Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Key information on plant-based chemical and pharmacology research, from basics and principles through recent technological advances
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry provides an overview of the basics of pharmacognosy and phytochemistry from early principles through contemporary advances like molecular pharmacognosy. The book covers the classification of crude drugs, complementary and alternative medical (CAM) systems, adulteration and evaluation of drugs, extraction methods of plant drugs, and ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology.
The book also reviews the historical overview, therapeutic application, cultural and ecological dimensions of plant-based medicines. Other key chapters discuss biotechnology and clinical pharmacognosy.
Written by a group of expert contributors, Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry reviews sample topics including:
- Methodologies for extracting bioactive compounds and techniques to perform qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis
- Therapeutic potential of plant secondary metabolites and the processes of isolation, purification, and characterization of herbal drugs
- Biological screening methods and biosynthetic pathways of phytopharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical aids, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, pesticides, and allergens
- Comparative phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, and the emerging field of marine pharmacognosy
Combining traditional knowledge with modern advancements to provide a holistic understanding of two important fields, Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry serves as an excellent resource for students, researchers, and practitioners.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
1.1 Introduction to Pharmacognosy
1.2 Historical Development of Pharmacognosy
1.3 Development of Pharmacognosy in the Modern Era
1.4 The Relevance of Pharmacognosy in Pharmacological Research on Herbal Medicinal Products
1.5 Taxonomy and Botanical Authenticity
1.6 Phytochemistry – An Expanded Role in Traditional Medicine (History and Progress in Drug Discovery)
1.7 Recent Progress in Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
1.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Classification of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Botanical Classification
2.3 Morphological Classification
2.4 Chemical Classification
2.5 Pharmacological Classification
2.6 Taxonomical Classification
2.7 Chemotaxonomical Classification
2.8 Geographical Classification
2.9 Traditional and Cultural Classification
2.10 Modern Analytical Techniques in Classification
2.11 Challenges in Classification
2.12 Future Perspectives
2.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Folk Medicine as a Source of Therapeutically Important Drugs: Evidence from Ethnobotanical Investigations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Traditional Medical Systems
3.3 Importance of Ethnobotanical Research in Drug Discovery
3.4 Biological Activity of Medicinal Plants
3.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Complementary and Alternative Medicinal Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ayurveda System
4.3 Unani System
4.4 Siddha System
4.5 Homeopathy System
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation of Plant Drugs
5.1 History
5.2 Cultivation
5.3 Factors Affecting Cultivation
5.4 Good Agricultural Practice
5.5 Good Collection Practices for Medicinal Plants
5.6 Processing of Medicinal Plants
5.7 Storage and Packaging
5.8 Sample Record for Cultivated Medicinal Plants
5.9 Voluntary Certification Scheme for Medicinal Plant Produce in Indian Scenario
References
Chapter 6: Adulteration and Evaluation of Crude Drugs of Natural Origin
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Adulteration of Herbal Drugs
6.3 Types of Adulteration
6.4 Adulteration in Medicinal Plants
6.5 Methods of Detection of Adulterants and Evaluation of Medicinal Herbs
6.6 Analytical Techniques in the Detection and Evaluation of Adulterants
6.7 Challenges in Detection of Adulterants
6.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 7: Methods of Extraction
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ideal Properties of Solvent
7.3 Solvents for Extraction
7.4 Factor Affecting Extraction Methods
7.5 Mechanism of Extraction
7.6 Methods of Extraction
References
Chapter 8: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Phytochemical Analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Phytochemical Screening Through Chemical Test
8.3 Quantitative Methods of Phytochemical Analysis
8.4 Analytical Techniques In Phytochemical Analysis
8.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Modern Analytical Techniques for Quality Control and Chemical Identification of Phytochemicals
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chromatographic Techniques
9.3 Spectroscopic Techniques
9.4 Mass Spectrometry
9.5 Hyphenated Techniques
9.6 Chemometric Tools and Data Analysis
9.7 Advanced Technologies
9.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives
9.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Classification and Therapeutic Applications of Plant Secondary Metabolites
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification of PSMs
10.3 Biosynthetic Pathways
10.4 Environmental Factors Affecting PSMs
10.5 Genetic Factors Affecting PSMs
10.6 Role of Enzymes in Plant Secondary Metabolite Production
10.7 PSMs Therapeutic Applications
10.8 Safety and Toxicity Considerations
10.9 Standardization of Herbal Medicine Using PSMs
10.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Isolation, Fractionation, and Purification of Natural Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Extraction
11.3 Extraction Methods/Technique
11.4 Fractionation Techniques
11.5 Purification
References
Chapter 12: Pharmacological Screening of Drugs from Natural Sources
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Pharmacological Approaches
12.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Biosynthetic Pathways of Phytopharmaceuticals
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Introduction to Primary and Secondary Metabolites
13.3 General Metabolic/Synthetic Pathway Which Shows from CO2 to Different Primary and Secondary Metabolite Formation
13.4 Enzymes
13.5 Role of Enzymes in Biosynthetic Pathways
13.6 Other Structural Modifications
13.7 Shikimic Acid Pathway for Biosynthesis of Aromatic Amino Acids
13.8 Acetate Mevalonate Pathway for Biosynthesis of Terpenes
13.9 Biosynthesis of Aliphatic Amino Acids
13.10 Acetate Mevalonate Pathways for Biosynthesis of Fatty Acyl-CoA
References
Chapter 14: Pharmaceutical Aids of Natural Origin
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Some Industrially Important Pharmaceutical Aids
14.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Nutraceuticals
15.3 Cosmeceuticals
15.4 Synergies Between Nutraceuticals and Cosmeceuticals
15.5 Regulatory Considerations
15.6 Future Trends and Innovations
15.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Pesticides and Allergens
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Natural Pesticide/Biopesticides and Natural Anti-Allergens: Source, Bioactive Substances and Applications
16.3 Pharmacological Mechanism and Toxicity Profile of Some Common Natural Pesticides and Anti-allergens
16.4 Global Market Surveillance of Biopesticides and Anti-allergens
16.5 Commercial Production and Formulations of Natural Pesticides and Anti-allergens
16.6 Regulatory Aspects for Quality Control of Pesticides and Anti-allergens
16.7 Future Prospects and Opportunities
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
Funding
References
Chapter 17: Comparative Phytochemistry and Chemotaxonomy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Chemotaxonomy
17.3 Chemical Markers in Chemotaxonomy
17.4 Methods in Chemotaxonomy
17.5 Phytochemical Approach in Chemotaxonomy
17.6 Limitations of Chemotaxonomy
17.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Medicinal Plant Biotechnology
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Plant Tissue Culture
18.3 Genetic Engineering (Recombinant DNA Technology)
18.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Marine Pharmacognosy
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Marine Ecosystems and Biodiversity
19.3 Bioactive Compounds from Marine Microorganisms
19.4 Marine Algae and Their Medicinal Potential
19.5 Marine Invertebrates and Its Bioactive
19.6 Extraction Process and Characterization Techniques
19.7 Pharmacological Activities of Marine-derived Compounds
19.8 Preclinical and Clinical Studies of Marine Microorganisms
19.9 Marketed Marine Drug Product
19.10 Future Prospects
19.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Molecular Pharmacognosy
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Molecular Biology Techniques in Pharmacognosy
20.3 Molecular Genetics and Genomics of Medicinal Plants
20.4 PTC of Medicinal Plants
20.5 Molecular Biosynthesis and Metabolomics of Medicinal Plants
20.6 Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology of Medicinal Plants
20.7 Mechanism of Action, Efficacy, and Toxicity of Plant-derived Drugs
20.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 21: Clinical Pharmacognosy
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Pharmacognosy
21.3 Clinical Pharmacognosy
21.4 Clinical Studies on Botanicals and Dietary Supplements
21.5 Clinical Pharmacokinetics
21.6 Phytoequivalence
21.7 Future Prospects of Clinical Pharmacognosy
21.8 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Vegetative morphology (leaf): (a) leaf structure, (b) leaf shapes; 1...
