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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
The book is an essential resource for anyone in the pharmaceutical field, as it provides in-depth insights into the versatile roles of polymers in controlled drug delivery, highlighting their critical applications in product innovation, development, and manufacturing.
Pharmaceutical Polymer Formulations and Its Applications provides an overview of the applications of pharmaceutical polymers in the vast field of controlled drug delivery. Polymers have the potential for a range of uses in the design of pharmaceutical dosage forms. They can be used as suspending, emulsifying, binding, or flocculant agents, as well as adhesives and packaging and coating materials. They can be used to make gels, nanoparticles, microparticles, and various capsules. Polymers have played an indispensable role in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products. This volume includes various polymers used in pharmacy based on their applications. The overviews focus on the use of pharmaceutical polymers for controlled drug delivery applications. Examples of pharmaceutical polymers and the principles of controlled drug delivery are outlined, and applications of polymers for controlled drug delivery are also discussed.
Readers will find the book:
- Explores the latest tactics utilized for the application of polymers in the healthcare industry;
- Showcases the numerous innovations of polymers in manufacturing of pharmaceuticals;
- Provides essential elements for the conceptualization and comprehension of polymer products by highlighting their aspects and overcoming manufacturing, regulatory, and quality control obstacles.
Audience
The book will interest chemists and healthcare professionals interested in pharmaceutical innovation using polymers.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Overview and Introduction of Polymers Used in Pharmaceuticals
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Polymers
1.3 Ideal Characteristics of Polymer
1.4 Characterization of Polymer
1.5 Applications of Polymers in Drug Delivery System
1.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
2 Biopolymers as Potential Carriers in the Novel Drug Delivery System
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification
2.3 Properties of Biopolymer
2.4 Characterization Techniques of Biopolymer
2.5 Frequently Studied Biopolymers
2.6 Future Prospective
2.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
3 Functional Polymers as Drug Carriers in Pharmaceuticals Development
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Polymers’ Role in Drug Delivery
3.3 Biomaterials for Delivery Systems
3.4 Polymers for Medication Delivery
3.5 How Polymers Release Drugs
3.6 Polymeric System Selection Criteria
3.7 Applications
3.8 Conclusion and Future Trends
Acknowledgements
References
4 Nanopolymer for Drug Delivery
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Polymer Nanoparticles
4.3 Polymers Used in the Manufacturing of PNPs
4.4 Conventionally Used Methods for Making Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPS)
4.5 Pros and Cons of Polymeric Nanoparticles
4.6 Characterizing Polymeric Nanoparticles
4.7 Controlled Drug Delivery Polymeric Nanoparticles
4.8 Applications of Polymeric Nanoparticles
4.9 Recent Advances in the Field of PNPs
4.10 Future Prospects and Challenges
4.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
5 Natural Polymers for Drug Delivery
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Methods of Extraction for Natural Polymers
5.3 Plant-Based Natural Polymers
5.4 Animal-Based Natural Polymers
5.5 Microorganism-Based Natural Polymers
5.6 Marine-Based Natural Polymers
5.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
6 Intelligent Drug Delivery Systems for Safe and Effective Cancer Treatment: Smart Bio-Responsive Polymers
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Smart Materials with Endogenous Triggering
6.3 Smart Materials with External Triggers
6.4 Biological Perspective
6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
Acknowledgment
References
7 Polymers and Their Uses in Drug Delivery
7.1 Introduction
7.2 A Polymeric Drug Delivery System’s Fundamentals
7.3 Classification of Polymers
7.4 Types of Polymers Used Depending Upon Their Inherent Property
7.5 Traditional Use of Polymers in Drug Delivery
7.6 Smart Polymers
7.7 Polymers in Novel Drug Delivery Systems
7.8 Recent Polymer Drug Delivery System Advances
7.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
8 Polymers in Oral Hygiene and Oral Drug Delivery
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Oral Hygiene
8.3 Polymers
8.4 History of Oral Polymeric Materials
8.5 Dental Polymers Natural and Synthetic
8.6 The Use of Polymers in Oral Hygiene
8.7 Polymers’ Part in the Oral Delivery of Drug
8.8 Oral Disease Management
8.9 Manufacturing of Dental Products
8.10 Polymers in Oral Health
8.11 Oral Drug Delivery System
8.12 Application of Polymers in Oral Dosage Forms
8.13 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
9 Polymers in Controlled Drug Delivery System
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Controlled Drug Delivery
9.3 Mechanism of Controlled Drug Delivery System
9.4 Polymers in Controlled Drug Delivery System
9.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 Polymers: An Update on Their Use in Ocular Drug Delivery Systems and Other Recent Developments
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ideal Ophthalmic Drug Delivery System Characteristics
10.3 Routes of Administration of ODDS
10.4 Approaches for Ophthalmic Drug Delivery System
10.5 Polymers in the Delivery of Drug to the Eyes
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
11 Polymers and Approaches in Dental Preparations
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Polymers Used in Dentistry
11.3 Branches of Dentistry
11.4 Properties of Polymers
11.5 Applications of Polymers in Dentistry
11.6 Recent Advancements in Use of Polymers in Dentistry
11.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12 Role and Types of Polymers Used in Cosmetics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Classification of Cosmetics
