Photosynthesis-Assisted Energy Generation E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Photosynthesis-Assisted Energy Generation Describes the mechanisms of and potential for using microorganisms and plants as renewable power resources Bridging the knowledge gap between the fundamentals and the technological advances in biological photosynthesis-assisted energy generation, Photosynthesis-Assisted Energy Generation explores the various diverse light-harvesting biological systems for electricity generation and explains the fundamentals and applications from lab-scale to in-field. The text discusses the fundamentals of electron transfer mechanisms in photosynthetic systems, basic principles of bioelectricity generation, and materials involved in the construction of fuel cells, including not only the impact of higher plants, but also anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and microalgae on the performance of photosynthesis-assisted power generation systems. A timely resource, the text features case studies on emerging topics such as mosses in power generation on green roofs and photo-bioelectrochemical fuel cells for antibiotics and dyes removal, along with discussion of sustainability issues when scaling up bio-photo-electrochemical systems. Edited by two highly qualified and accomplished academics with significant research experience in the field, Photosynthesis-Assisted Energy Generation includes information on: * Role of functional materials involved in photosynthesis-assisted power generation and non-noble electrocatalysts as air cathodes in biocells * Electricity generation and intensified synthesis of nutrients by plant-based biofuel cells using duckweeds as biocatalysts * Algae-based microbial fuel cells, photosynthetic bacteria-based microbial fuel cells, and bryophyte microbial fuel cell systems * Progress and recent trends of application of low-energy consuming devices and IoT based on photosynthesis-assisted power generation * Plant-based microbial fuel cells for bioremediation, biosensing, and plant health monitoring With full coverage of an attractive renewable energy generation system, Photosynthesis-Assisted Energy Generation is an essential resource on the subject for researchers and scientists interested in alternative renewable energetics and photosynthesis-assisted energy generation processes utilizing microorganisms, algae, plants, and other bioinspired materials.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part I: The Basic Principle and Fundamentals of Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
1 Introduction to Electron Transfer Mechanisms in Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Electron Transfer Mechanism
1.3 Photosynthesis in the Electron Transfer Mechanism
1.4 Technologies In Which the Photosynthesis Process Can Be Applied for Energy Generation
1.5 Future Vision of the Use of Photosynthesis in Energy Generation
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Role of Functional Materials Involved in the Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Plant‐Mediated Microbial Fuel Cells
2.3 Applications of PMFC technology
2.4 Development of Electrodes and Membranes for Plant Microbial Fuel Cells
2.5 Challenges and Future Perspective
2.6 Conclusion
References
Note
3 An Overview of the Non‐noble Electrocatalysts as Air Cathodes in Biocells
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Operation and Structure of the Aerated Cathode
3.3 Importance of Materials in the Construction of Catalytic Electrodes for Hydrogen Reduction
3.4 Disadvantages of Noble Metal Electrocatalysts
3.5 Synthesis of Non‐noble Electrocatalysts and Their Performance
3.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
4 Configurations of Plant‐Based Microbial Fuel Cell System and Its Impact on Power Density
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Operating Principle
4.3 PMFC Configurations
4.4 Cylindrical PMFC
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 The Critical Impact of Photosynthetic Pathway of Plants on the Performance of PMFC
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Brief History of PMFC
5.3 Conformation of Conventional PMFC, Electrode Materials, and Basic Elements
5.4 Bacterial Community
5.5 Rhizodeposition Process and Photosynthetic Pathways
5.6 The Role of C3, C4, and CAM Plants in PMFC
5.7 The Role of Wetland and Drought‐resistant Plants in PMFC
5.8 Trends and Future Perspectives
5.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Part II: The Diversity of Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
6 Insights on Algae‐based Microbial Fuel Cells
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Algae‐based Microbial Fuel Cells (AMFCs)
6.3 The Implementation of Algae in MFCs
6.4 The Wastewater Treatment Using Algae‐assisted MFCs (AMFCs)
6.5 Photosynthetic Algae Microbial Fuel Cell (PAMFC)
6.6 Conclusion
References
Note
7 An Overview of Photosynthetic Bacteria‐Based Microbial Fuel Cells
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ecology, Metabolism, and Extracellular Electron Transport in OPB and APB
7.3 Advantages of the APB over Algae and Cyanobacteria
7.4 Optimization of Light Source for Sustainable Electricity Production
7.5 Governing Factors and Bottlenecks of Photosynthetic Bacteria‐Based Microbial Fuel Cells
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 The Development of Bryophyte Microbial Fuel Cell Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Moss‐Driven Microbial Fuel Cells
8.3 Іndoor Application of Moss‐PMFC
8.4 Bryophyte PMFC as a Source of Photosynthesis‐Associated Energy Generation on Green Roofs
8.5 Perspectives of Bryophyte PMFC
8.6 Conclusions
References
9 Duckweeds as Biocatalysts in Plant‐based Biofuel Cell
9.1 Introduction to Plant‐based Microbial Fuel Cells
9.2 Biofuel Cells Using Aquatic Higher Plants as Anodic Biocatalysts
9.3 Influence of the Electrode Polarization on the Plants' Metabolism
9.4 Components of Photosynthetic Systems Involved in the Direct EET to the Anode
9.5 Future Challenges and Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
10 Low Power Voltage Acquisition System for Photosynthesis‐Based Microbial Fuel Cells
10.1 Low Power Sources
10.2 Voltage Acquisition System
10.3 Field Application of the Acquisition System
10.4 Conclusions
References
Part III: Lab‐Scale and Infield Application of Photosynthesis‐Based Microbial Fuel Cells
11 Plant‐Based‐Microbial Fuel Cells for Bioremediation, Biosensing, and Plant Health Monitoring
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Bioelectricity Generation Using a Plant‐based Microbial Fuel Cell
11.3 PMFCs for Bioremediation
11.4 PMFCs for Control of Biogas Emission
11.5 PMFCs‐based Sensors
11.6 PMFCs for Plant Health Monitoring
11.7 Design Criteria for Plant‐based Microbial Fuel Cells
11.8 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
12 Progress and Recent Trends of Application of Low‐energy Consuming Devices and IoT Based on Photosynthesis‐assisted Power Generation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Promising Plants for Use as Energy Sources
12.3 Understanding Energy Harvesting
12.4 Low‐consumption Electronic Devices for IoT Applications
12.5 Precision Agriculture
12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Note
13 Problems of Improving Organics, Ammonium and Phosphorus Treatment with Algal‐assisted MFCs
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Components and Designs of Algal‐assisted MFCs
13.3 Factors Influencing the Performance of the Algal‐assisted MFCs System
13.4 Limitations and Future Perspectives of A‐MFCs
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Development and Achievements of Photo‐bioelectrochemical Fuel Cell (PBFC) in Metal, Antibiotics, and Dyes Removal
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Microorganisms Involved in Metal, Antibiotic and Dye Removal
14.3 Mechanism of Toxic Compounds Removal Through Photo‐Bioelectrochemical Fuel Cell (PBFC)
14.4 Recent Developments in PBFC for Metal, Antibiotics, and Dye Removal
14.5 Challenges and Future Outlook
14.6 Conclusion
References
15 Agriculture‐based Crop in PMFCs for the Futuristic Sustainable Protected Agriculture
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Challenges for Agriculture
15.3 Development of Plant Microbial Fuel Cells
15.4 Agriculture‐Based Crops in PMFCs
15.5 Development of Green Energy System to Promote Sustainable Agriculture
15.6 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Sustainable Issues Associated with Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
16 An Overview of Sustainable Issues Associated with Bio‐Assisted Power Generation Systems
16.1 Introduction – Paradigm Shift toward Sustainability
16.2 Sustainable Systems
16.3 Challenges and Motivations
16.4 Biological Solution
16.5 Life Cycle Assessments (LCA)
16.6 Composite Sustainability Indices (CSI)
16.7 Construction of a CSI
16.8 The Concept of Biorefinery and their Applications
16.9 Biorefinery Technology
16.10 Circular Economy
16.11 Limitations
16.12 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Maximum power density using microalgae at anode, cathode, or subs...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Classifications of anode materials used in PMFC for bioelectricit...
