Plant Mediated Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This book provides valuable knowledge about environmentally friendly methods of nanoparticle synthesis. The contents present information about the subject from synthesis, characterization, advantages, disadvantages, route of administrations up to effects of drug combinations.
Starting with an introduction to the concept of green nanoparticles, the book summarizes different types of plant extracts and their components. Green methods for preparing nanotherapeutic agents utilizing algae and marine plants to synthesize metal based nanoparticles are also explained. The book also places an emphasis on the improvement of metal nanoparticle formulations with polymers for antibacterial applications. A detailed review of the interaction of nanoparticles with or without drugs rounds the contents, with a guide to easily understand their site of action along with suitable reactions in the body.
This book is a primer on nanoparticle synthesis for pharmacology or nanomedicine programs that focus on sustainable and environmentally friendly methodologies for synthesizing therapeutics.
Readership
Students and academics in pharmacology and nanomedicine courses. Researchers studying sustainable methods for metal based nanoparticle production.
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Seitenzahl: 246
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
The term “Green” makes us recall something natural, eco-friendly, economical, non-hazardous and environmentally friendly. Nowadays, we are living in a world where we largely depend on medicines to cater to health issues. In this era, the pharmaceutical industry has become an important part of our lives. We know that the formation of medicines requires three main components i.e. reagent, solvent, and energy but the use of hazardous chemicals results in the formation of medicines with harmful effects. There is a strong need to generate medicines that do not harm the body and cure disease with ease. In this way, green synthesis is found to be very effective in producing pharmaceutical products having very little consumption of sources as well as less waste production with the development of new methods and resources of synthesis. This book aims to know the qualities of nanoparticles obtained from plants through green approaches of synthesis. The content of this book gives information about different methods of synthesis of green nanoparticles by using various metal salts and different characterization techniques used to identify them. Along with that, this chapter elaborates on the use of green nanoparticles alone in the form of medicines as well as with synergism with various preexisting drugs. The mechanism of action of these green nanodrugs is also explained. So, this book provides comprehensive knowledge of green nanomedicines that have the ability to replace harmful and costly medicines.
This book will be very helpful for postgraduate students and scholars who have selected nanoparticles as their area of research. This will provide them an insight into the topic and related targets.
We highly appreciate and thank the publisher for the utmost efforts they put in to give an excellent and uniform style to the text of the book.
List of Contributors
Green Nanoparticles: An Introduction
Savita Ahlawat1,*,Nirantak Kumar1Abstract
This chapter elaborates the basic introduction of nanoparticles obtained from different sources. This includes the information regarding different types of nanoparticles, methods of synthesis and important principles of green chemistry etc. along with all these parameters this chapter emphasize on production of environmental friendly green nanoparticles by using different parts of the plants such as stem, bark, leaves, root, flower, seed and fruit etc. Clear information can be gathered from the chapter regarding appropriate parameters and precautions to be taken while synthesis of green and sustainable materials with wide ranges of applications which includes essential industries like food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals etc. Brief introduction has also been mentioned here about the various characterization techniques adopted for identification and monitoring of green nanoparticles.
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology carried out at the Nano-scale, which ranges from up to 100 nm. Richards Feynman is the pioneer of nanotechnology. The study of incredibly small objects is known as nanoscience or nanotechnology, and it has applications in all other scientific domains, including chemistry, biology, physics, material science, and engineering. Richard Feynman proposed the theory and notion behind nanotechnology and nanoscience in a discussion on “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom” at a meeting on December 29, 1959. Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. The ability to observe and control individual atoms and molecules is at the heart of nanotechnology and nanoscience. Atoms contribute to everything on Earth, especially the food we consume, the clothes we put on, buildings, houses, and our bodies. However, atoms are so minuscule that they are invisible to the naked eye.
The microscope, which is used in the school science lab, can also observe the infection. In the early 1980s, the microscope required to examine the thing at the Nano size was invented. Scientists possessed the necessary tools at the time, such as the scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM). Today's scientists and engineers are discovering a wide range of ways to purposefully create materials at the Nano size in order to benefit from them. Nanotechnology is a small solution to big problems. As it is the rule of nature that a thing with advantages has disadvantages too (Fig. 1).