12.3 Chemistry of Cosmetics
12.4 Polymers in Cosmetics
12.5 Natural Polymers
12.6 Semi-Synthetic Polymers
12.7 Synthetic Polymers
12.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
13 Potential Natural Polymers in the Modern Drug Delivery Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Type of Modern Drug Delivery System
13.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Polymers in Nutritional Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Classification
14.3 Advantages
14.4 Disadvantages
14.5 Application of Nutritional Polymer
14.6 Current Innovative Research in the Field of Nutritional Polymer
14.7 Future Perception to Nutritional Polymer Research
14.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
15 Green Polymers and Their Uses in Pharmacy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Natural (Green) Polymer
15.3 Future Indications
15.4 Conclusion
References
16 Polymers in Gene Delivery
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Application of Polymers in Gene Delivery
16.3 Methods for Delivering Genes
16.4 Polymers Used
16.5 Future Prospective
16.6 Conclusion
References
17 Introduction, Overview and Various Uses of Synthetic Polymers in Pharmacy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Synthetic Polymers in Pharmaceutical Formulation Developments
17.3 Synthetic Polymer-Conjugates Applications in Pharmaceuticals
17.4 Applications
17.5 Future Prospects
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Semiconducting Polymer
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Polymers that are Conjugated as Semiconductors
18.3 Polymers with Semiconducting Properties
18.4 Applications of Semiconducting Polymers in Pharmaceutical and Medical Sciences Neural Applications
18.5 Conclusion
References
19 Nanostructured Polymer Systems and Pharmacy
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Nanostructured Polymers
19.3 Utilization of Polymeric Nanostructured Systems in the Drug Delivery System Nanocapsules
19.4 Future Perspective
19.5 Conclusion
References
20 Microstructured Polymer System and Its Application in Pharmacy
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Pharmaceutical Products Using Micro/Nanostructured Polymeric Materials
20.3 Polymeric Polymers as Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery Matrices
20.4 Methods for Preparing Nanoand Microparticles
20.5 Future Perspective
20.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Polymer science progress.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Polymers characteristics.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Examples of polymers and their methods of preparation for the develo...
Table 4.2 Combining polymeric nanoparticles with dietary supplements for medic...
Table 4.3 Recently patented polymer-based NPs for drug delivery.
Table 4.4 Clinically tested nanoparticle medication delivery systems.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Polymorphs of fibroin.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Describes smart polymers that respond to exogenous and endogenous st...
Table 6.2 Applications of smart polymers in drug delivery as cancer therapeuti...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Classification based on chemical nature.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Application of polymer in oral health.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Material classification for resin composites.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Nutrigenomics.
Table 14.2 Classifications.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 General classification of polymer.
Figure 1.2 General application of polymer in pharmaceutical industry.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Classification of biopolymers.
Figure 2.2 Type-based monomer classification.
Figure 2.3 Origin-based monomer classification.
Figure 2.4 Classification of monomers.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Polymers with their unique characteristics.
Figure 3.2 Unique polymers for specific uses.
Figure 3.3 Application of polymers.
Figure 3.4 Enzyme sensitive polymers.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Represents the various classification of polymer nanoparticles.
Figure 4.2 Schematic representation of polymeric nanoparticles.
Figure 4.3 Represents conventional methods used for preparation of polymeric N...
Figure 4.4 Shows the advancements in methodologies for synthesis of PNPs.
Figure 4.5 Methods used for the characterization of polymeric nanoparticles.
Figure 4.6 Various applications of PNPs in drug delivery.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Structure of polymers.
Figure 5.2 Classification of polymers.
Figure 5.3 Schematic diagram of a typical extraction process for natural polym...
Figure 5.4 Structure of gum acacia.
Figure 5.5 Structure of cellulose.
Figure 5.6 Structure of dextrin.
Figure 5.7 Structure of various acids present in rosin.
Figure 5.8 Structure of guar gum.
Figure 5.9 Structure of inulin.
Figure 5.10 Structure of pectin.
Figure 5.11 Structure of starch.
Figure 5.12 Structure of chitosan.
Figure 5.13 Structure of chondroitin sulfate.
Figure 5.14 Structure of dextran.
Figure 5.15 Structure of scleroglucan.
Figure 5.16 Structure of xanthan gum.
Figure 5.17 Structure of pullulan.
Figure 5.18 Structure of alginate.
Figure 5.19 Structure of various forms of carrageenan.
Figure 5.20 Structure of fucoidan.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Cancer medication delivery via endogenous and external stimuli-resp...
Figure 6.2 The activation of the complement recognition system via three pathw...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Structure of hydrolysis of poly lactic-co-glycolic acid [114].
Figure 7.2 Drug delivery system based on diffusion method.
Figure 7.3 Structure of PGA (poly glycolic acid).
Figure 7.4 Structure of polyglutamic acid.
Figure 7.5 Structure of polylactic acid.
Figure 7.6 Structure of NIPAAm [Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)].
Figure 7.7 Structure of pHEMA [Poly 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate].
Figure 7.8 Structure of PPy [Polypyrrole].