Table 2.2 Classifications of cathode materials used in PMFC for bioelectric...
Table 2.3 Properties of different membranes for PMFC applications.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 PMFC configurations.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Characteristics of the different plant species.
Table 5.2 Examples of common families of C3, C4, and CAM plants.
Table 5.3 Summary of some plant species used in PMFC, operation conditions,...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Power densities of various algal microbial fuel cells.
Chapter 7
Table. 7.1 Oxygenic phototroph‐based PhotoMFC.
Table. 7.2 Anoxygenic Phototroph‐based PhotoMFC.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Diversity of Moss‐driven microbial fuel cells.
Table 8.2 Comparison of mosses‐PMFC efficiency with other ones using on gre...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Summary of the intracellular protein quantity determined by Bradf...
Table 9.2 Summary of quantity inorganic phosphate and the phytase activity ...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Feature of the different acquisition configurations.
Table 10.2 Data acquired from the first eight channels.
Table 10.3 Monitoring system data for 16 PMFC.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Use of plant‐based microbial fuel cells for waste removal.
Table 11.2 Configurations and designs in PMFCs.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summary of the effect of algae species on the A‐MFC performance....
Table 13.2 The reference price of some commercial PEMs.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Mechanism of biodegradation and electricity generation efficienc...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Performance of PMFCs using different plant species.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Different mechanisms of electron transfers from microorganisms to...
Figure 1.2 Mechanisms of electron transfers from electrode to microorganisms...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Rice paddy field MFC (left) and plants MFC (right).
Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of the bioelectricity production process...
Figure 2.3
Opuntia
PMFCs prototype powered LED and digital clock (Apollon et...
Figure 2.4 Materials used in PMFC for bioelectricity generation.
Figure 2.5 Diagrammatic representation of proton transport across the membra...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Examples of biocells with one chamber (a), two chambers (b), and ...
Figure 3.2 Air‐cathode layers.
Figure 3.3 Balance between the three main characteristics of an electrocatal...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Basic operation of a plant microbial fuel cell (Borker et al., 20...
Figure 4.2 PMFC classification (a) sediment type single chamber PMFC, (b) du...
Figure 4.3 Plant microbial fuel cell configurations. (a) Cylindrical PMFC, (...
Figure 4.4 Sediment‐type PMFC system with (a)
Setaria faberi
(fox tail), (b)...
Figure 4.5 Open circuit voltage variation for
S. faberi
,
C. citratus
, and
E.
...
Figure 4.6 (a) The polarization curve for
S. faberi
(Fox tail) grass species...
Figure 4.7 Cylindrical PMFC.
Figure 4.8 Polarization curve for cylindrical PMFC.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic representation of conventional PMFC.
Figure 5.2 C3 photosynthetic pathway and common plants (Yamori et al., 2014)...
Figure 5.3 C4 photosynthetic pathway and common plants (Yamori et al., 2014)...
Figure 5.4 CAM photosynthetic pathway and common plants (Yamori et al., 2014...
Figure 5.5 LED‐spotlight turned on using PMFC connected in series.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic representation of flat plate MFC and MCCs with CO
2
exch...
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of tubular PMFC and sediment type PMFC....
Figure 6.3 Algae‐based MFCs with (a) direct utilization of algal biomass as ...
Figure 6.4 Algae‐based MFCs: (a) direct use of algae as an electron acceptor...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Oxygenic Phototroph’s electron transport mechanism and metabolis...
Figure 7.2 Anoxygenic phototroph’s electron transport mechanism and metabol...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Eco‐environmental value of green roofs.
Figure 8.2 Effect of short‐term action of external resistance on bioelectric...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Scheme of the common structure of the duckweed
Lemna minor
. Each ...
Figure 9.2 An image of the P‐BFC experimental setup using duckweeds as anodi...
Figure 9.3 (a) OCV over time registered for three different used duckweed sp...
Figure 9.4 Electrical characteristics: (a) current density recorded by P‐BFC...
Figure 9.5 Summary of the starch content determined in the supernatant (S) a...
Figure 9.6 Schematic presentation of the developed experimental set‐up for c...
Figure 9.7 The charge transfer to the anode was evaluated by EIS,
operando
(...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Schematic diagram of signal processing for PMFC.
Figure 10.2 Flowchart of the multiplexed system.
Figure 10.3 Block diagram of the voltage monitoring system.
Figure 10.4 Voltage of 8 channels, corresponding to 8 PMFC, 4 of them belong...
Figure 10.5 Voltage of 6 channels, corresponding to 6 PMFC, all of them belo...
Figure 10.6 Voltage of 4 channels, corresponding to 4 PMFC based on
Stevia
, ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Diversity of plant‐based microbial fuel cells and their real‐wor...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 (A) Ratio of net photosynthesis rate and maximum recorded energy...
Figure 12.2 Block diagram of main components of HSL architecture, in this ca...
