Perspective

Endocrine Disruptors and Female Reproductive Health: A Problem to Tackle with One Health Perspective

Emerging and Re‐emerging Zoonoses in South Asia: Challenges of One Health

Impacts of Crop Protection Practices on Human Infectious Diseases: Agroecology as the Preferred Strategy to Integrate Crop Plant Health Within the Extended “One Health” Frameworks

Tackling Antimicrobial Resistance Needs One Health Approach

Eco‐epidemiology of Tick‐Borne Pathogens: Role of Tick Vectors and Host Animal Community Composition in Their Circulation and Source of Infections

Natural Enemies Against Dengue: Opportunities and Constraints on Biological Control of Dengue Vectors in Sri Lanka

Planetary Health: Rethinking Health

SARS‐CoV‐2 and Other Pathogenic Organisms in Food and Water: Health Implications and Environmental Risk

Modifying the Anthropocene Equation with One Health Concept

Bioavailability of Trace Elements in Soils

“Light” as an Environmental Factor for the Well‐Being of the “Plant, Animal, and Human Triad”

This book, with its diverse chapters enumerated supra vide, is needed for a variety of reasons – continuous changes in the environment, climate change, and people are more interested in the environment and health. The diversity can be observed in the word cloud map (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Word cloud map for the book chapters in the One Health book.

Section IOne Health Approach

1The Need for One Health Approach at the Recent Anthropocene

Novil Wijeskara

Humphrey Fellowship Program, Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Disaster Preparedness and Response Division, Ministry of Health, Colombo, Sri Lanka

1.1 Anthropocene

Humans have become closer to both the environment and other life forms. In the early stages of our civilization, extraction of natural resources by humans resulted in minimal impacts on the ecosystem. Nevertheless, over the years, humanity thrived on natural resources, alleviating poverty with improving access to safe water and sanitation, hygiene, and housing (Deaton 2015). Developments in preventive and curative healthcare contributed toward reduction of both communicable and non‐communicable diseases (Pinker 2020). Life expectancy at birth has increased, and under‐five mortality has declined to unprecedented levels (Haines et al. 2019).

However, subsequently, our relationships with the ecosystem components have been more competitive than collaborative to a large extent. As a result, severe negative impacts have been had on the environment. Rising economic and population growth demanded an escalation of the use of natural resources for housing, agriculture, and industry (Steffen et al. 2015). Indiscriminate use of fossil fuels has become unsustainable (Steffen et al. 2015). It is estimated that the current extinction rates of species are 1000 times higher than the natural background rates of extinction, whereas the future rates would be 10,000 times higher (De Vos et al. 2015). A myriad of environmental conflicts such as ocean acidification, pollution, and overfishing have resulted in the meantime (Jackson 2010). The period in the history of the earth where the impacts of human beings have been so fast, profound, and far‐reaching has been named the Anthropocene. The Working Group on the Anthropocene has agreed that the mid‐twentieth century to be the starting point of the Anthropocene (Zalasiewicz et al. 2017).

1.2 Infectious Diseases: Animals to Humans

One of the necessary evils of humans becoming more and more closer to animals, both domesticated and wild, has increased the exposure of humans to infectious diseases. For example, 60% of known infectious diseases in humans and 70% of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) have been caused by zoonotic pathogens (Woolhouse and Gowtage‐Sequeria 2005; Taylor and Habibi 2020). It has also been found that zoonotic pathogens are two times more associated with emerging and reemerging infectious diseases than non‐zoonotic pathogens (Woolhouse and Gowtage‐Sequeria 2005). The evolution of the One Health Concept is closely linked to the infectious diseases in domesticated and wild animals that could infect humans or cause zoonoses. A zoonosis is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans (WHO 2020). We will commence this chapter by reviewing emerging and reemerging infectious diseases (RIDs), with a focus on zoonosis.