Figure 7.9 Structure of PAMAM [poly(amidoamine)].
Figure 7.10 Structure of dextran.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Oral film formulation methods.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Anatomy of eye.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Common problems related to teeth and gum plaque. (With permission ...
Figure 11.2 Plaque removal. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Niphad, Na...
Figure 11.3 Aligners. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Niphad, Nashik).
Figure 11.4 Non-vital bleaching. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Nipha...
Figure 11.5 Direct composites. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Niphad,...
Figure 11.6 Radiographs showing furcation caries and its treatment. (With perm...
Figure 11.7 Removal of distal root. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Ni...
Figure 11.8 Apexification. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, Niphad, Nas...
Figure 11.9 Removal of mesial tooth. (With permission from Sushrut Hospital, N...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Types of polymers applied in cosmetics.
Figure 12.2 Findings from a review of original articles about the use of polym...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Type of novel herbal drug delivery system.
Figure 13.2 Common stages for preparation of phytosome.
Figure 13.3 Drug encapsulation in liposome.
Figure 13.4 Various types of liposome.
Figure 13.5 Common stages for preparation of liposomes.
Figure 13.6 Structure of niosomes.
Figure 13.7 Types of niosome.
Figure 13.8 Different method of preparation of niosome.
Figure 13.9 Cold method of preparation of ethosome.
Figure 13.10 Hot method of preparation of ethosome.
Figure 13.11 Various methods of preparation of transferosome.
Figure 13.12 Various methods of preparation of nanoparticle.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Synthetic polymer scaffold.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Nanostructured nanoparticles.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Pharmaceutical Polymer Formulations and Its Applications
Edited by
Raj K. Keservani
Faculty of B. Pharmacy, CSM Group of Institutions, Prayagraj, India
Eknath D. Ahire
Department of Pharmaceutics, MET’s, Institute of Pharmacy, Bhujbal Knowledge City, Adgoan, Nashik (MH), India
and
Rajesh K. Kesharwani
Department of Computer Application, Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to be University), Prayagraj, India
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-17238-2
Front cover images courtesy of Pixabay.comCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Polymers play a critical role in the development of therapeutic products, extending beyond packaging to the creation of advanced drug delivery systems. This review offers a comprehensive list of polymers commonly used in pharmacy, categorized by their specific applications. The focus is on the use of pharmaceutical polymers for controlled drug delivery, providing an overview of these polymers and the key concepts underlying controlled release systems. Additionally, it explores the various applications of polymers within the context of controlled drug delivery.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse applications of pharmaceutical polymers in the field of controlled drug administration. It briefly examines the use of polymers in areas such as dentistry, ocular drug delivery, gene transfer, and microsphere production within the pharmaceutical industry.
Additionally, the book offers in-depth information on polymer-coated nanotechnological products and recent advancements in drug delivery. Topics covered include toxicological studies, nano-based materials, microspheres for drug delivery, nanopharmaceuticals, niosomes and liposomes for drug administration, lipid-based nanoparticle treatments, and oral hygiene applications.
This book guides entrepreneurs in developing a strategic research and development plan, starting with creative and unique concepts and progressing to the production of cost-effective, high-quality finished products. It covers the essential aspects of conceptualizing and understanding polymer products, with a focus on key elements such as innovation, regulatory considerations, production, and quality control challenges.
This book covers a broad range of topics related to polymers, including green polymers, biopolymers, natural polymers, semiconducting polymers, bioresponsive polymers, nanopolymers, microstructured and nanostructured polymer systems, functional and synthetic polymers. It also explores polymers in controlled drug delivery, biomedical, nutritional, cutaneous, cosmetic, oral, and parenteral applications. Additionally, the book delves into polymers used in medicine, dental, ophthalmic drug delivery, gene delivery, pharmaceutical formulation, and their various applications.
Chapter 1 examines the logical use of polymeric excipients, highlighting their diverse features and potential impacts on drug delivery. Chapter 2 explores the properties of cellulose, chitin, and chitosan through techniques such as FTIR, XRD, TGA, and SEM. Furthermore, Chapter 3 discusses the reported properties of these polymers and their application in the development of pharmaceutical products.
Chapter 4 outlines the latest advancements in polymeric nanoparticle research, providing insights into several recently patented polymer-based nanoparticles (NPs) and clinically validated nanoparticle drug delivery systems. Next, Chapter 5 helps readers understand the various methods used to modify natural polymers, highlighting their advantages over synthetic alternatives, as well as their limitations and general extraction techniques. Chapter 6 discusses the interactions between host reactivity and macromolecular structures, focusing on the therapeutic implications for various drug delivery systems.
Chapter 7 details current research projects and explores potential pathways for advancing medical technology through high-tech polymer structures. Additionally, Chapter 8 highlights key applications such as controlling dental cavities and gum disease, creating scaffolds and membranes for regeneration, producing oral dentures and related materials, and developing oral drug delivery systems. Chapter 9 describes pharmaceutical applications including drug delivery agents, imaging agents, viscosity enhancers, gelling agents, and polymeric matrices in films. These polymers may be natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic. Following that, Chapter 10 covers the use of various polymers and explains why they are favored over traditional approaches in a range of ocular medicine delivery methods.