Figure 12.3 Summary history of semiconductors, Paradigms, and power consumpt...
Figure 12.4 BLE protocol stack.
Figure 12.5 Bluetooth 5 protocol stack.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Single‐chambered algae‐MFCs.
Figure 13.2 Dual‐chambered algae‐MFCs.
Figure 13.3 Triple‐chambered algae‐MFCs.
Figure 13.4 Features of anode‐respiring bacteria.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Advantages of photo‐bioelectrochemical fuel cell in terms of ope...
Figure 14.2 Schematic representation of mechanism and function of photosynth...
Figure 14.3 Representation of the generalized mechanism of PBFC.
Figure 14.4 Synergistic effect of bacterial and algal biomass for pollutant ...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Mechanism of power generation by PMFC and formation of root exud...
Figure 15.2 Timeline of PMFC evolution.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 A schematic representation of sustainable capabilities in techno...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Photosynthesis‐Assisted Energy Generation
From Fundamentals to Lab Scale and In-Field Applications
Edited by
Sathish-Kumar Kamaraj
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN)-Centro de Investigación en Ciencia
Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Unidad Altamira (CICATA-Altamira),
Altamira, Tamps., México
Iryna Rusyn
Lviv Polytechnic National University
Lviv, Ukraine
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Kamaraj, Sathish‐Kumar, editor. | Rusyn, Iryna, editor.
Title: Photosynthesis‐assisted energy generation : from fundamentals to lab scale and in‐field applications / edited by Sathish‐Kumar Kamaraj, Iryna Rusyn.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023053436 (print) | LCCN 2023053437 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394172306 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394172313 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394172320 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Photosynthesis. | Electric power production.
Classification: LCC QK882 .P37 2024 (print) | LCC QK882 (ebook) | DDC 572/.46—dc23/eng/20231219
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023053436
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023053437
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of author
List of Contributors
Wilgince Apollon
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, Faculty of Agronomy
Autonomous University of Nuevo León
General Escobedo, Nuevo León
México
Mohnish M. Borker
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Padre Conceicao College of Engineering
Affiliated to Goa University
Verna, Goa
India
L.A. Díaz‐Colín
Division of Environmental Engineering
Technological of Higher Studies of Tianguistenco
Tianguistenco
México
Nicolas Flores‐Álamo
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Technological Institute of Toluca
National Technological of México
State of México
México
Selvaraj Gajalakshmi
Sustainable Fuel Cells Technology Lab
Centre for Pollution Control and Environmental Engineering
Pondicherry University
Puducherry
India
Nancy González Gamboa
Independent Researcher
Mérida, Yucatán, México
Soumya Ghosh
Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein
South Africa
and
Natural & Medical Science Research Center
University of Nizwa
Nizwa
Oman
Julio C. Gómora‐Hernández
Division of Environmental Engineering
Technological of Higher Studies of Tianguistenco
Tianguistenco
México
Kuppurangan Gunaseelan
Sustainable Fuel Cells Technology Lab
Centre for Pollution Control and Environmental Engineering
Pondicherry University
Puducherry
India
Nguyen Trung Hiep
Research Institute for Sustainable Development
Ho Chi Minh University of Natural
Resources and Environment
Ho Chi Minh City
Vietnam
Yolina Hubenova
Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology
Plovdiv University “Paisii Hilendarski”
Plovdiv
Bulgaria
and
Department of Electrocatalysis and Electrocrystallization
Institute of Electrochemistry and Energy Systems “Acad. E. Budevski” – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
Sofia
Bulgaria
Pratima B. Jayarm
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Nivedha Jayaseelan
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Miriam J. Jiménez‐Cedillo
Division of Environmental Engineering
Technological of Higher Studies of Tianguistenco
Tianguistenco
México
Kanimozhi Kaliyamoorthi
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Sathish‐Kumar Kamaraj
Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN)‐Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada Unidad Altamira (CICATA‐Altamira)
Altamira, Tamps.,
México
Vennila Lakshmanan
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Victor A. Maldonado‐Ruelas
Dirección de Posgrado e Investigación
Universidad Politécnica de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Mario Mitov
Innovative Center for Eco Energy Technologies
South‐West University “Neofit Rilski”
Blagoevgrad
Bulgaria
Anwesha Mukherjee
Department of Microbiology
Institute of Science
Nirma University
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
India
Lakshmipathy Muthukrishnan
Department of Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics
Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS)
Saveetha University
Chennai, Tamil Nadu
India
Nalini Namasivayam
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Vinh Nguyen
Thammasat University
School of Bio‐Chemical Engineering and Technology
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology
Thailand
and
Korea University
School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering
College of Engineering
Seoul
South Korea
Raúl A. Ortiz‐Medina
Dirección de Posgrado e Investigación
Universidad Politécnica de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Edith Osorio‐de‐la‐Rosa
División de Ciencia, Ingeniería y Tecnología
CONAHCYT‐Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Quintana Roo
Chetumal, Quintana Roo
México
Briska Jifrina Premnath
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Ravichandiran Ragunath
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Tani Carmel Raj
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Roshan Regmi
Thammasat UniversitySchool of Bio‐Chemical Engineering and Technology
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology
Thailand
and
CSIRO
Microbiome for One Systems Health (MOSH)
Australia
Iryna Rusyn
Department of Ecology and Sustainable Environmental Management, Viacheslav Chornovil
Institute of Sustainable Development
Lviv Polytechnic National University
Lviv
Ukraine
Manuel Sánchez‐Cárdenas
Direccion de Postgrado e Investigación
Universidad Politécnica de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Luis Antonio Sánchez‐Olmos
Direccion de Postgrado e Investigación
Universidad Politécnica de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Ranjita Sapkota
TERI School of Advance Studies
Department of Policy Studies
New Delhi
India
and
University of South Australia
Department of Business
Centre for Markets, Value and Inclusion, Adelaide, South Australia
Australia
Divya Shanmugavel
Programme of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology CINVESTAV del IPN
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Group
México
México
Omar Solorza‐Feria
Department of Chemistry, CINVESTAV del IPN
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Group
México
México
Manoj K. Srinivasan
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Olikkavi Subashchandrabose
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Faculty of Science
Annamalai University
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
India
Moogambigai Sugumar
Department of Medical Biotechnology and Integrative Physiology
Saveetha School of Engineering Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences
Thandalam, Chennai
India
Mirna Valdez‐Hernández
Herbario, Departamento Conservación de la Biodiversidad
El Colegio de la Frontera Sur
Chetumal, Quintana Roo
México
Omar Francisco G. Vazquez
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Javier Vázquez‐Castillo
División de Ciencia, Ingeniería y Tecnología
Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Quintana Roo
Chetumal, Quintana Roo
México
Marco A. Vázquez‐Gutierrez
Tecnológico Nacional de México
Campus El Llano Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
S. Ventura‐Cruz
Division of Environmental Engineering
Technological of Higher Studies of Tianguistenco
Tianguistenco
México
Ma. Del Rosario M. Virgen
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes
México
Rosa M. Woo‐García
Maestría en Ingeniería Aplicada, Facultad de Ingeniería de la Construcción y el Hábitat
Universidad Veracruzana
Boca del Río, Veracruz
México
and
Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electrónica
Universidad Veracruzana
Boca del Río, Veracruz
México
Preface
Sustainable renewable energy technologies are gaining prominence. The biological basis for sustainable renewable energy is the most appealing priority on that list. Sustainable photosynthesis‐assisted power generation is an intriguing renewable energy generation system, which generally exploits the light‐harvesting systems of phototrophic prokaryotes (oxygenic phototrophic‐cyanobacteria and anoxygenic phototrophic‐purple, green, and heliobacteria) and higher plants in biological systems. This may effectively capture and transform solar energy, resulting in anabolism and catabolism activity and ensuring biological system growth and development. The conversion of organic material into electricity using biocatalysts in microbial energy‐generating systems such as microbial fuel cells is an emerging renewable energy generation systems. The integration of these efficient energy generation systems with photosynthetic biological systems opens up new possibilities in the sustainable renewable energy industries. The first part of the book introduces the essence of getting bioelectricity through photosynthesis‐assisted systems, describing their fundamentals and basic operating principles. Direct electronic transfer (DET) and indirect electronic transfer (IET), including abiotic factors, are highlighted as key links in power generation. The section provides insights into the diversity and importance of both technological and biological components of photosynthesis‐assisted power‐generating systems. Functional fundamental materials such as electrodes, photocatalytic and membranes, as well as their structural design, are recognized as having a significant impact on the efficiency and power production of photosynthesis‐assisted systems. The possibilities, constraints, and significant sustainability factors for photosynthetic microbial fuel cells are addressed. The diversity of exploited plants, including C3, C4, and CAM plants, as well as wetland and drought‐resistant plants, is assessed, as is their critical impact on the performance of photosynthesis‐assisted power‐generating systems. The second part of the book presents an overview of the diversity of photosynthetic species used in photosynthesis‐assisted power generation, including anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria as well as oxygenic photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria, microalgae, bryophytes, and other plants. Electrogenic microalgae are studied, as well as the impact of biomass weight and light intensity, temperature, and pH on the performance of photosynthetic microbial fuel cells. Purple photosynthetic bacteria dry‐surface biofilms are clarified. Recent research on bryophytes as a prospective object of photosynthesis‐assisted power‐generating technology is presented due to their great stress tolerance and survival in a wide range of temperature conditions. The effect of plant species on the efficiency of plant microbial fuel cells (PMFCs) is explored, as well as the potential of wetland and drought‐resistant plants for photosynthesis‐assisted power generation. The third part of the book highlights advancements and recent trends in photosynthesis‐assisted microbial fuel cells to power various types of low‐energy‐consuming devices and IoT: as a power supply for real‐time LED and digital clocks, IoT‐based WSN sensor systems, powering batteries and partially loading a mobile phone, and so on. Because of their synergistic interrelationships, ammonium and phosphorus treatment with hybrid photoautotrophic algal‐assisted MFCs presents an effective sustainable technology for the elimination of organic matter and the removal/recovery of nutrients from different wastes with simultaneous zero‐waste bioenergy recovery. Photo‐bioelectrochemical fuel cells for antibiotics and dye removal with simultaneous power generation have only recently begun to emerge, but they have made great progress. PBFC systems have a high power generation capacity and can eliminate up to 99–100% of antibiotics and dyes, which is the topic of this section. The progress of PMFC applications for bioremediation as well as plant health monitoring and biosensing is presented. The book also discusses the challenges of obtaining bioelectricity on green roofs in various climatic conditions, such as northern countries with frosty winters and southern countries with arid climates, which both provide biosensing and climatic benefits by reducing urban heat island temperatures using various types of photosynthesis‐based microbial fuel cells. The prospect of agriculture‐based crops in PMFC for futuristic sustainable protected agriculture is also considered. Finally, the most critical features of photosynthesis‐assisted power generation sustainability are revealed. The topics encompassed in this discussion include renewable energy sources, the management of liquid effluents and solid residues in photosynthesis‐assisted power generation, the environmental implications of bioelectrochemical systems, cost challenges, and the transition to a practical scale, as well as social considerations. With this in consideration, this book delves into the different distinct light‐harvesting biological systems for energy generation, from principles to practical challenges ranging from the lab scale to in‐field application.
October 2023Altamira, Tamaulipas, México
Sathish‐Kumar KamarajIryna Rusyn
Acknowledgments
First, we want to thank God for blessing us with good health and the ability to edit this book. Our deepest gratitude goes to Wiley for believing in our work and accepting our book for publication. We thank all the authors who responded to the suggestion for cooperation and their excellent work. Thanks to everyone who helped make this book a reality – the authors, the reviewers, and everyone in between. We are grateful to the many publishers and authors who permitted us to use their work, especially the figures and tables.
Sathish‐Kumar Kamaraj would like to express his gratitude to the Director General of Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) and the Director of Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Unidad Altamira (CICATA Altamira), for their constant support and facilities in promoting the research activities. Thanks for the project SIP:20231443, Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado (SIP) – IPN. Further extensions to the funding agency of the National Council of Humanities, Sciences and Technologies (CONAHCyT – México) and the Secretary of Public Education (SEP – México). He extended his gratitude to Mrs. Mounika Kamaraj and Bbg. Aarudhraa for the family support.
Iryna Rusyn thanks God for the opportunity to work on this book during the difficult wartime in Ukraine and would like to express her gratitude to the family Mr. Oleksandr and Lukyan for their support.