1.3 Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases

EIDs and RIDs are used to signal the absolutely or relatively new risks of infectious diseases in each area or community. Thus, the definition of EIDs and RIDs takes the time and place into consideration. EIDs signal new infectious disease risks, whereas RIDs indicate older risks that are reappearing. Table 1.1 summarizes the definitions of EIDs and RIDs. A third category has been identified as deliberately emerging infectious diseases (DID), indicating those used with malicious intentions. Figure 1.1 shows the global examples of diseases belonging to these three categories.

Table 1.1 Definition of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases.

Source: (Tabish 2009)

Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)

Description

Example(s)

Diseases that have not occurred in humans before

COVID‐19

a

Diseases that have occurred previously but affected only a small numbers of people in isolated places

AIDS, Ebola hemorrhagic fever

Diseases that have occurred throughout human history but have only recently been recognized as distinct diseases due to an infectious agent

Lyme diseases, gastric ulcers

Reemerging infectious Diseases (RIDs)

Diseases that once were major health problems globally or in a particular country and then declined dramatically but are again becoming health problems for a significant proportion of the population

Malaria, tuberculosis

Deliberately Emerging Infectious Diseases (DIDs)

b

Diseases occurring due to pathogens that have been developed by man, usually for nefarious use

Anthrax

Accidently Emerging Infectious Diseases (AIDs)

Epizootic vaccinia, Transmissible vaccine‐derived polioviruses

a The example of COVID‐19 was added by the chapter authors.

b The definition of DID was adapted from (Morens et al. 2004).

An EID is a disease of which the prevalence has recently increased considering the timeframe of 20 years, and this rise may continue in the near future (Verma n.d.). Under EID, three categories of diseases could be identified.

The first category involves newly emerging infectious diseases in humans for the first time, such as HIV/AIDS (1981), Nipah virus (1999), SARS (2002), MERS (2012), and COVID‐19 (2019).

The second category has historically been known to infect humans, but they appear in new locations (e.g. West Nile in the United States and Russia in 1999) or in more resistant forms (e.g. methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus).

The third category includes diseases that have affected human beings over time but only have recently been identified as being due to an infective agent (e.g. Lyme diseases, gastric ulcer) (Tabish 2009).

RID is used to indicate infectious diseases that were once a significant health problem in an area, declined in their occurrence considerably, and are now reoccurring as a problem (e.g. malaria, tuberculosis) (Tabish 2009).

DID occurs due to the use of pathogenic organisms to cause human suffering (e.g. anthrax) (Morens et al. 2004). Accidentally emerging infectious disease (AID) occurs due to unintentional human errors (e.g. epizootic vaccinia and transmissible vaccine‐derived polioviruses).

In addition to the categories mentioned earlier, some infections become endemic in areas where they were once newly emerging infections.

EIDs occur due to the complex interaction between many factors. An extensive list of factors has been identified in relation to the human, animal, and environmental interphases. We have summarized factors from literature on the subject in Table 1.2 (Church 2004; Health [US] and Study 2007; Morens et al. 2004; Morens and Fauci 2020; Tabish 2009).

As shown in Table 1.2, a range of factors operating at underlying, intermediate, and immediate level could be identified as contributing to the rise of EID, RID, DID, and AID. Underlying factors such as population growth, globalization, urbanization, and industrialization explain how, over time, a more favorable environment for the emergence of such diseases has evolved at the global level. In the meantime, political instability, social injustice, and inequality are contributing to the increased risk of such diseases. Further, climate change, which is anthropogenic and resulting from a combination of underlying factors, is also contributing to the rise of diseases.

Under intermediate factors, population mobility is considered. The movement of people within and between countries has contributed to the introduction of new diseases to new locations very quickly. The COVID‐19 pandemic is the best example of this from the recent past. In addition, along with population growth and economic development, the demand for meat production has increased not only for food, but also for proteins. Hence the need for modern food production has increased, including food production in strictly regulated environments. Cross‐border transportation of food, including meat and meat products, became a necessity, increasing the risk of EID and RID. Irrational use of antibiotics, not only for human health but also in animal husbandry, increased the risk of immediate risk factors such as antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The deterioration of biosafety and biosecurity systems, backed by global political instability as an underlying factor, contributed to the rise of DID and AIDs.