Chapter 11 discusses the use of polymers in dentistry and the latest advancements in the field. Next, Chapter 12 examines the properties of natural, synthetic, and semi-synthetic polymers relevant to their application in cosmetics. Chapter 13 explores future developments in herbal medicine delivery technologies, which could enhance efficacy and address some of the challenges associated with these treatments. Up next, Chapter 14 discusses the significant impact of food polymers on food processing, shelf life, functional properties, and structure, whereas Chapter 15 explores the extensive application of natural polymers in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, noting that their use in pharmacy surpasses that of synthetic polymers.
Chapter 16 delves into the transition from controlled laboratory gene delivery to gene delivery within living organisms, highlighting the challenges that must be addressed for successful gene transfer in vivo. Next, Chapter 17 covers synthetic methods for producing synthetic and semi-synthetic polymers, along with examples of their medical applications.
Chapter 18 provides a detailed explanation of novel semiconducting polymers, discussing their advantages and limitations, with an emphasis on potential future applications, while Chapter 19 summarizes the latest developments in the application of nanostructured materials for tissue engineering and drug delivery in a clear and concise manner. Finally, Chapter 20 discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using biopolymers in drug delivery systems, the challenges and opportunities in optimizing delivery through polymer-derived materials, and the host’s biological and metabolic characteristics that could lead to novel applications.
We are grateful to the contributing authors for their dedication and expertise, and we extend our thanks to the reviewers who have provided invaluable feedback throughout the preparation of this volume. Finally, we thank Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their support and publication.
1Overview and Introduction of Polymers Used in Pharmaceuticals
Nikhil Rajnani1*, Nalini Kurup1, Nikita Rajnani2 and Selvakumar Sambandan2
1Department of Pharmaceutics, Principal K. M. Kundnani College of Pharmacy, Cuffe Parade, Mumbai, India
2Department of Pharmacovigilance, Cognizant Technology Solutions, Navi Mumbai, India
Abstract
Polymers are very important in the process of making pharmaceutical goods. When it comes to chemicals, polymers are known for being big and heavy. Polymers are made up of many smaller parts called monomers. These monomers are linked together by covalent bonds or other chemical reactions. When several monomer units are joined together to make a long chain polymer, this is called polymerization. Polymer nanoparticles (PNPs) are made using physical methods or direct nanosynthesis. They are then polymerized in microor nanoemulsions with nanoreactor sections. Polymers from both natural and man-made sources are used a lot in the medicinal and biomedical fields, and their use is growing quickly. Polymers are used a lot in the pharmacy business today to control how drugs are released. We will talk about this subject in more detail in the parts that follow. Other applications of polymers are packaging materials, medical equipment, and packaging aids for pharmaceuticals, such as coating agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, adjuvants, adhesives, etc. This chapter’s goal is to offer a comprehensive overview of the classification of polymers, characterization, and many applications for pharmaceutical polymers in solid oral dosage forms. The several kinds of polymeric excipients are discussed, and their unique functions in oral medication administration are highlighted. This chapter may help scientists rationally use polymeric excipients, taking full advantage of their many properties and potential effects on drug delivery.
Keywords: Polymers, nanospheres, nanocapsules, polymerization, monomer
1.1 Introduction
The quest to produce pharmaceuticals that are effective and reasonably priced presents pharmaceutical businesses with ongoing difficulties in adapting and creating new and efficient production procedures. Pharmaceutical firms are continuously seeking methods to increase their efficiency and cost-effectiveness due to the fast-growing global competition [1]. In the past few years, there has been a lot of interest in making new plastics and changing their qualities to make them more useful in biology and medicine [2]. The Greek words “poly” (meaning many) and “meros” (meaning pieces) are where the word “polymer” comes from. Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller molecules known as monomers. A “polymer” is a material that is made up of many different parts. A polymer is made up of many monomers that are grouped in a certain way and are repeated [3]. Molecular weights (MWs), shapes, levels of crystallinity, polymerization, and architectures are just a few of the physical and chemical characteristics that can vary between polymers. Because these traits can be changed, especially in controlled release delivery systems, it might be possible to solve problems with drug formulation [4]. Polymers are very important in the process of making pharmacological dosage formulas. It is recognized that the physic-chemical characteristics of the polymers employed in the formulation have a crucial role in the clinical effectiveness of pharmaceutical formulations, such as oral dosage forms, implants, transdermal patches, and dispersion systems [5].
1.1.1 History of Polymer
Since ancient times, humans have used oils, resins, gums, tars, and other polymer-based materials to benefit from polymers’ versatility. However, natural polymers have been employed in medicine for many centuries [6].
1.2 Classification of Polymers
Polymer can be classified based on origin and based on bio-stability (Figure 1.1) [8].
Figure 1.1 General classification of polymer.
1.2.1 Sources
Natural Polymer: Also known as biopolymers, natural polymers are polymers that naturally arise in the environment, e.g., glycogen, acacia, gelatin, agar and chitosan, proteins, albumin, keratin, carbohydrates, glycogen, starch, and cellulose [8].