Part IThe Basic Principle and Fundamentals of Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
The part introduces the essence of obtaining bioelectricity by the photosynthesis‐assisted systems presenting their fundamentals and basic principles of operation. Electron transfer mechanisms as an important link in power generation, the latest current data of their various types, direct electronic transfer (DET), and indirect electronic transfer (IET), including through abiotic elements, are discussed. Insights into the diversity and importance of both technological and biological components of photosynthesis‐assisted power generation systems are revealed in this section. Functional basic materials such as electrodes, photocatalytic and membranes, and also their structural design that has some of the crucial effects on efficiency and power output of the photosynthesis‐assisted systems are highlighted. Opportunities, limitations, and considerable sustainable parameters for photosynthetic microbial fuel cells are clarified. The diversity of exploited plants, C3, C4, and CAM plants, wetland and drought‐resistant plants, and their essential impact on the performance of photosynthesis‐assisted power generation systems are evaluated.
1Introduction to Electron Transfer Mechanisms in Photosynthesis‐Assisted Power Generation
Nancy González Gamboa
Independent Researcher, Mérida, Yucatán, México
1.1 Introduction
Electron transfer mechanisms (ETMs) are chains where microorganisms generate energy during their activities and this energy can be harnessed by bioelectrochemical systems. Microorganisms regulate their ETMs so that electrons from a donor are transferred to an available electron acceptor, which maximize their energy gain (Patil et al., 2012).
Bioelectrochemical systems, also known as plant microbial fuel cells (PMFC), are composed of two electrodes (anode and cathode) and an electrolyte. These systems utilize microorganisms that are either attached to one or both electrodes to catalyze the oxidation reaction at the anode and/or reduction reaction at the cathode (Hamelers et al., 2010).
Bioelectrochemical systems have the ability to transfer electrons bidirectionally between biotic and abiotic components, where redox‐active microorganisms or biomacromolecules catalyze the exchange process. PMFCs work through the ETM that occurs in bioelectrochemical systems, where microorganisms transport electrons to a final acceptor, known as the anode. These electrons then pass through an external circuit to reach the cathode, and protons migrate through ions dissolved in the electrolyte to reach the cathode; this process closes the circuit and generates electrical energy and removes the organic matter. MFCs can be used to generate hydrogen, known as microbial electrolysis cells, for the generation of solar energy, known as microbial solar cells, and microbial plant cells (photosynthesis) (Kumar et al., 2017).
The aim of this chapter is to describe the mechanism of electron transfer in PMFCs, occurring mainly at the anode and cathode of the systems, and the role of microorganisms working in the systems, as well as the various technologies that utilize the electron transport chain.
1.2 Electron Transfer Mechanism
A conventional microbial fuel cell (MFC) is composed of an anode and cathode chamber, which are separated by proton exchange membranes. The MFC generates its energy from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode, and with the reduction of oxygen at the cathode (Logan et al., 2005).
The key advantages of biological fuel cells, in comparison to conventional fuel cells, are the mild operation conditions (ambient temperature and near‐neutral pH) and the virtually unlimited range of potential fuels, for the oxidation of which we lack suitable electrocatalysts (Schröder, 2007).
Microorganisms are not evolutionarily designed to dispense energy to power a fuel cell—the majority of relevant redox processes take place within the microbial cells, and it is a great challenge and a major research issue to find means to efficiently divert electrons from the metabolism to the anode of the fuel cell. Various approaches have been proposed. They differ in the nature and the mechanism of the electron transfer from the microorganism to the fuel cell anode (Schröder, 2007).
Respiration in bacteria is a versatile process that involves multiple metabolic networks acting as conduits for electron flow to a terminal electron acceptor (TEA). Microorganisms harvest electrons from organic and/or inorganic molecules present in their environment and transfer these to specialized electron transport chains during cellular respiration. Electrons are ferried by the carrier proteins of the electron transport chain to the TEA for the purpose of generating energy via the creation of a transmembrane ion gradient for ATP synthesis. TEAs run the gamut from oxygen to organic carbon‐based molecules in the case of fermentation, and inorganic molecules such as sulfate and nitrate. In the case of oxygen, its high redox potential, easy uptake into the cell, and abundance in the atmosphere makes it a natural TEA for the majority of living organisms. In anaerobic environments, the cells depend on alternative TEAs for energy generation. Molecules such as nitrate and sulfate in dissolved form can be ingested into the cell and used for the energy generation process. However, many anaerobic environments do not possess sufficient reserves of soluble TEAs. In such cases, microbes adapt by extending their redox circuitry across the cell membrane and accessing TEAs for the final discharge of electrons. This phenomenon, called the extracellular electron transfer (EET), requires special mechanisms and structures that allow selective transfer of electrons outside the cell membrane. Microbes capable of EET are variously termed electroactive bacteria, exoelectrogens, electricigens, or anode‐respiring bacteria. This strategy, developed as a means to access the plentiful reserves of redox‐active electron donors in their surroundings, forms the crux of the current generation in MFCs (Aiyer, 2020).
1.2.1 Electron Transfer at the Anode
The microorganisms present in the anodic chamber extract electrons and protons by oxidizing organic substrates. Electric current is generated by maintaining these microbes in anaerobic conditions provided in the anodic chamber, away from any TEA such as oxygen, besides anode. The ETMs can be broadly classified as direct electron transfer (DET) (via membrane‐bound redox proteins or pilli without using any dissolved species), and mediated electron transfer (MET) (Nawaz et al., 2020).
The DET requires that microorganisms possess membrane‐bound electron transport protein relays that transfer electrons from the inside of the bacterial cell to its outside, terminating in an outer‐membrane (OM) redox protein that allows the electron transfer to an external, solid electron acceptor (a metal oxide or an MFC anode) (Schröder, 2007).
This process involves the direct transfer of electrons from the microbes to the electrode. For this to occur, physical contact between the bacterial cell membrane and the electrode is necessary. DET is accomplished via the outer membrane cytochromes (OMCs), conductive pili, or self‐assembled appendages called nanowires (Figure 1.1a). C‐type cytochromes, which are located on the outer surface of the bacterial membrane, are redox proteins that facilitate the transfer of electrons to an external TEA such as the MFC anode. The central role of c‐type cytochromes resides in transferring electrons from the cell interior to an exterior TEA (Aiyer, 2020).
Figure 1.1 Different mechanisms of electron transfers from microorganisms to electrodes (Aiyer, 2020).
The formation of conductive pili (nanowires) in exoelectrogenic microbes that allow the microbes to transfer electrons to a solid electron acceptor is another way of establishing DET. These pili are linked to the bacterial membrane‐bound cytochromes and allow electron transfer to TEAs that are physically distant from the microbes (Figure 1.1c). Another form of DET is through the formation of conductive biofilms. These biofilms have good electrical conductivity and are mainly associated with the Geobacteraceae family and related microorganisms enriched with sewage sludge (Figure 1.1c) (Aiyer, 2020; Schröder, 2007).