Figure 1.1 Map of emerging, re‐emerging and deliberately emerging infectious diseases (Morens and Fauci 2020).

The interplay of the underlying and intermediate factors gives rise to the immediate factors for the emergence of EID, RID, DID, and AID. New or more virulent forms of known pathogens could rapidly arise. Increasing vector density could rapidly transmit the disease to humans. Humans being in close contact with the vectors could increase the spread. Breaches of food security will also increase the risk of food‐borne diseases. Poor immunity of humans to such new organisms, coupled with increased exposure, could increase the risk of human infections. Breakdown of health services could hamper surveillance, early detection, and management of newly emerging diseases. AMR could further deteriorate the situation by making the available antibiotics effective against the pathogens.

When considering the contributory factor framework mentioned earlier, the emergence of EID, RID, DID, and AID cut across humans, animals, and the environment. Therefore, one discipline alone cannot engage all stakeholders, agencies, and organizations. One Health is an approach aimed at engaging the whole range of stakeholders from human health, animal health, and environmental health to address the complex problems of EIDs. This has been a concept that has been in evolution probably from the beginning of human civilization. The Greek physician Hippocrates, in the fifth or fourth century BCE, in his book Airs, Waters, and Places, explored the causal relationship between human disease and the environment (Miller 1962). Table 1.3 summarizes the historical evolution of the One Health concept. The core of the approach as enshrined in its definition, as well as the historical narrative, is that consorted efforts are needed to ensure the health of people, animals, and the environment instead of the compartmental and fragmented approach to addressing the health of each component separately.

Table 1.2 Factors contributing to the rise of emerging, reemerging, deliberately emerging, and accidently emerging infectious diseases.

Underlying factors

Intermediate factors

Immediate factors

Population growth

Population mobility

Evolution of new or more virulent organisms

Globalization

Increased demand for food especially protein

Increased vector breeding

Urbanization

Cross‐border transportation of food

Increased exposure to pathogens

Industrialization

Modern food production practices

Breaches of food safety

Political instability

Antimicrobial misuse in humans and animals

Poor human immunity

Social injustice

Deterioration of biosafety and biosecurity systems

Antimicrobial resistance

Inequity

Breakdown of health services

Climate change

Table 1.3 Historical evolution of the One Health concept.

Source: Adapted from (CDC 2022b)

Year

Events

2013

The Second International One Health Congress is held in conjunction with the Prince Mahidol Award Conference

2012

The Global Risk Forum sponsors the first One Health Summit

2011

The High‐Level Technical Meeting to Address Health Risks at the Human‐Animal‐Ecosystem Interface Builds Political Will for the One Health Movement

2010

The European Union Reaffirms its Commitment to Operate Under a One Health Umbrella

The United Nations and the World Bank Recommend Adoption of One Health Approaches

Experts Identify Clear and Concrete Actions to Move the Concept of One Health from Vision to Implementation

The Hanoi Declaration, Which Recommends Broad Implementation of One Health, is Adopted Unanimously

2009

Key Recommendations for One World, One Health™ are Developed

USAID Establishes the Emerging Pandemic Threats Program

The One Health Office is Established at CDC

2008

One Health Becomes a Recommended Approach and a Political Reality

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), OIE, and WHO Collaborate with UNICEF, UNSIC, and the World Bank to develop a Joint Strategic Framework in Response to the Evolving Risk of Emerging and Re‐emerging Infectious Diseases

2007

The One Health Approach is Recommended for Pandemic Preparedness

The American Medical Association Passes the One Health Resolution Promoting Partnership Between Human and Veterinary Medicine