Synthetic Polymers: A synthetic polymer is a polymer that has been created in a lab. These are also referred to as synthetic polymers, e.g., polyanhydrides, polyamides, and polyesters [8].
Semi-Synthetic Polymer: These are naturally occurring polymers that have undergone chemical modification, such as cellulose, cellulose nitrate, methylcellulose, hydrogenated rubber, and natural rubber [8].
1.2.2 Bio-Stability
Biodegradable: A polymer that can be broken down by naturally occurring microorganisms like bacteria and fungus is said to be biodegradable. Because they transform into physiologically inert and compatible molecules when degraded in the body, biodegradable polymers are extremely desired in their current state. Examples are polyester, proteins, and carbohydrates [9].
Non-Biodegradable: To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of a medicine, these polymers are utilized in pharmaceutical formulation. These days, these polymers are utilized in tissue engineering and medication delivery systems [9]. These substances are inert, and they completely disappear from the application location. Examples: ethyl cellulose, hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPMC), and acrylic polymers [10].
1.2.3 Polymerization
Addition Polymer: They are made from monomers linked to vinyl, olefin, and diolefin. These polymers are created by adding monomeric molecules to one another quickly and repeatedly via a chain mechanism. These polymers include polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene [9].
Condensation Polymer: They are created by an intermolecular interaction involving reactive monomeric molecules with bifunctional and multifunctional functional groups, like –COOH, -NCO, -OH, and -NH2 [9].
1.2.4 Interaction with Water
Hydrogels: When placed in water, they swell but do not break down. Example: polyvinylpyrrolidone [8].
Soluble polymer: These uncross-linked polymers with a modest MW dissolve in water. Example: propylene glycol (PEG), and hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPMC) [8].
1.3 Ideal Characteristics of Polymer
It must be environmentally friendly and inert [
11
].
It should be biologically inert and non-toxic [
11
].
It ought to be simple to manage [
11
].
It must also be affordable and simple to make [
11
].
It ought to be mechanically strong [
11
].
It must be compatible with the majority of medications [
11
].
It must not have a negative impact on the drug’s rate of release [
11
].
It must not have a propensity to accumulate in the tissue and be made of a good biodegradable substance [
11
].
1.4 Characterization of Polymer
Typically, the MW, content, and thermal characteristics of polymers used in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications are determined. The attributes of the finished gadget or medication may be influenced by all of these aspects [
11
,
12
].
The main purposes of the characterization approach are to ascertain the molecular mass, molecular structure, morphology, and mechanical characteristics of a substance (
Table 1.1
) [
11
,
12
].
Table 1.1 Polymer science progress.
Sr. no.
Year
Description
1.
1833
In reality, several altered natural polymers have been marketed. For instance, nitrated cellulose was labeled as celluloid and Guncotton [
7
].
2.
1839
Styrene polymerization was reported [
7
].
3.
1845
Guncotton was the first semi-artificial polymer ever created (cellulose nitrate). Due to this polymer’s low solubility, processability, and explosivity, the production process has altered throughout time [
7
].
4.
1872
On the basis of phenol and formaldehyde, the synthetic polymer known as bakelite was created. In the car and electronics sectors, polycondensation-based polymeric goods, including Bakelite and those made of epoxy, phenoxy, ketones resins, and acrylic, were employed as in-expensive replacement for various parts [
7
].
1.5 Applications of Polymers in Drug Delivery System
Numerous polymers may be created with desired features for particular applications, especially in the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries (Figure 1.2), thanks to the accessibility of polymeric materials as well as the capacity to modify their varied chemical, physical, or biological properties. This section will include a quick discussion of the most prevalent uses [2].
Figure 1.2 General application of polymer in pharmaceutical industry.
1.5.1 Tablets
The most popular dosage form for pharmacological products intended for oral administration is the tablet. The formulation’s structure and ingredients can be changed to regulate the release of the medicine from the tablet. The majority of the polymeric diluents used in tablet manufacturing are natural substances including pregelatinized starch, alginates, maltodextrin, microcrystalline cellulose, and alginates. Methacrylic acid copolymers (polymethacrylates) are some of the synthetic polymers used as fillers [16]. The polymer is utilized in tablets as a diluent, disintegrant, and binder. Disintegrants include things like starch, cellulose, alginates, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and sodium CMC. Binders: glucose, HPMC, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose, and cellulose derivatives. Additionally, polymers are used to coat tablets with an enteric coating and to cover up the drug’s bad taste, such as Shellac and zein [13]. Drug coatings are likely an evolution of early food preservation techniques. The taste of medications is covered up in solid dosage forms. The many coatings applied to solid dosage forms include enteric coating, film coating, color coating, and sugar coating. There are several processes in the sugar-coating process [21]. The fundamental processes in the sugar coating process are sealing, subcoating, syruping, finishing, and polishing. The natural polymer shellac works well as a sealer. Wax powders like beeswax or carnauba wax are used for polishing. The film coating technique was created to boost production because the sugar-coating process required a lot of time. For film coating, polymers such as cellulose acetate phthalate, sodium carboxy-methylcellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, propylene glycol, povidone, and polyethylene glycol are utilized as film formers [21]. For more than a century, pills and compressed tablets have been coated with an enteric coating. Enteric coatings can be used to deliver medicines that are meant to work locally in the digestive system. Not only do these coatings protect medicines that are sensitive to stomach acid from stomach acid but also they also lessen the stomach pain and sickness that medicines can cause. Polymers like acrylate and phthalate are examples of this [21].