Many microorganisms lack the ability to transport electrons directly to the electrode; this mechanism is known as indirect electron transfer or mediated transfer (Figure 1.1b), because they are not in contact with the electrode surface. MET usually involves a redox carrier that acts as a shuttle to transfer electrons to the OER. In MFCs, this redox mediator gains electrons from the bacterial cells, leaving them in a reduced state, and transfers electrons to the anode, oxidizing itself in the process (Aiyer, 2020).
1.2.2 Electron Transfer at the Cathode
Oxygen is the most popular TEA. Microorganisms directly transfer the electrons from the anode to oxygen, or they assist in the oxidation of transition metal compounds for electron delivery to oxygen (Song et al., 2019).
According to numerous investigations, the configurations of MFCs are quite varied, including air‐cathode MFCs, aqueous cathodes using dissolved oxygen, and two‐chamber reactors with soluble catholytes or potable potentials, tubular packed bed reactors, and so on. In these different configurations of MFCs, microbes exist only in the anode chamber. However, some research found that bacteria inevitably grow on the cathodes and could even increase energy production significantly. In early 1997, Hasvold et al. discovered that bacteria colonize the cathode and catalyze the reduction of oxygen (Song et al., 2019).
Figure 1.2 Mechanisms of electron transfers from electrode to microorganisms (Aiyer, 2020).
Two main mechanisms have been reported, namely direct and indirect electron transfer. Direct electron transfer requires physical contact between the bacterial cell membrane and the cathode electrode surface (Figure 1.2a), and electrons from the electrode are directly received by the outer membrane redox macromolecules such as cytochromes. This ETM was reported with Geobacter species or mixed cultures using fumarate, nitrate, tetrachloroethene, CO2, O2, Cr(VI), or U(VI) as an electron acceptor. Shewanella putrefaciens, which is versatile in anodic EET mechanisms such as excreted flavins and menaquinone‐related redox mediators, as well as OMCs can utilize an outer membrane‐bound redox compound for electron transfer in microbially cathodic oxygen reduction (Huang et al., 2011).
Bergel reported that the presence of the biofilm on the MFCs’ cathode surface leads to efficient electron density. These findings encouraged the development of bio‐cathode MFC, where bacteria serve as biocatalysts to accept electrons from the cathode electrode. Up to now, bio‐cathode MFCs have attracted much attention and have been considered the promising MFCs (Song et al., 2019). Marine sediment MFC is one of the earlier applications of MFCs, where bacteria colonize on the cathode surface forming slimes, which catalyze the reduction of oxygen. This results in increase in catalytic activity of the cathode and an increase in the on‐load cell voltage from typically 1.2 to 1.6 V (Huang et al., 2011).
The indirect electron transfer mechanism (Figure 1.2b) does not need physical contact between the bacterial cell membrane and the cathode electrode surface. It has been suggested that in MFCs with naturally occurring microbial communities, extracellular substances are always involved in the electron transfer between microbes and electrodes (Huang et al., 2011).
Several phylogenetically diverse microbes (mostly bacteria) have been reported to generate electricity in mediator‐less MFCs. These include five classes of microorganisms such as Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Acidobacteria phyla, and some microalgae, yeast, and fungi, which have shown current generation in this technology. The prevalent bacterial species known to produce electricity in MFCs include dissimilatory iron‐reducing Geobacter spp., Shewanella spp., Rhodoferax ferrireducens, Aeromonas hydrophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium butyricum, and Enterococcus gallinarum. Alternatively, microalgae have been utilized as a substrate or biocathode in MFCs. Microalgae biomass contains a high level of proteins (32%) and carbohydrates (51%), which are readily degradable by the exoelectrogens to produce electricity. Velasquez‐Orta et al. obtained a power density of 277 W/m3 in MFC using Chlorella vulgaris (microalgae) powder as a substrate (Kumar et al., 2015).
Oxygen can function as an indirect electron acceptor in MFCs. This occurs when manganese oxides and iron salts are first reduced by the cathode (abiotically) and then re‐oxidized by bacteria. To achieve high electron transfer efficiency, manganese and iron are used as mediators of oxygen transfer under aerobic conditions (Song et al., 2019).
1.3 Photosynthesis in the Electron Transfer Mechanism
Major limitations of MFC are environmental toxicity, cost of electrode materials, and the availability of the final electron acceptor at the cathode. These obstacles could be overcome by using bio‐electrolytes, especially if the biocathode chamber had an oxygenator organism to reduce the costs and work as a final electron acceptor (Elshobary et al., 2021). There is a current trend to utilize photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae in MFCs to improve the performance of the technology and reduce costs. The PMFC, a biological cell that converts solar energy into bioelectricity with the aid of the microbes in the rhizosphere region of a plant, seems to be an emergent source of sustainable energy (Nitisoravut and Regmi, 2017). Other microorganisms that can rapidly generate O2 normally on this planet are microalgae that include eukaryotic algae and prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Microalgae are renowned photosynthetic organisms, which have the potential to produce bioelectricity by incorporating with MFCs (Elshobary et al., 2021).
Photosynthesis is dependent on two factors: carbon dioxide concentration and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) light intensity (Maddalwar et al., 2021).
Recently, the utilization of the photosynthesis process as a source of renewable energy by generating hydrogen, bioelectricity, and other biofuels, has been considered an efficient alternative to fossil fuels. The photosynthesis process depends on the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy for biomass production, and the conversion efficiency varies according to the species of photosynthetic organisms (Elshobary et al., 2021).
Similar to plants, the photosynthesis process is initiated by photon induction in algal cells, resulting in the fixation of carbon into various storage compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Bioelectricity production using algae seems to be a wise approach to extract energy from sunlight in an economical and sustainable manner. This is achieved through the integration of photosynthesis with an MFC. Algae have been used commonly in MFCs to reduce oxygen at the cathode or as a substrate for bacteria. However, sufficient electric current can also be generated at the anode, where cytochromes help indirect shuttling of electrons generated in photosystem II of the algal cells and can be called photosynthetic algal MFC (Shukla and Kumar, 2018).
Concurrent bioelectricity and biomass production make PMFC an appealing choice forfuture green energy. Although wind, solar, geothermal, and hydroelectric power undoubtedly decrease CO2 footprints, they also have some disadvantages such as landscape transformation, energy‐intensive processes, and geographic limitations. In contrast, PMFCs can generate continuous energy without competition for food and can be operated at any location. Mild operating conditions make PMFC more attractive than these traditionally considered alternative sources of energy (Nitisoravut and Regmi, 2017).