Figure 1.2 Reproductive morphology: (a) flower structure, (b) type of infloresc...
Figure 1.3 Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering of th...
Figure 1.4 HPLC analysis of ginseng (
Panax quinquefolius
L.) samples. (a) Chemi...
Figure 1.5 The total absorbance chromatograms and total ion chromatograms of hy...
Figure 1.6 Detection of adultery of Chinese star anise (
Illicium anisatum
) with...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Analytical atomic absorption spectrometry.
Figure 2.2 Analytical inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Types of adulteration.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Descending polarities of different solvents used in the extraction o...
Figure 7.2 Schematic presentation of solvent and phytochemical interactions dur...
Figure 7.3 Packing of the drug in the typical conical percolator.
Figure 7.4 Schematic presentation of multiple percolation.
Figure 7.5 Schematic diagram of soxhlation (hot continuous percolation).
Figure 7.6 Distillation process I) hydrodistillation, II) hydrosteam distillati...
Figure 7.7 Expression technique of extraction of volatile oil.
Figure 7.8 Schematic representation of ecuelle extraction.
Figure 7.9 Schematic representation enfleurage.
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of hot maceration for extraction of essenti...
Figure 7.11 Schematic representation of pneumatic extraction of essential oil.
Figure 7.12 Schematic presentation of phytonic process.
Figure 7.13 Schematic presentation of pressurized liquid extraction [24].
Figure 7.14 Schematic presentation of pulse electric extraction.
Figure 7.15 Mechanism of formation of cavitation and bursting of bubbles in UAE....
Figure 7.16 Schematic presentation of direct sonicator and indirect sonicator.
Figure 7.17 Single-mode (A) and multimode (B) MAE apparatus.
Figure 7.18 Phase diagram of carbon dioxide showing the triple point and critica...
Figure 7.19 Schematic presentation of SFE assembly.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Qualitative analysis of herbal drugs.
Figure 8.2 Quantitative analysis of herbal drugs.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Yearly number of publications on the topic of phytochemical analysis...
Figure 9.2 HPLC chromatograms of (a) Withaferin-A standard and (b) formulation ...
Figure 9.3 Densitograms for kernels (a) chloroform extract and (b) methanol ext...
Figure 9.4 UV visible spectrum of
Mentha spicata
extract (in methanol).
Figure 9.5 FTIR spectrum of
Grewia tilifolia
leaf (methanolic extract).
Figure 9.6 1H NMR spectrum of Garcinia gummi-gutta.
Figure 9.7 GC-MS chromatogram of C. colocynthis (L.) dichloromethanolic seeds o...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of some important PSMs referrin...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Herbal drugs used in various disorders.
Figure 12.2 Steps in the evaluation of the biological activity of plant chemical...
Figure 12.3 Development of hypertension following a high fructose diet.
Figure 12.4 Normal ECG of the rat.
Figure 12.5 Letrozole-induced PCOS.
Figure 12.6 NMU-induced breast cancer.
Figure 12.7 Hot plate test for analgesic activity.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Shikimic acid pathway.
Figure 13.2 Biosynthesis of aromatic amino acid by shikimic acid pathway.
Figure 13.3 Isoprenoid biosynthesis.
Figure 13.4 Amino acid pathway.
Figure 13.5 Mevalonic acid pathway.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Classification of Natural Pharmaceutical aids.
Figure 14.2 Chemical structure of Acacia gum.
Figure 14.3 Main chemical components of agar-agar.
Figure 14.4 The molecular composition of the sodium salt of alginic acid.
Figure 14.5 Basic structure of anthocyanin.
Figure 14.6 Chemical structure of cellulose.
Figure 14.7 Chemical structure of chitosan.
Figure 14.8 Chemical structure of carminic acid.
Figure 14.9 Structure of curcumin.
Figure 14.10 Chemical structure of gellan gum.
Figure 14.11 Chemical structure of guar gum.
Figure 14.12 Chemical structure and sugars of tragacanth gum.
Figure 14.13 Chemical structure of pectin.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Global representation of the market value of both biopesticides and ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Overview of tissue culture process.
Figure 18.2 Layout of tissue culture laboratory.
Figure 18.3 Direct organogenesis.
Figure 18.4 Indirect organogenesis.
Figure 18.5 General process of plant tissue culture.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Cyanobacteria as
Cyanobacterium
[40].
Figure 19.2 Marine macroalgae; red seaweeds (left) and brown marine algae (right) [46].