1.5.2 Capsules
Gelatin is often the main component in capsules. Gelatin comes in two varieties: hard gelatin and soft gelatin. This is because the composition of gelatin varies. To increase the volume of the capsule, fillers such as microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and starches are employed. A mixture of several polymers, including starch and sodium starch glycolate, is added to the capsule container to combat the problem of aggregation [14]. The pills have a flexible gelatin shell that holds the drug and the right kind of dispersion medium inside. Polymers inside the tablet act as a plasticizer, controlling how strong and flexible the gelatin is. Various types of polymers are used to modulate the medication release rate from capsules [15].
1.5.3 Disperse Systems
To make a fluid thicker, polymers are used as suspending agents in suspensions. Half-man-made polymers include methylcellulose, hydroxy ethylcellulose, and carboxy ethylcellulose (CMC), while the other half are natural and include tragacanth, acacia gum, guar gum, bean gum, xanthan gum, carrageenan, MCC, and powdered cellulose [17]. It is a cross-linked polymer called carbomer that is used to increase viscosity by holding and absorbing water molecules when they are neutralized. Different kinds of medicines use different kinds of carbomers. Polymers like PEMULEN TR-1, Carbopol 934, Carbopol 971P, and Carbopol 974P are often used in dispersed systems [18].
1.5.4 Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems
The API is mostly integrated into a polymeric matrix and is found in relatively high concentrations in transdermal drug delivery systems. This sort of drug delivery system’s polymers should enable optimal drug diffusion and release. Large amounts of the active ingredient should be able to be incorporated into polymers, which should also be stable, nontoxic, affordable, and simple to produce [19]. This is called a matrix system, and the plastic matrix holds the drug in place and controls how it is released. The polymeric core is not present in a reservoir system, which makes for a controlled release mechanism. Instead, there is a membrane that controls the amount of flow between the adhesive layer and the polymer matrix [20].
Rosin, a renewable polymer, is made from pine trees. Rosin can be used to make films, which makes it a good material for making drug delivery systems based on film technology, even though it is harmful to the skin when put there. However, polymerized rosin is not harmful to the skin. A study was done to find a way to give diltiazem hydrochloride through the skin. Rosin, polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), and dibutyl phthalate were mixed together to make the system’s polymeric framework. In the end, the product was smooth, bendable films with a higher elongation percentage and higher tensile strength. Animal tests showed that these patches worked well in terms of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics [4].
1.5.5 Controlled Drug Delivery Systems
Pharmaceutical polymers are very important to the creation of these devices. It is mostly made up of hydrophilic polymers, like hypromellose and other cellulose ethers [21]. These are the drug transport systems that are controlled. The next part gives a short summary of the different types of controlled release drug delivery systems and how polymers work in them. This is because this type of drug delivery system is still very important [21].
The numerous controlled distribution methods are listed below.
Reservoir Systems:
In the first step of drug release from these devices, the drug gets into the polymeric covering. Due to the concentration difference, the drug moves from the inside to the outside of the coating or layer and into the biological medium next to it. Twenty-three. Polymers like acrylate copolymers, silicone, ethyl cellulose, and poly (ethylene vinyl acetate) are used.
Matrix Systems:
For matrix-designed drug delivery ways to work, the medicine has to be evenly spread out in a polymeric medium, either as solid particles or molecules. Putting together the matrix design drug delivery system is easier than putting together the reservoir system. Medicines are either dissolved or spread out in a plastic matrix in matrix drug delivery systems. As the drug diffuses through the polymeric matrix, the rate-regulating step starts. This is where the drug’s pharmacological effects start to take shape [21].
1.5.6 pH-Sensitive Drug Release
A special objective when creating dosage forms can be to ensure that the medicine is released at the locations where the potential for therapeutic effect is greatest. There are various pH levels throughout the digestive system, from neutrality in the colon to roughly one in the stomach [22]. It has been used for many years to target drug release within certain areas of the gastrointestinal system in order to increase stability in acidic fluids or lessen the irritating effects of some medications. Enteric polymers, such as cellulose acetate phthalate/butyrate, these polymers are insoluble in low pH settings, but they are soluble in the gastrointestinal tract’s less acidic sections [23].
The tablet and therefore the substance will dissolve when the enteric coating dissolves, making it easier for the patient to absorb the medication. Enteric polymers, which are also called pH-sensitive polymers, have been used to coat pills because the pH affects how well they dissolve. Polymers can’t break down in low pH conditions, but they can break down in less acidic conditions [24].
1.5.7 Ophthalmic Drug Delivery Systems
Polymers like methylcellulose, CMC, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and PVP are included in an aqueous medium in order to increase the ocular contact duration of solutions (HPC). Reduced solution drainage is a result of the higher solution viscosity. Methylcellulose was added to raise the pilocarpine solution’s viscosity from 1 to 100 cps, although this only led to a 2-fold rise in pilocarpine concentration in the aqueous humor and a 10-fold decrease in the rate at which the solution drained.