The selection of plant species also depends on the type of application such as power generation. It might be expected to have other applications such as heavy metal removal, phytoremediation, or sewage treatment plants (Maddalwar et al., 2021).
Microalgae convert solar energy into different forms of chemical energy using CO2 directly from the atmosphere. Sunlight is captured via the antenna of the chlorophyll and transferred to special chlorophyll dimers (P680 of photosystem I and P700 of photosystem II). Once photons excite these chlorophyll dimers, electron transportation is initiated through various transporter (Plastoquinone(PQ), Cytochrome b6F(Cyt b6F), Plactocyanine(PC)) and across membranes to produce ATP. The ferredoxin enzyme receives electrons from Photosystem I and transfers them to ferredoxin NADP+ oxidoreductase (FNR) to generate NADPH, which can be utilized in the dark reaction for CO2 fixation. Deviation from normal electrical conditions can split two water molecules into four photons to produce one oxygen molecule, four protons, and four exciting electrons, where two photons are used to reduce each NADP+ molecule (Elshobary et al., 2021).
1.3.1 Anodic Electrode
Electrons are transferred from the anode to the cathode to reduce the oxidized mediator, which then enters the microalgal cells to further oxidize, and release its electrons. The microalgal cells release the oxidized mediator into the medium, and the cycle repeats in this way. These electron mediators can be added externally or produced naturally by the microalgae themselves. This demonstrates that microalgae could be used as electron donors on the anode side in MFCs to generate electricity. In the anode compartment, different biodegradable microorganisms, mostly bacteria, are used to degrade organic matter of external origin or produced by microalgae. However, this oxidation process relies on the release of electrons from the microbial cell to the anode, unlike other biochemical and cellular processes, where electrons are transferred through a redox reaction (Elshobary et al., 2021).
Electrogenic microalgae are used at the anode as electron donors to generate bioelectricity through the process of photosynthesis in autotrophic algae or the degradation of organic compounds in heterotrophic algae. However, the generation of oxygen by algae on the anode side poses a serious problem for microalgae‐assisted MFC (MA‐MFC), as oxygen is an electron acceptor that could significantly reduce the electron flow. Most anode configurations for microalgae are restricted to the design of single‐chamber fuel cells (Elshobary et al., 2021).
PMFCs are an innovative, promising, and environmentally friendly way of generating renewable bioelectricity. The method of PMFCs consists of installation of electrode systems into the substrate with developing plants through the collection of bioelectricity produced by the electroactive microorganisms in the rhizosphere as a result of consuming products excreted via the roots by photosynthesis, and also feeding by plant decomposition products and substrate compounds (Rusyn, 2021).
Plants with C3 or C4 pathways are preferred for PMFC applications because the biomass production and the rate of photosynthesis are highest in C4 plants than C3 plants, and it is much lesser in plants with Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway (C4 > C3 > CAM) (Maddalwar et al., 2021).
1.3.2 Cathodic Electrode
The O2 level in the cathodic chamber determines the performance of the cathode. Microalgae serve as a renewable source of oxygen via the photosynthesis process, which can increase the level of O2 on the cathode side to increase MFC cathode potentials and power densities and to decrease cathode overpotentials, as most of the active cathodic sites are involved in the reaction (Elshobary et al., 2021).
There are different MFC configurations in which microalgae can be used in the cathode compartment. In the wet cathodic configuration, microalgae photosynthesize under light and produce electrons and protons depending on the utilization of CO2 and light. In this process, organic substances, algal biomass, and oxygen are produced as end products. The oxygen released during photosynthesis is consumed by the microalgae in the dark respiration process to degrade the organic matter and continue producing electrons and protons during the dark period. In the wet cathode fuel cell, the cathode and anode are immersed in the same fluid as the fuel cell, where the protons travel to the wet cathode without any mediator or ion exchange membrane to be oxidized within the fuel cell (Elshobary et al., 2021). Air cathode MFCs differ from the above by the use of an ion exchange membrane to transport protons to the cathode, which is located outside the fuel cell exposed to air for utilizing atmospheric oxygen as the final acceptor. In this design, pure algal cultures or a mix with some degradable bacteria can be used to improve the electron generation and the performance of the MFC by using organic materials produced by the microalgae as a substrate for bacterial degradation (Elshobary et al., 2021). Two‐chamber MFC in the absence of an ion exchange membrane, where algal cells are grown in one chamber under light conditions and fermenting microorganisms, are grown in the other chamber under dark conditions. This configuration relies on the degradation of organic matter (e.g. wastewater) by the fermenting microorganisms to produce electrons that flow through the external circuits, in addition to the CO2 used by the photosynthetic microalgae to reduce the electrons in the cathode chamber. Dual‐chamber MFC with proton exchange membrane is the most common for using microalgae as oxygen generators on the cathode side of the MFC. Activated sludge is used in the dark anode compartment and microalgae culture on the cathode side. The CO2 produced by the anode bacteria is transferred to the cathode compartment for use by the microalgae. There are also sediment MFC configurations, which rely on natural differences in electropotential created by using an anode buried in the sediment and a cathode submerged on top of the sediment. Electron flow is achieved through the decomposition of organic or inorganic compounds in the sediment by the microorganisms, while the generated CO2 is consumed by the microalgae cells in the upper cathode compartment, and the O2 produced by the microalgae acts as the final electron acceptor (Elshobary et al., 2021).
There are some studies in which plant species are grown in the cathodic chamber because the plant provides oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis in the cathodic chamber, which reacts with the electrons received through the MFC circuit to form water (Maddalwar et al., 2021).
Organic substrates are mainly supplied by the root deposits of aquatic plants in PMFCs and are degraded by bacteria on the anode surface to generate energy. The classical configuration of a PMFC is described by placing the anode immersed in a support matrix close to the plant roots to obtain the exudates as fuel, and the cathode position is enclosed to the plant root surface (Goto et al., 2015).
In recent years, plant‐based catalysts have been identified as producing high yields due to their large surface area, and research into these catalysts is expected to continue to grow (Martín‐Betancor et al., 2017).
1.4 Technologies In Which the Photosynthesis Process Can Be Applied for Energy Generation
Despite MA‐MFC would be more sustainable than using MFC alone, further developments in such systems are still necessary for improving its efficiency and achieving a real‐world application on a large scale. In this context, understanding the bio‐electrochemical mechanism of MA‐MFC, including electron shuttling and oxygen generation, is very important. Emissions of CO2 due to the consumption of fossil fuels have been estimated to increase from 388.5 in 2009 to 409.95 ppm by 2019, within only 10 years. To ensure energy security and reduce CO2 emissions, it is of utmost importance to develop alternative clean energy sources (Elshobary et al., 2021).