Figure 19.3 Phylum porifera, sponges (left), and animalia (right) [73].
Figure 19.4 Molluscs: snail [73].
Figure 19.5 Echinoderms: Starfish (left) and sea cucumber (right) [79].
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Molecular markers, barcodes, and databases for molecular identificat...
Figure 20.2 Flowchart illustrating the importance of metabolomics in studying he...
Figure 20.3 Schematic illustration of a MS-based plant metabolomics study, which...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Allergen extracts production and quality control process.
Figure 21.2 Process for the development, production, and evaluation of reproduci...
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 The hierarchy of taxonomic ranks. Example shows the classification o...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Classes of major/active chemicals in crude drugs.
Table 2.2 Chemical classification of alkaloids.
Table 2.3 Chemical classes and their notable therapeutic potential.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Subdisciplines of ethnobotany.
Table 3.2 The most common ethnomedicinal plants used in folk practices evident...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Functional and structural components.
Table 4.2 Element and humor quality as per Unani system.
Table 4.3 Basic principles of the Siddha system.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Types of soil based on particle size and soil content.
Table 5.2 Medicinal plants with specific altitude and temperature.
Table 5.3 Examples of plant parts and harvesting timing.
Table 5.4 An overview of the growing conditions for plants. Year
Table 5.5 Permissible Levels of Contaminants Under GAP And GFCP
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 DNA markers commonly used in plant identification
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Region-wise distribution of endemic species.
Table 7.2 Commonly used solvents for extraction of different phytochemicals [6...
Table 7.3 List of solvents and gases with their critical temperature and criti...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Phytochemical screening for identification of various chemical const...
Table 8.2 Analytical techniques in the phytochemical analysis of herbal drugs.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of phytoconstituents...
Table 9.2 HPTLC: a modern analytical tool for the estimation of phytoconstitue...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 List of different fractionation methods used for the separation of p...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Use of some natural pharmaceutical aids in various formulations.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Three categories of cosmeceuticals.
Table 15.2 List of cosmeceutical ingredients [20].
Table 15.3 List of plants with antioxidant potentials as well as anti-wrinkling...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 List of medicinal plants with their bioactive components used as bio...
Table 16.2 List of plants with their bioactive components used as anti-allergen...
Table 16.3 Commercial production and formulations of natural pesticides and ant...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Major tissue culture-related discoveries.
Table 18.2 Examples of biotransformation reactions of plant cell and organ cult...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Bioactive compounds from marine microorganisms.
Table 19.2 Bioactive compounds from marine algae
Table 19.3 Bioactive compounds from marine invertebrates
Table 19.4 The marine pharmaceuticals available in the market
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Techniques used to identify, authenticate, and characterize medicina...
Table 20.2 Case studies of medicinal plant genomics
Table 20.3 The applications and benefits of metabolomics in medicinal plant res...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Herbs and drug interaction.
Table 21.2 Quality control techniques with advantages and disadvantages for all...
Table 21.3 Diagnostic and therapeutic allergen extracts registered in the USA, ...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Principles, Techniques, and Clinical Applications
Edited by
Uchenna E. Odoh
University of Nigeria
Nsukka
Nigeria
Shailendra S. Gurav
Goa University
Goa
India
Michael O. Chukwuma
University of Nigeria
Nsukka
Nigeria
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Odoh, Uchenna E., editor. | Gurav, Shailendra S., editor. | Onyegbulam, Chukwuma M., editor.
Title: Pharmacognosy and phytochemistry / [edited by] Uchenna E. Odoh, University of Nigeria, Shailendra S. Gurav, Goa University, Chukwuma M. Onyegbulam, University of Nigeria.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2025] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2024046668 | ISBN 9781394203659 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394203673 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394203666 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Materia medica, Vegetable. | Botanical chemistry.
Classification: LCC RS164 .P495 2025 | DDC 615.3/21–dc23/eng/20250107
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024046668
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © ARTFULLY PHOTOGRAPHER/Shutterstock
List of Contributors
Rahima Amjad
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
The University of Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Moses Sam Arul Raj
Department of Botany
A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous)
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
India
Sandip T. Auti
Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (Deemed to be University)
Mumbai, Maharashtra
India
Muniappan Ayyanar
Department of Botany
A. V. V. M. Sri Pushpam College (Affiliated to Bharathidasan University)
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
India
Piyush S. Bafna
Department of Pharmacology
H. R. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Vishal S. Bagul
Department of Pharmacognosy
H. R. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Akshay M. Baheti
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Health Sciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Nayana S. Baste
Department of Pharmacognosy
SNJB’s Shriman Sureshdada Jain College of Pharmacy
Nashik, Maharashtra
India
Vishal Beldar
Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS) Deemed-to-be-University
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Bedanta Bhattacharjee
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Girijananda Chowdhury University, Tezpur Campus
Tezpur, Assam
India
Manisha M. Bihani
Department of Pharmacognosy
Krupanidhi College of Pharmacy
Bengaluru, Karnataka
India
Gajendra Choudhary
School of Pharmacy
Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
India
Poonam Nilesh Chougule
Ashokrao Mane College of Pharmacy
Peth-Vadgaon, Maharashtra
India
Ashwini Deshpande
SVKM’s NMIMS School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
Shahira M. Ezzat
Department of Pharmacognosy
Faculty of Pharmacy
Cairo University
Cairo
Egypt
Mai M. Farid
Department of Phytochemistry and Plant Systematics
National Research Centre
Giza
Egypt
Jineetkumar B. Gawad
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
VIVA Institute of Pharmacy
Virar (E), Maharashtra
India
Shatabdi Ghose
Department of Pharmacology
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Girijananda Chowdhury University, Guwahati Campus
Guwahati, Assam
India
Shailendra Gurav
Department of Pharmacognosy
Goa College of Pharmacy
Panaji, Goa
India
Nilambari Gurav
Department of Pharmacognosy
P.E.S’s Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar College of Pharmacy
Ponda, Goa
India
Muhammad Saad Hashmi
Institute of Food Science and Nutrition
Bahauddin Zakariya University
Multan
Pakistan
Uzma Javaid
Department of Anatomy
Sargodha Medical College
Sargodha
Pakistan
Amna Javed
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
The University of Faisalabad
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Jayesh D. Kadam
Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS) (Deemed to be University)
Mumbai, Maharashtra
India
Mohan Kalaskar