The Ocuserts drug reservoir is made up of two clear discs made of a microporous membrane made of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, with a thin disc holding a pilocarpine-alginate complex in the middle. The microporous membranes then make it possible for the pilocarpine molecules to be given at a steady rate of 20 or 40 mg/hr for one hour to seven days, which helps with treatment. These barriers make it possible for tear fluid to get into the drug reservoir and make it easier for pilocarpine molecules to break down [25, 26].
1.5.8 Mucosal Drug Delivery Systems
Buccal tablets: Even with large drug content, the use of cellulosic or acrylic polymers often provides virtually instantaneous, high adhesion performance for an extended length of time. A variety of polymers, such as cellulose derivatives (sodium CMC, methylcellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose,), natural gums (karaya gum, guar gum, and agarose), poly acrylates (poly (vinyl pyrrolidone), poly (acrylic acid), and gelatin, can be used to create laminated and hydrogel systems.
In the presence of water, these polymers display mucoadhesive characteristics. Patches made of poly (acrylic acid) have been used successfully to administer opiate analgesics. Chewing gum formulations typically start with a cellulosic or acrylic polymer gum basis. The polymer is combined with a medication and sugar. In general, the speed of drug release from the formulation is quick, although not as quick as it is with fast-dissolving tablets [27–29].
1.5.9 Novel Drug Delivery Systems
Dosage forms have changed from simple mixes and pills to novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), which are very advanced drug delivery systems. This is possible because science and technology have advanced in many areas. NDDS have been developed a lot more since the early 1980s because they are better in many ways than standard dosage forms. The objective is to make medicines work better and create better therapeutic results. A lot of NDDS have been made since then, making up a big part of the world market [4, 21–32].
A) Nanoparticles
These nanoscale colloidal drug transport devices can now be used for more than one thing. They have all the qualities of liposomes except for problems with staying stable [33–35]. Drug transport and controlled release have been made easier by using the right polymeric nanoparticles and nanospheres. Most of the time, the FDA has let the safe polymer poly (L-lactide D-glycollic acid) be used. Other polymers, like chitosan, polyepsilon-caprolactone, and polyalkyl cyanoacrylates [36, 37], have also been used. Nanoparticles have been used as new ways to deliver drugs through many paths, such as intravenous injection, the cornea, the skin, the bronchioles, and the mouth [38–40].
B) Micro Particulate Drug Delivery Systems
Polymeric beads are used to encapsulate drugs in order to regulate release, mask flavor, guard against ambient moisture deterioration, and guarantee optimal distribution. T Although these multi-unit dose forms are mainly meant to be taken by mouth, they have been shown to work well when given parenterally and in other ways in clinical and business settings [41, 42]. Acid-sensitive polymer-coated systems, stomach flotation systems, hydrogel systems, water-swellable systems, mucoadhesive systems, microporous membranes, and colon-specific delivery systems are just a few of the ways that rates can be controlled. Numerous medications, including chemotherapeutic agents, antipsychotics, antibiotics, and cardiovascular therapies, have had their release and other characteristics altered [43]. A variety of polymers, such as natural polymers, acrylic polymers, cellulose derivatives, chitosan, and biodegradable polymers, are shortlisted based on the requirements of a specific microparticle carrier system [44].
C) Liposomes/Niosomes
These are unior multilamellar phospholipid vesicles made up of aqueous zones sandwiched by phospholipid membranes in concentric spherical layers [45]. Depending on their solubility, hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs can be encapsulated in liposomes. They are frequently referred to as “artificial cells” since, practically speaking, they are quite similar to cells. They show tremendous potential for delivering both anti-fungal and anti-tumor therapies. Drugs like doxorubicin, daunorubicin, and amphotericin B have been safely put on the market in liposomes [22, 46–48].
1.6 Conclusions
Scientists all over the world are trying to find ways to change the drugs’ polymeric systems, formulation methods, and other parts so that they work better as medicines. Utilizing polymers that were specifically created to address the issues allowed for the elimination of the limitations of the conventional dosage forms. The usage of new polymers has advantages, but they can also be dangerous due to their toxicity and a few other incompatibilities. When choosing polymers for a distribution system, proper consideration should be taken. The establishment of biocompatible, multifunctional, less toxic polymers and affordable delivery technologies is a crucial objective.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge and thank Department of Pharmaceutics, Principal K. M. Kundnani College of Pharmacy, Cuffe Parade Mumbai, India, for their support.