Algae and MFC integration has been found promising with respect to efficiency. Yagishita et al. (1997) established a system that converted light energy into electrical power with a conversion efficiency of only 3% (Elshobary et al., 2021; Yagishita et al., 1997).
An MFC assembled with an algae cathode and a Rhodospirillum rubrum suspension anode (sandblasted platinum electrodes) achieved, after 21 hours of continuous illumination, an open circuit voltage of 0.96 V and a short circuit density of 75 μA/cm². A cell free of organisms, operated for comparison, gave a decrease in open‐circuit potential over 7 hours, from 0.19 to 0.03 V. The short circuit current density decreased from 7.0 to 6.1 μA/cm². These data demonstrate the ability of specific microorganisms to convert light energy to electrical energy. The electrical power derived from these cells is estimated to be approximately 0.1–0.2% of that available from the incident radiation. This low efficiency is attributed to both biological and electrochemical inefficiencies (Song et al., 2019)
In a study by Xu et al. (2015), Chlorella pyrenoidosa was introduced at the anode of air cathodic CBM, which reported a maximum power density of 6.03 W/m2 anodically, more than 200 times higher than that obtained with bacterial MFC (0.03 W/m2) (Zhou et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2015). The highest electrical power (1.64 mW/m2) was recorded in the dark with the highest voltage (390 mV) compared to the daytime electrical power, which did not exceed 0.132 mW/m2. Lin et al. (2013) used the same MA‐MFC design but with Spirulina platensis biofilm in the anode electrolyte. The results showed that the maximum open circuit voltage (OCV) of the MA‐MFC (490 mV) and the maximum power density reached 10 mW/m2 when connected to an external 1 kΩ resistor (Elshobary et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2013).
Two different algae have been used as dry feed powder in the MFCs of an anode chamber, namely C. vulgaris (microalgae) and Ulva lactuca (macroalgae). The C. vulgaris feedstock generated a higher power density (980 mW/m2) than that produced by U. lactuca (760 mW m) with a power generation of 2.5 kWh/kg, while U. lactuca showed a high degradability rate higher than that of C. vulgaris (Velasquez‐Orta et al., 2009). On the other hand, a full MFC can be performed by microalgae in both electrolytic chambers using algal biomass in the bioanode chamber and live microalgae on the cathode side. This MFC relies on the use of CO2 released in the anode chamber to grow live microalgae in the cathode chamber. In this context, dead Scenedesmus sp. microalgae biomass (collected from polluted streams) was used as a substrate on the anode side and live C. vulgaris was used in the cathodic chamber of the MFC (Elshobary et al., 2021; Cui et al., 2014).
Wang et al. (2014) demonstrated a maximum power density of 38 mW/m3 by the MFC system equipped with a carbon nanotube (CNT)‐coated cathode inoculated with microalga (Allegue and Hinge, 2014) (Wang et al., 2014). Sun et al. used a microalgal MFC that completed superior removal effect of nitrogen (94.05% NH43+‐N and 77.35% inorganic nitrogen) and organic matter (76.66%) in nitrogenous maricultural wastewater, which ascribed to the integrated performance of microalgae, electrodes, and anodic bacteria (Jiaqi et al., 2020). The most exciting investigations of microalgal MFC are to make it a self‐sustaining system, for example, the nutrient required for algae growth can originate from photosynthesis products themselves during the reduction of CO2 (Xu et al., 2021).
Lan et al. (2013) studied the impact of red and blue monochromatic light of wavelengths 620–750 and 450–495 nm, respectively, on the anode‐assisted Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and reported that red LED light increased the power density to 12.95 mW/m2, which was more than 60% higher than the power density provided by blue LED light at the same intensity. This phenomenon was attributed to the increased growth rate when grown under red light wavelength, ranging from 650 to 750 nm, thus enhancing the photosynthesis process, electron flow rate, and energy production (Elshobary et al., 2021; Lan et al., 2013). Table 1.1 summarizes different types of MFCs with different algae and their performance.
Table 1.1 Maximum power density using microalgae at anode, cathode, or substrate for power generation (Elshobary et al., 2021; Shukla and Kumar, 2018).
Species
Function
Type of MFC
P
max
(mW/m
2
)
P
max
(mW/m
3
)
Spirulina platensis
Bioanode
Single chamber
1.64
S. platensis
Bioanode
Single chamber
10
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Bioanode
Single chamber
75
2100
Cyanobacteria
Bioanode
Single chamber
72
72
Synechocystis sp
.
Bioanode
Two‐chambered
6.7
Mixed cyanobacteria
Bioanode
Two‐chambered
72
Mixed microalgae
Bioanode
Single chamber
76
1060
Mixed microalgae
Bioanode
Single chamber
0.003
0.005
Chlorella pyrenoidosa
Bioanode
Dual chamber
30.2
120
C. pyrenoidosa
Bioanode
Dual chamber
2.5
450
Microcystis aeruginosa
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
58
Chlorella vulgaris
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
13.5
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
18.7
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
2485.35
C. pyrenoidosa
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
2.5
450
Desmodesmus sp
.
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
64.2
820
Scenedesmus acutus
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
400
Mixed microalgae
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
2800
Cyanobacterial blooms
Biocathode
Sediment
16.7
Mixed microalgae cyanobacteria
Biocathode
Sediment
11
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Sediment
68
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Sediment
38
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Sediment
48.5
Mixed microalgae
Biocathode
Sediment
22.19
Mixed microalgae
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
5700
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Dual‐chamber
600
C. vulgaris
Biocathode
Three‐chambered
151
Microcystis aeruginosa
Substrate
Two‐chambered
4140
Arthrospira maxima
Substrate
Two‐chambered
100
Synechococcus leopoliensis
Substrate
Stack of 9MFCS
4250
Cyanobacteria
Substrate
Single chamber
114
2570
C. vulgaris
Substrate
Single chamber
980
2770
C. vulgaris
Substrate
Two‐chambered
3700
C. vulgaris
Substrate
Two‐chambered
15
370
Dunaliella tertiolecta
Substrate
Two‐chambered
5.3
672
Scenedesmus obliquus
Substrate
Two‐chambered
102
950
Scenedesmus sp
.
Substrate
Two‐chambered
1780