2004

The Wildlife Conservation Society Publishes the 12 Manhattan Principles

1927–2006

Calvin Schwabe Coins the Term “One Medicine” and calls for a Unified Approach Against Zoonoses That Uses Both Human and Veterinary Medicine

1947

The Veterinary Public Health Division is Established at CDC

1849–1919

William Osler, Father of Veterinary Pathology

1821–1902

Virchow Recognizes the Link Between Human and Animal Health

1.4 Definition of One Health

Several definitions of One Health could be found, probably showcasing the focus of the agency that has created it in relation to the concept. A narrow and a broader approach to One Health have been described. The narrow approach had a biomedical focus, largely combining human and animal health through human and veterinary medicine. The WHO and Organization for Animal Health (WOAH, founded as OIE) definitions are examples of such narrow approaches addressing One Health. The broader definitions have been put forward by the One Health Commission and One Health Global Network. Hence, all definitions have some large overlaps; however, each has its own uniqueness, which probably would have contributed to the creation of yet another definition (Figure 1.2). Three definitions of One Health are considered in Table 1.4.

The broader scope of One Health could be shown using the following umbrella diagram by the One Health Initiative (Gibbs and Paul 2014; One Health Initiative 2019).

Figure 1.2 The One Health Umbrella.

Source: One Health Initiative.

Table 1.4 Definitions of One Health.

WHO definition

An approach to designing and implementing programs, policies, and legislation and research in which multiple sectors communicate and work together to achieve better public health outcomes (WHO

2017

).

Organization for Animal Health (WOHA, Founded as OIE) definition

A collaborative global approach to understand risks for human and animal health (including both domestic animals and wildlife) and ecosystem health as a whole.

US CDC and One Health Commission definition

One Health is a collaborative, multisectoral, and trans‐disciplinary approach – working at local, regional, national, and global levels – to achieve optimal health (and well‐being) outcomes recognizing the interconnections between people, animals, plants, and their shared environment (One Health Commission

n.d.

).

Food and Agriculture Organization definition

“A collaborative, international, cross sectoral, multidisciplinary mechanism to address threats and reduce risks of detrimental infectious diseases at the animal‐human‐ecosystem interface.”

One Health Global Network – Aim of One Health

Aim of One Health is to “improve health and wellbeing through the prevention of risks and the mitigation of effects of crises that originate at the interface between humans, animals and their various environments.”

One Health Initiative definition

A worldwide strategy for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals, and the environment (Monath et al.

2010

).

Joint Tripartite (FAO, OIE, WHO) and United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)

One Health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimize the health of people, animals, and ecosystems. It recognizes the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the wider environment (including ecosystems) are closely linked and inter‐dependent. The approach mobilizes multiple sectors, disciplines, and communities at varying levels of society to work together to foster well‐being and tackle threats to health and ecosystems, while addressing the collective need for clean water, energy and air, safe and nutritious food, taking action on climate change, and contributing to sustainable development (WHO

2021

; Panel [OHHLEP] et al.

2022

).

The broader definition of One Health proposed by the One Health initiative involves disciplines such as environmental health, ecology, veterinary medicine, public health, human medicine, molecular microbiology, and health economics (Gibbs and Paul 2014; One Health Initiative 2019). It explores the relationship between individual health, population health, and ecosystem health. Two overlapping domains could be identified under the broad One Health umbrella: Zoonotic infections and comparative medicine/translational medicine. The former explores the spread and control of infectious diseases between humans, animals, and the environment, both naturally and intentionally. The comparative/translational medicine uses the One Health approach that uses animal models to explore cancer and therapeutics such as medicines and vaccines for human use.

An important feature of the WHO definition of One Health is its obvious focus on public health, while it calls for different tiers of action, namely programmatic, legislative, policy, and research. The OIE definition sheds light on both domestic and wild animals while emphasizing ecosystem health. The Joint Tripartite and UNEP definitions show a unification of the focus on human, animal, and environmental health while introducing the concept of sustainability.

1.5 Other Paradigms to One Health