Department of Pharmacognosy
R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Rakhi Khabiya
Acropolis Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
India
Zamir G. Khan
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
H. R. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Yogesh A. Kulkarni
Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS) Deemed to be University
Mumbai, Maharashtra
India
Mamta Kumari
Department of Pharmacy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University
Vaodara, Gujarat
India
Damiki Laloo
Phytochemical Research Laboratory
Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Girijananda Chowdhury University, Guwahati Campus
Guwahati, Assam
India
Prathamesh A. Marne
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Health Sciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Mona M. Marzouk
Department of Phytochemistry and Plant Systematics
National Research Centre
Giza
Egypt
Rana M. Merghany
Department of Pharmacognosy
Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute
National Research Centre
Giza
Egypt
Manasi Mishra
Department of Biosciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Popat Mohite
AETs St. John Institute of Pharmacy and Research
Palghar, Maharashtra
India
Rakesh E. Mutha
Department of Pharmacognosy
H. R. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Mughisa Nagori
Mahakal Institute of Pharmaceutical Studies
Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
India
Charulata T. Nemade
Department of Pharmacognosy
SNJB’s Shriman Sureshdada Jain College of Pharmacy, Nashik, Maharashtra
India
Manasi R. Nimbalkar
Department of Kriya Sharir, Ashtang Ayurved Mahavidyalaya
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Ranjeet Nimbalkar
Anubandha Health Care
Comprehensive Cancer Care Clinic
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Adaeze Onugwu
University of Nigeria
Nsukka, Enugu State
Nigeria
Ghanshyam Parmar
Department of Pharmacy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University
Vaodara, Gujarat
India
Deepak M. Patil
Department of Quality Assurance
H. R. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Anil T. Pawar
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Health Sciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Abhijeet Puri
AETs St. John Institute of Pharmacy and Research
Palghar, Maharashtra
India
Devyani Rajput
Amity Institute of Pharmacy
Amity University (M.P.) 47005
Shilpa S. Raut
Department of Pharmaceutics
K.K. Wagh College of Pharmacy
Nashik, Maharashtra
India
Damanbhalang Rynjah
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Girijananda Chowdhury University, Tezpur Campus
Tezpur, Assam
India
Piyushkumar Sadhu
Department of Pharmacy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University
Vaodara, Gujarat
India
Rushikesh P. Said
Institute of Chemical Technology
Mumbai
Marathwada Campus
Jalna, Maharashtra
India
Kanchan Salgar
SVKM’s NMIMS School of Pharmacy & Technology Management
Hyderabad, Telangana
India
Niyati Shah
Department of Pharmacy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University
Vaodara, Gujarat
India
Sanjay J. Surana
Department of Pharmacognosy
R. C. Patel Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
Shirpur, Maharashtra
India
Arti G. Swami
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Health Sciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Amol A. Tagalpallewar
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
School of Health Sciences and Technology
Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Chitrali Talele
Department of Pharmacy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University
Vaodara, Gujarat
India
Santosh U. Yele
Department of Pharmacognosy, Poona College of Pharmacy
Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University)
Pune, Maharashtra
India
Preface
The field of Pharmacognosy, with its roots in ancient practices of medicinal plant use, has evolved into a dynamic scientific discipline integrating phytochemical analysis, biotechnological advancements, and clinical applications. “Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: Principles, Techniques, and Applications” provides a comprehensive overview of this multifaceted field. It begins with a historical exploration of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, detailing the evolution of medicinal plant use and scientific inquiry. The book covers the classification of crude drugs, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, and complementary medicinal systems, offering insights into the cultural and ecological dimensions of plant-based medicines. Practical aspects such as cultivation, collection, preparation, adulteration, and evaluation of plant drugs are discussed in detail. The book elucidates methodologies for extracting bioactive compounds, qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis, and advanced analytical techniques for quality control. It highlights the therapeutic potential of plant secondary metabolites and the processes of isolation, purification, and characterization of herbal drugs. Biological screening methods and biosynthetic pathways of phytopharmaceuticals are explored, alongside pharmaceutical aids, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, pesticides, and allergens. Comparative Phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, and modern plant biotechnology are explored, along with the emerging field of marine Pharmacognosy. Molecular and Clinical Pharmacognosy bridge research and clinical applications, emphasizing the translation of scientific discoveries into health benefits. This book serves as a resource for students, researchers, and practitioners, combining traditional knowledge with modern advancements to provide a holistic understanding of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry.
EDITORS:
UCHENNA E. ODOH
SHAILENDRA S. GURAV
MICHAEL O. CHUKWUMA
July, 2024
Nigeria
Chapter 1Historical Overview of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Mona M. Marzouk1, Mai M. Farid1, Rana M. Merghany2, Shahira M. Ezzat3,4
1Department of Phytochemistry and Plant Systematics, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
2Department of Pharmacognosy, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
3Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
4Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, Egypt
1.1 Introduction to Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is derived from two Greek words that mean “drug” and “knowledge.” Pharmacognosy is the study of natural medications derived from organisms, such as plants, microorganisms, and animals, and this term evolved autonomously, consistent with circumstances, and lasted in such form until the twentieth century. However, at the end of World War II, the discovery and acquisition of penicillin demonstrated that separation and structural analysis procedures, as well as pharmacognosy, were moving forward together [1].
Many significant medications, such as morphine, atropine, galantamine, and others, have originated from natural sources and continue to serve as good model molecules in drug development. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as “the study of natural product molecules (typically secondary metabolites) that are useful for their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties” [2]. To assess the current validity of pharmacognosy as an academic and practical field, it is required to name the fields included in pharmacognosy, either fully or partially, drawing on a wide range of biological and chemical disciplines, such as botany, ethnobotany, marine biology, microbiology, herbal medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy practice. Other fields, such as the technical disciplines, were also included in pharmacognosy, including cataloging and classification of natural raw materials and computer methods like chemical docking [1]. It is worth mentioning that pharmacognosy, in conjunction with contemporary medicine, can create safe and effective medications, and according to a recent World Health Organization (WHO) survey, around 80% of the world’s population still uses natural products for their main healthcare requirements [3].