Fig. (1)) Nanotechnology's benefits and drawbacks.2. Types of nanotechnology
There are many forms of nanotechnology, which are explained below. These forms depend upon different techniques for the formation of nanoparticles.
2.1. Descending (Top-down)
This is the most frequent trend, especially in the electronic field. The structure is miniature at the nanometer scale from 1 to 100 nanometers.
2.2. Ascending (Bottom-up)
This is a mounting or self-assembly process that allows you to build a larger mechanism than you started with (you start with a Nanometric structure- a molecule) [1].
2.3. Dry Nanotechnology
It is utilized to make structures that do not work with humidity out of coal, silicon, inorganic materials, metals, and semiconductors.
2.4. Wet Nanotechnology
Based on biological systems found in watery environments. It is concerned with genetic material, the membrane, enzymes, and other cellular components.
2.5. Green Nanotechnology
This branch of nanotechnology deals with the concept of green chemistry and green engineering. It refers to the utilization of plant products. It consumes less energy and fuel. NPs synthesized by biological methods are more valuable and preferred over Physicochemical methods. Physico-chemical methods require a large amount of investment, which may allow the use of toxic solvents and the production of hazardous substances at the end of the process. Whereas in chemical methods, the use of more than one chemical species may lead to toxicity, which also harms human health and the environment. NPs synthesized from green synthesis have different approaches to synthesis.
3. What is a nanoparticle?
Nanoparticles are materials with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nm. They fall in the transition zone between the molecule and their bulk counterparts [2, 3]. Because of their small size, they feature unique physiochemical qualities such as enormous surface area, high energy, and quantum confinement [4-6]. Since they have their very large scale specific surface area, high surface energy, and quantum confinement [7], they exhibit numerous unique properties (optical, magnetic, electrical, and so on). Because of their unique physiochemical properties, nanoparticles have a wide range of uses, including medicine [8], cosmetics [9], electronics [10], the food business [11], and the chemical industry [12]. Nanoparticles exhibit a wide range of chemical and morphological features [13].
3.1. Types of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles come in a variety of forms, including metallic, metal oxide-based, alloy-based, magnetic, and others, which are addressed further below:
3.1.1. Metallic Nanoparticles
These are nano metals with nanoscopic dimensions (between 1-100nm). The existence of metallic nanoparticles in solution was first recognized by Faraday in 1857 [14], and Mie published a quantum description of the color-changing behavior of nanoparticles in solution in 1908 [15]. The following are some essential characteristics of metallic nanoparticles:
A high surface area-to-volume ratioHigh surface energyParticular electrical structurePlasmon stimulationQuantum confinementThere are numerous varieties of metallic nanoparticles that have been created, the most common of which are silver, gold [16], copper [17], palladium [18], and platinum [19]. Because of its unique anti-bacterial characteristics, silver is a commonly preferred nanoparticle and can be easily converted from monovalent silver into metallic silver [20]. Silver shows a higher tendency towards the plasmon excitation [21]. It also shows a wide range of applications in various fields like medicine [22], textiles [23], water treatment [24], and catalysis [25].
3.1.2. Metal Oxide Nanoparticle
These nanoparticles are created by connecting metal centers with Oxo (M-O-M) or hydroxo (M-OH-M) bridges, resulting in metal-Oxo or metal-hydroxo polymers in solution [26].
3.1.3. Alloy Nanoparticles
These are the alloy nanoparticles that are formed by combining different elements, and they show metallic properties. The synergic effect enhances the specific properties of alloy nanoparticles [27]. Their physical and chemical qualities are modifiable by varying the composition, atomic order, and size of the clusters [28]. Nano alloy has different properties than the bulk which leads to a number of properties in different fields such as electronics, engineering, and catalysis [29].
3.1.4. Magnetic Nanoparticles
These nanoparticles are made up of two parts: a magnetic component (such as iron, nickel, or cobalt) and a chemical component with a specified functionality [30]. Because of the magnetic component, these magnetic nanoparticles may be easily manipulated [31]. They exhibit a range of magnetic properties and are hence used in catalysis [32], medical diagnosis [33] and tissue-specific targeting [34].