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Note
*
Corresponding author
:
2Biopolymers as Potential Carriers in the Novel Drug Delivery System
Madhuri D. Deshmukh1, Eknath D. Ahire1*, Moreshwar P. Patil1, Prasad Rayte1, Sheetal Gosavi1, Shruti S. Moarnkar2 and Amit Kumar Rajora3
1Department of Pharmaceutics, MET, Institute of Pharmacy, BKC, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Adgoan, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
2Department of Pharm D, MET Institute of Pharmacy, BKC, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Adgoan, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
3NanoBiotechnology Lab, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Abstract
Biopolymers are polyesters made from biomass that break down naturally when exposed to heat, water, and germs. Biopolymers can be made from waste starch that comes from food crops. Biopolymers are made up of sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides, which are monomeric groups. These include chitin, proteins, peptides, DNA, and RNA, as well as cellulose, starch, and DNA. There are a lot of different kinds of biopolymers and their products, and life depends on them. They are interesting in many ways and are becoming important for many uses. Many different types of polymers can be made by living things. It is made up of proteins, polysaccharides like cellulose, starch, and xanthan, and other things like chitosan, alginate, and carrageenan. There are also organic polyoxoesters like chopping, poly(hydroxyalkanoic acids), and poly(malic acid). Using more bio-polymers will make us less reliant on fossil fuels because they naturally break down, which is what makes them different from manmade polymers. Biopolymers are chemical compounds that come from living things. They are different types of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and polysaccharides. DNA biopolymers are very important to both people and the world. Biopolymers come from a lot of different sources, such as sugar, starch, cellulose, and man-made materials. A lot of different methods are used to describe biopolymers.
Keywords: Biopolymers, SEM, TGA, FTIR, natural
2.1 Introduction
Every year, about 140 million tons of synthetic plastics are made around the world. Polymers are very strong and can go through an endless number of degradation cycles. This is an important problem that has been brought up. Plastics and polymers are important parts of our daily lives. However, because they are stable and do not break down easily, these chemicals are building up in landfills at a rate of about 8% per year in terms of weight and 20% per year in terms of volume [1]. A polymer is a “giant” structure made up of separate building blocks that are linked together to form long chains. Monomers are simple building blocks, but repeat units are more complicated structural parts. Since this is the case, they are often called natural polymers. They go through complex biological processes that cause their cells to grow. Starch and cellulose are two of the most interesting chemicals that can be used for many things [2], is the user’s text. Biodegradable polymers are becoming more and more important, and current studies are focusing on making new kinds of biodegradable polymers. Different types of biodegradable polymers are either naturally found in living things or have been made in a lab [3]. Several types of biodegradable plastics have been suggested, taking into account the progress made in making them.
2.2 Classification
Biopolymers are categorized based on three factors: type, origin, and the composition of monomeric units (Figure 2.1).
A) Classification of Monomers on the Basis of the Type (Figure 2.2):
Sugar-based biopolymer,
Starch-based biopolymer,
Cellulose-based biopolymer, and
Lignin biopolymer.
1) Sugar-Based Biopolymer:
Source ingredients like sugar or starch are used to make polyhydroxybutyrate. They can be made by blowing, extruding, injecting, or forming them in a vacuum. Lactose is a type of milk sugar that can be found in potatoes, wheat, and sugar beets. It is used to make polyactides, which are also called lactic acid polymers. It is possible to make polyactides, which are waterresistant plastics, by blowing, injection molding, or vacuum forming [4].
Figure 2.1 Classification of biopolymers.
Figure 2.2 Type-based monomer classification.
2) Starch-Based Biopolymer:
Starch is a naturally occurring polymer that can be found in potatoes, maize, and wheat. Carbohydrates are stored in plant cells in a single way. The process of melting starch makes it, and it is made up of glucose. Animal cells do not have this polymer. Foods that are high in it are potatoes, corn, wheat, and tapioca. Dextrans are a type of small sugars that are made with enzymes from Enterococcus faecalis Esawy dextrasucrase that has been immobilized. Biopolymer carriers are used to break down starch in this process [5, 6].
3) Cellulose-Based Biopolymers:
These are used to package things like candy, cigarette dependence scale (CDs), and tobacco. This polymer, which is mostly made up of glucose, gives plant cellulose walls their strength. Normal things like cotton, wood, wheat, and corn are where it comes from [7].
2.2.1 Biodegradable Natural Polymers
4) Lignin Biopolymer:
Lignin is a big biopolymer that does not come from carbohydrates. A big biopolymer found in wood is lignin, which is made up of aromatic molecules.
About 30% of the things that make up wood are lignin, which comes from sustainable sources like grasses, trees, and plants [8]. There are many situations where lignin is useful and not dangerous. Every year, more than 30 million tons of lignin are made around the world as a waste product from pulping. However, it is important to note that the above number is only a rough estimate because there is not enough accurate information on how much lignin is made. In the end, it is often burned right away after being made as a source of energy. Lignin is bought as waste from the bio-ethanol industry so that it can be used in business. Lignin’s higherorder structure is naturally flexible and is made up of phenyl propane units. This method uses radicals to make lignin. It links the three main lignin structures—4-hydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl, and syringyl—to make a three-dimensional lignin polymer [9].
Figure 2.3 Origin-based monomer classification.
B) Monomer Classification by Origin
Natural Biopolymers:
These biopolymers are made naturally by living things through a process called biosynthesis.
Synthetic Biopolymers:
Polymers like polylactic acid (PLA) are made up of parts that break down naturally and can be used again and again. Among these are copolyesters made from aliphatic and aromatic chemicals found in petroleum.
Microbial Biopolymers:
Microorganisms make biopolymers. Figure 2.3 shows the evidence of origin based classification of monomers.
C) Monomer Classification Based on Repeated Units