Traditional medicine is also a branch of pharmacognosy, and most developing nations still rely on herbal treatments. As a result, pharmacognosy remains popular in the pharmaceutical sciences and plays vital role in drug discovery [4].
1.2 Historical Development of Pharmacognosy
The term “pharmacognosy” was introduced by the Australian physician Schmidt in 1811, and then in 1815, the Polish pharmacist Enoteus Sedler used it in his work “Analecta Pharmacognostica.” Before that time, the expression was intended for the first time in Materia Medica, which was written by a Viennese pharmacist, Adam Smith (1759–1809) [5]. Additionally, there are other names at the present time for this scientific discipline in the entire world [6, 7]. The history of pharmacognosy represents the history of pharmacy and medicine. In each culture, a group of people developed skills in collecting, testing, and employing therapeutic plants to treat ailments; this corresponds to the basis for the concepts of herbal medicine and folk therapy, which have a history as old as human civilization and have been used in medicinal activities since antiquity as the primary remedies in the traditional system of medicine [8]. The early medicines of the Pharaohs, the Chinese, the Greeks, and the Romans described many therapeutic plants, while Arab physicians (Rhazes 865–925; Avicenna 980–1037) depended heavily on plants for therapy [3].
1.2.1 Mesopotamia Region
Around 5000 years ago, the first documented evidence of medicinal plant use in medication manufacture was discovered on a Sumerian clay slab. It contained 12 medicine preparation techniques based on more than 250 distinct botanicals [9].
1.2.2 China
According to mythology, Chinese pharmacy began with Shen Nung (about 2700 BC), an emperor who sought out and examined the medicinal properties of several hundred herbs. He claimed to have tested many of them on himself and to have penned the first Pen T-Sao, or Native Herbal, in which 365 medications were recorded. These were categorized into the following categories: 120 emperor herbs of high, food-grade quality that are nontoxic and could be taken in large quantities to maintain health over time; 120 minister herbs, some mildly toxic and some not, with stronger therapeutic action to heal diseases; and 125 servant herbs with definite action to treat disease and eliminate stagnation. Because most of those in the last group are poisonous, they should not be used on a daily basis for weeks or months. Shen Nung has investigated several herbs, barks, and roots gathered from fields, marshes, and woodlands that are still used in pharmacy, such as stramonium, podophyllum, ginseng, rhubarb, ephedra, and cinnamon bark [10, 11].
1.2.3 India
The usage of ancient traditional medicines like Siddha, Buddha, Ayurveda, and Unani medicine for treatment is well known in India. These therapeutic methods are also mentioned in the Vedas and other ancient writings and traditions. The Vedas, India’s holy books, recommend herbal medicine, which is rich in that region. India is home to a variety of spice plants, including nutmeg, pepper, and clove [12].
Between 500 and 2500 BC, Ayurveda evolved and prospered throughout India. The original definition of Ayurveda was “science of life,” because the ancient Indian system of health care focused on human perspectives and illness. It has been acknowledged that pleasant health implies metabolically well-balanced humans [13].
1.2.4 Ancient Egypt
The Ebers Papyrus is an Egyptian medical papyrus that is considered to be one of the earliest and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt. It was composed around 1550 BC and includes 800 prescriptions for 700 plant species and drugs used in therapy, such as pomegranate, castor oil plant, aloe, senna, coriander, onion, centaury, fig, willow, juniper, garlic, common, and others. A priest, a doctor, and a pharmacist who prescribed medications healed sick patients. [14].
1.2.5 The Greeks
Hippocrates’ books (459–370 BC) contain 300 therapeutic herbs classified by physiological activity [15]. Theophrastus (371–287 BC), known as “the father of botany,” established botanical science and made great contributions to the categorization and description of therapeutic plants with his writings “De Causis Plantarum” (Plant Etiology) and “De Historia Plantarum” (Plant History). In his books, he created a categorization of over 500 medicinal plants known at the time and emphasized the use of herbal plants by gradually increasing the doses [16].
While Dioscorides, known as “the father of pharmacognosy,” was a military physician and pharmacognosist in Nero’s Army, investigated medicinal plants wherever he traveled with the Roman Army. Around the year 77 AD, he published “De Materia Medica.” This well-known ancient history book, which has been translated multiple times, contains a wealth of knowledge about the therapeutic herbs that were the core of Materia Medica until the late Middle Ages and later [17]. Of the 944 medications detailed, 657 are of plant origin, with details of the outer appearance, locality, mode of collection, production of the medicinal formulations, and therapeutic effect. In addition to the plant description, the names in various languages and the locations where they are grown are mentioned. Galen (131–200 AD), the most distinguished Roman Greek physician of the time, created the first list of drugs having comparable or identical activity. He also introduced into medicine various novel plant remedies that Dioscorides had not previously documented [10, 18].
1.2.6 Arabic and Islamic Region
The period from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries was known as the Golden Age of Arabic Medicine, due to numerous innovations and significant successes in the fields of medicine and pharmacy achieved by noticeable Arabic scientists, such as Hunayn bin Ishaq, Yuhann Ibn Masawayh, Ali Ibn Sahl at-Taberi, Sabur bin Sahl, ibn Zakarya al-Razi, Rabbi Moses bin Maimon, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abul Kasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Jazlah, Ibn Sina, Ibn al-Tilmidh, Ibn al-Baitar, Kohen al Baitar, Abu ar-Rayhan al-Biruni, Ibn al-Nafis, and others [19, 20].
During the Middle Ages, around 1000 medicinal plants were recorded in the Arab texts “De Re Medica” by John Mesue (850 AD), “Canon Medicinae” by Avicenna (980–1037), and “Liber Magnae Collectionis Simplicum Alimentorum Et Medicamentorum” by Ibn Baitar [10]. The Arabs should be credited for greatly enhancing Materia Medica. They also invented several staining agents and were the first to use tannins. Some Arab medicines are still utilized today, though in a different manner [21].
1.3 Development of Pharmacognosy in the Modern Era
In the eighteenth century, Linnaeus (1707–1788), the Swedish botanist, presented a concise description and classification of the species described up to that point in his work, Species Plantarum (1753). The species were described and named regardless of whether or not some of them had previously been identified elsewhere. For naming, a polynomial method was utilized, with the first word indicating the genus and the rest of the polynomial phrase outlining various features of the plant. Linnaeus altered the naming system to make it binominal. The genus name (with an initial capital letter) and the species name (with an initial small letter) were combined to form the name of each species [22].
The nineteenth century noted the birth of scientific pharmacy and was a turning point in the understanding and application of therapeutic herbs with the advancement of chemical procedures and the discovery, substantiation, and isolation of alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, saponosides, etheric oils, vitamins, morphine, hormones, and other active chemicals from medicinal plants [10, 23]. Modern pharmacognosy emerged between 1934 and 1960; this development was mostly as a result of events as follows:
Discovery of penicillin in 1982
The isolation of reserpine in 1952
The study of
Vinca rosea
anticancer activity
The preparation of semi-steroidal hormones
Pure therapies, alkaloids, and glycosides were rapidly replacing the medications from which they had been extracted. Nonetheless, it was quickly discovered that, while pure alkaloids had a rapid impact, alkaloid medicines had a more complete and long-lasting effect. In the early twentieth century, methods for stabilizing fresh medicinal plants, particularly those having labile medicinal components, were proposed. Furthermore, much effort was devoted to researching production conditions [24]. Between 1971 and 1990, novel drugs, such as teniposide, octoposide, E- and Z-guggulsterone, nebulon, artemisinin, and plonotol were released all around the world. From 1991 to 1995, approximately 2% of medications were launched, including paclitaxel, irinotecan, topotecan, and others [3].
1.4 The Relevance of Pharmacognosy in Pharmacological Research on Herbal Medicinal Products
Herbal medicine products must be secure, safe, efficient, and of standard quality, just like all other medications. However, laws governing the use of herbal medicines vary from one country to another, and herbal preparations are sometimes used in less strictly controlled product categories like dietary supplements in addition to being used as medicines. As a result, consumers sometimes find it difficult to distinguish between high-quality and low-quality goods. However, compared to conventional pharmaceuticals, herbal medicines have several unique qualities.
Because of plants’ characteristic variability and a wide range of outside influences, they are complex multicomponent mixtures whose phytochemical constituents are not constant. Consequently, it is essential to closely monitor the entire process of production of herbal medicines.
To begin with, the medicinal plant raw materials must be accurately authenticated and free of adulterants and contaminants. Plant metabolite production is strongly influenced by a variety of factors during plant growth, including temperature, humidity, developmental stage, harvest season, and time. The phytochemical components of herbal material can also be significantly changed by postharvest processing procedures like drying and storage. Like many phytopharmaceutical production processes, the extraction solvent, requirements, and stages must be optimized to enrich the bioactive constituents in the extract of medicinal herbs [25]. As a result, appropriate quality assessment measures should be used in conjunction with every step of production. Various techniques must be used depending on this task, including macroscopic, microscopic, and DNA-based authentication techniques followed by phytochemical techniques, including chromatographic analysis, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS).
1.5 Taxonomy and Botanical Authenticity
In previous years, following a few fundamental guidelines for suitable documentation even during the plant collection stage was the first step in the authentication process. Documented information on the collected (obtained) plant specimen should include the Latin binomial name, the common name, an indication of the collected plant part(s), the name of the person who collected it (collector), the GPS position and geographical description of the collection site, a unique collection number, a digital picture of the plant before and after harvest, and information on performed postharvest processing steps (drying method, time, and temperature) [26]. As authentication in the first instance involves the comparison of the herbal starting material with authentic reference samples, it was necessary to collect several plant voucher specimens (ideally from different phenological stages, e.g. vegetative, flowering, and fruiting) and to deposit them either in a registered public herbarium, in a certified research institute, or, in the case of commercial materials, in an on-site herbarium repository [27]. Plant taxonomical authentication has three main objectives: identification, nomenclature, and classification.
1.5.1 Plant Identification
It is a process of assigning plants to a specified group. The identification could be completed by using natural key systems using morphological characters that could be compared with known databases, “books of flora,” by a professional taxonomist, and then by comparison with voucher specimens to achieve the plants’ genus. Once a plant specimen has been identified, its name and properties are known. Misidentification of medicinal plants occurs inadvertently either at the plant collection site or at the drying stage of the herbal material, for example, when an importer or retailer confuses one herb with another due to incorrect labeling or similar appearance. Accordingly, documentation of medicinal plants should be based on accepted classification systems, scientific literature, and publications.
Botanical microscopic authentication has long been used to authenticate herbal products in several countries, as recorded in various pharmacopeias, to detect the adulteration and substitution of medicinal plants. It is because of its advantages: a slight quantity of needed samples, low costs, speed, simplicity, and reliability [28]. In addition, herbal pharmacopeia monographs usually contain a detailed microscopic drug description, allowing a first assessment of identity and, in some cases, the identification of common adulterated drugs [25]. For example, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (neem), a traditional herbal species of importance, widely used plant for the treatment of numerous diseases, was adulterated with the closely related botanical species Melia azedarach L. The lateral was commercially marketed under the same trade name of neem and belonged to the same family, Meliaceae. Authentication, adulteration, and standardization of this herbal medicine were achieved using the macroscopic and microscopic morphological investigation of leaves, ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) analyses, as well as scanning electron microscope (SEM) of pollen investigation [29].
1.5.2 Plant Nomenclature
Each plant should have two parts which are known by binomial name and follow the roles of ICBN (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature). The intent of the code is that each taxonomic group (taxon) of plants has only one accepted name that is approved worldwide, providing that it has the same position circumscription, and rank. The binomial name should be printed in an italic font style; for example, Rorippa palustris L. When handwritten, a binomial name should be underlined; for example, Rorippa palustris L. The first part of the binomial, the genus name, was always written with an initial capital letter, while the second part was written with an initial small letter. The binomial name was usually followed by the “authority”; a way of defining the scientist who published the name. For example, Posidonia oceanica L. “L.” is an abbreviation for the author named this species “Linnaeus.” When the original name is changed, for example, the species was moved to a different genus; it was used two brackets around the original author and specifies the author who made the change. For example, Kickxia aegyptiaca (L.) Nábělek, where “L.” is the author who first named this species as Antirrhinum aegyptiacum L., and then “Nábělek” transferred it to the genus Kickxia.
Frequently, for medicinal plants, not only the scientific Latin name is in use, but there are also pharmacopeial names, local names, vernacular names, English names, etc. Consequently, only authorized scientific names should be used to evade confusion. Aside from confusing nomenclature, the misidentification could be caused by the similar appearance of herbal material, accompanied by misperception regarding historical records and local customs. Therefore, a careful study of ancient literature, together with modern analytical techniques, is often required to properly authenticate herbal material [25].
1.5.3 Plant Classification
Plant classification is placing known plants into categories or groups to show some relationship. A systematic classification follows a scheme of rules that standardizes the results, and groups successive categories into a hierarchy. The ICBN recognized seven main ranks in the hierarchy, where the ending of the name indicates its rank (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 The hierarchy of taxonomic ranks. Example shows the classification of Crocus sativus L. (Saffron).
Rank
Ending
Example
Kingdom
various
Plantae
Division or Phylum
---phyta
Magnoliophyta
Class
---opsida
Liliopsida
Order
---ales
Asparagales
Family
---aceae
Iridaceae
Genus
various
Crocus
Species
various
Crocus sativus
L.
Botanical identification was carried out by examining the whole plant specimen after collection by comparison with ideally authenticated reference models. Macroscopic identification concerns the assessment of macromorphological characteristics of fresh, dried, or sliced mass of medicinal plant material [30]. Macromorphological characters depend on the variations of the external features of both vegetative (leaves, stems, and roots) (Figure 1.1) and reproductive organs (inflorescence, flowers, seeds, and fruits) (Figure 1.2) both sorts are found in all plants. Morphological features are simply observed, and discovery applied use in the descriptions and keys more than any other taxonomic features. Macromorphological authentication often also requires access to herbarium voucher specimens. Micromorphological investigation was a general term for studying the internal structure of plants. Although the macromorphological differences of closely related species are often so difficult to distinguish, any further characteristic feature may be welcomed, even though it involves the cutting of a section and its examination under the microscope. The microscopic investigation could be subjected to fresh or dry plant material as whole, fragmented, or powdered. The macro-and microscopic methods are very widely applied for the authentication persistence of traditional herbs as they are very time- and cost-effective [31]. Furthermore, several specified illustrated textbooks on macroscopic and microscopic descriptions of the most used medicinal plants are accessible [25].
Figure 1.1 Vegetative morphology (leaf): (a) leaf structure, (b) leaf shapes; 1: acicular; 2: linear; 3: oblong; 4: elliptic; 5: lanceolate; 6: oblanceolate; 7: ovate; 8: obovate; 9: cordate; 10: obcordate; 11: deltoid; 12: obdeltoid; 13: cuneate; 14: rhomboid; 15: reniform; 16: peltate; 17: orbicular; 18: spathulate; 19: hastate; 20: sagittate; 21: lunate; 22: pandurate; 23: flabellate; 24: fan-shaped; 25: subulate; 26: palmatifid; 27: palmatisect; 28: pinnatifid; and 29: pinnatisect, (c) leaf arrangement, (d) leaf venation, (e) leaf apex, and (f) leaf margin.
Source:https://www.slideserve.com/alcina/plant-structure-macro
Figure 1.2 Reproductive morphology: (a) flower structure, (b) type of inflorescences, and (c) types of fruits.
Source:https://meganbio11.weebly.com/plants.html
1.6 Phytochemistry – An Expanded Role in Traditional Medicine (History and Progress in Drug Discovery)
Phytochemistry has played a significant role in traditional medicine throughout history and continues to contribute to drug discovery efforts. Historically, the observations and knowledge passed down through generations formed the basis of traditional medicine. Ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, and Chinese extensively documented the use of specific plants and plant preparations for medicinal purposes. This empirical knowledge laid the groundwork for the development of phytochemistry as a scientific discipline [32]. As well, herbalism, the use of plants for medicinal purposes, was prevalent in many cultures throughout history. Traditional medicine systems, such as Ayurveda in India, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Unani in the Middle East, and Indigenous healing practices worldwide, incorporated plant-based remedies into their healing modalities. These systems recognized the importance of specific plants and their active constituents in promoting health and treating diseases [33]. On the other hand, the scientific exploration of plant constituents began to emerge during the 19th century. Chemists and botanists started isolating and identifying active compounds from medicinal plants. For example, the isolation of morphine from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) by Friedrich Sertürner in 1803 marked a significant milestone in the field of phytochemistry [34]. As scientific methodologies and techniques advanced, researchers began to identify and characterize the chemical constituents responsible for the therapeutic effects of medicinal plants. This led to the discovery of various active compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds, among others. Consequently, the knowledge of medicinal plants and their active constituents was compiled into materia medica and pharmacopoeias. These texts provided guidelines for the identification, preparation, and usage of medicinal plants in traditional medicine systems. Examples include the Ayurvedic texts, the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and the European Pharmacopoeia [35]. In the twentieth century, there was an increased emphasis on scientific validation and standardization of traditional medicine practices. Phytochemistry played a crucial role in this process by providing scientific evidence supporting the efficacy and safety of plant-based remedies, where active compounds were isolated, tested, and evaluated for their pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action [36]. Interestingly, with advancements in scientific research and technology, the integration of traditional medicine and phytochemistry with modern medicine became a focus of interest. Researchers started to bridge the gap between traditional knowledge and scientific understanding by exploring the potential of plant-derived compounds in drug discovery and development [37].
Today, the progress in drug discovery owes much to the contributions of phytochemistry. As scientists began to investigate the chemical constituents of medicinal plants, they discovered bioactive compounds responsible for the observed therapeutic effects. Isolating and characterizing these compounds allowed researchers to understand their structures, properties, and mechanisms of action. As well, scientific validation of the active constituents of traditionally used herbs enhances the credibility and acceptance of these traditional medicine systems. These bioactive compounds can serve as leads for the development of new drugs or be used as scaffolds for synthetic modifications to enhance their efficacy and safety [38]. One notable example is the discovery of the compound artemisinin from the sweet annie plant (Artemisia annua L.) used in TCM for treating malaria. Its discovery led to the development of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), which are now widely used as first-line treatments for malaria. Examples of ACTs include artemether/lumefantrine and artesunate/amodiaquine [39]. Similarly, quinine, originally isolated from the bark of the cinchona tree (Cinchona spp.), has been used for centuries to treat malaria. It is still used today in some cases of drug-resistant malaria, although it has been largely replaced by artemisinin-based therapies [40]. Also, vinblastine and vincristine are alkaloid compounds derived from the Madagascar periwinkle plant (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don). These drugs have shown efficacy in treating various types of cancer, including Hodgkin’s lymphoma, leukemia, and solid tumors [41]. Additionally, paclitaxel, originally isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia Nutt.), is an important chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of breast, ovarian, and lung cancers. It inhibits cell division by stabilizing microtubules, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis [42]. In addition, digoxin, derived from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea L.), is used in the management of heart failure and certain cardiac arrhythmias. It works by inhibiting the sodium-potassium ATPase pump, leading to increased intracellular calcium levels and improved cardiac contractility [43]. Additionally, colchicine, derived from the autumn crocus plant (Colchicum autumnale L.), is used in the treatment of gout and other inflammatory conditions. It acts by inhibiting microtubule polymerization and reducing the migration of inflammatory cells [44]. Likewise, salicylates, including acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), are derived from the bark of willow trees (Salix spp.). They have analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties and are widely used as pain relievers and for their antiplatelet effects [45]. Additionally, curcumin, derived from the turmeric plant (Curcuma longa L.), has demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and is being investigated for its neuroprotective effects in Alzheimer’s disease [46]. Metformin, a widely used oral antidiabetic drug, was derived from the French lilac plant (Galega officinalis L.) [47]. Additionally, compounds such as berberine (found in various plants including Berberis spp.) and resveratrol (found in grapes and berries) have shown promise in improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism [48]. Theophylline, a compound found in tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), has been used in the treatment of asthma [49]. Also, the compound loperamide, derived from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), is an antidiarrheal medication used to relieve symptoms of acute diarrhea [50]. Silymarin, derived from milk thistle (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.), has hepatoprotective properties and is used as a supportive therapy in liver diseases, such as hepatitis and cirrhosis [51].
These examples highlight the diverse range of diseases and conditions that have been targeted by drugs developed through phytochemistry. The exploration of natural products continues to provide insights into potential therapeutic options for various health conditions, and ongoing research in this field holds promise for future drug development.
1.7 Recent Progress in Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
The recent advancements in pharmacognosy and phytochemistry are contributing to the development of safer and more effective natural products, the discovery of novel therapeutic compounds, and the integration of traditional medicine with modern healthcare systems. The field continues to evolve, driven by interdisciplinary collaborations, scientific research, technological advancements, and a deeper understanding of the potential of natural products for human health and well-being [52]. Here are some notable developments:
1.7.1 Bioactivity-guided Fractionation
Phytochemistry employs bioactivity-guided fractionation, a process that involves sequentially isolating and testing fractions of plant extracts to identify the specific components responsible for the observed bioactivity. This approach helps narrow down the search for active compounds and accelerates the discovery of lead compounds for drug development. This methodology is well-achieved by the advancements in phytochemical analysis techniques, such as chromatography [53].
1.7.2 Identification of Bioactive Compounds from Adulterants
Identification and authentication of natural compounds away from adulterants were processed by some sophisticated analytical techniques, such as mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIR), near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR), Raman spectrum (RS), terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Usually, chemometric analyses are subjected in combination with the appropriate evidence from the spectral data and thus allow discrimination of the investigated herbal species [54].
Vibrational spectroscopic techniques (MIR, NIR, and RS) measure vibrational energy levels linked to the chemical bonds sample. A shift in the molecular dipole moment during vibration yields the IR spectrum, whereas a shift in polarizability during vibration yields the RS. In IR and R, specific peaks and bands correspond to specific functional groups of the molecules found in the sample [55]. As a result, their existence can provide information about a sample’s chemical character [25].
In recent years, NIR spectroscopy has been employed for process analysis and quality control in several industries due to its simplicity, speed, accuracy, and non-destructive nature [56]. The shorter NIR wavelengths have a deeper penetrating range than the MIR range. To gather details on the characteristics of the hydrogen-containing groups in compounds, NIR spectroscopy, which operates within the wavelength range of 800 to 2500 nm, primarily records the spectral bands that correspond to the molecular vibrations of hydrogen bonds (e.g. C─H, O─H, and N─H) [54]. For example, the NIR technique was created to detect adulterants, synthetic antidiabetic drugs in antidiabetic herbal medicines [56]. The approach utilized in this study was constructed and validated using 127 batches of herbal anti-diabetic species and four pure synthetic anti-diabetic pharmaceuticals (gliclazide, glibenclamide, metformin, and glimepiride).
Moreover, THz spectroscopy is a new and potent research tool that offers a wealth of knowledge on the physics, chemistry, and structure of materials and biomedicine due to its benefits, which are non-destructive, safe, and rapid. THz spectroscopy uses a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that falls between the microwave and infrared areas, as opposed to traditional far-infrared spectroscopy. Biological molecules exhibit complicated molecular vibrations in the terahertz range, including rotations, hydrogen bonding, low-frequency bond vibrations, and van der Waals forces. Biomolecules may be successfully recognized using terahertz characteristic spectra, particularly when their chemical structures are comparable. For example, THz-TDS was utilized by Yin et al. [57] to identify and analyze 10 common flavonoids, such as apigenin, baicalein, naringenin, hesperetin, daidzein, genistein, puerarin, and gastrodin, quantitatively and qualitatively. These flavonoids were identified by their THz absorption spectra, which showed markedly distinct characteristic absorption peaks in the terahertz region while having comparable chemical structures. Furthermore, THz spectroscopy was used to identify three flavonol aglycones with comparable structures: myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol [57].
Similarly, NMR spectroscopy has disadvantages as well, like high cost and potential unsuitability for some applications, yet it can precisely determine the structures of some bioactive molecules in crude plant extracts – without the requirement for sample preparation or chromatographic separation beforehand – by detecting and quantifying chemical interactions [25, 54]. Every molecule with at least one proton may be identified using proton NMR 1