4. Principles of green chemistry
There are twelve major concepts that support the use of green chemistry in the synthesis of green nanoparticles [35]:
4.1. Prevention
Necessary steps should be taken to avoid the formation of waste products during and after synthesis.
4.2. Atom Economy
The synthesis components must be turned into the end product without the production of extra materials.
4.3. Safer Solvent
Use of auxiliary chemicals and solvents should be avoided.
4.4. Less Risky Chemical Synthesis
Synthesis procedures that need materials with low or no toxicity to the environment should be used.
4.5. Utilization of Renewable Feedstocks
The feedstock must be renewable, with minimal depletion.
4.6. Catalysis
Catalysis agents should be used as stoichiometric agents.
4.7. Creating Safer Chemicals
Chemicals should be designed to perform a certain function with minimum harmful environmental effects.
4.8. Avoid Derivatives
If feasible, avoid derivatives such as protecting or deprotecting groups and blocking agents.
4.9. Degradation Design
Chemicals should be chosen so that they degrade into non-toxic derivatives at the conclusion of synthesis.
4.10. Real-time Analysis for Pollution Prevention
Toxic chemical synthesis should be monitored in real-time.
4.11. Design for Energy Efficiency
The usage of energy for synthesis should be kept to a minimum.
4.12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention
Synthetic agents should be chosen with care to avoid potentially dangerous mishaps.
5. Nanoparticles produced by using parts of plants
Previously, the biosynthesis of AgNPs utilizing medicinal herbs was reported [36]. These medical plant extracts are advantageous because they are cost-effective, energy-efficient, and safeguard human and environmental health. Such approaches promote healthier workplaces and, as a result, are acceptable in all aspects of AgNP synthesis. Azadirachta indica (A. indica) is a medicinal plant that is used to cure a variety of ailments. Because of the presence of terpenoids and flavanones, which enable the stabilization of AgNPs, A. indica extract is useful for the synthesis of AgNPs. Many investigations have previously reported AgNP production utilizing A. indica leaf extract [37]. To the best of our knowledge, AgNP biosynthesis using A.indica fruit extract has only been studied once.
5.1. Fruit
Natural bioactive compounds found in fruit extracts have been shown to have great medicinal potential [38-40]. Consumption of fruit and its products not only improves individuals' health but also lowers their risk of various diseases such as age-related muscular degeneration, aging, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, cataracts of the eye, compromised immune system, gastrointestinal disorders, hypertension, and high cholesterol [41]. They are high in dietary fibers, minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, and potassium), vitamins (ascorbic acid, folic acid, and vitamin A), and phytochemicals and antioxidants. Fruit-derived nanoparticles have been shown to have antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, and catalytic properties. Carotenoids are plant pigments that give fruits their red, yellow, and orange colors [42]. Various animal and human research have demonstrated that lycopene has anti-inflammatory properties [43-46]. Citrus fruits and berries are high in flavonoids.
Fruits rich in anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saccharides, and other vitamins include blueberries, blackberries, grapes, Citrullus lanatus, Terminalia arjuna, and Funica granatum [47]. Citrus medica Linn's juice, Capparis spinosa whole fruit, and Fragaria ananassa whole fruit are utilized to produce copper oxide nanoparticles, which have an advantage over biological techniques.
5.2. Root
Silver nanoparticles can be manufactured using the plant root of Morinda citrifolia, which belongs to the Rubiaceae family and has long been used in traditional medicine to cure a variety of diseases such as Atherosclerosis [48], hypertension [49], colic [50], and diarrhea [51]. The principal elements present in the roots of M. citrifolia are isoflavonoids, flavonoids, proteins, alkaloids, terpenoids, carbohydrates, and proteins present in the plant, which act as a stabilizing and reducing agent in the creation of silver nanoparticles. Damnacanthal, an anthraquinone derivative of M. citrifolia, has a cytotoxic effect against breast cancer cells. It also has antifungal efficacy against Candida albicans and anti-tuberculosis activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis [52, 53].
5.3. Flower
Trifolium pratense flower extract was also used to create zinc oxide nanoparticles. T. pratense is a member of the Leguminosae family and contains anthocyanins, phenolic acid, and a trace of tannins. Carotene, essential oils, and vitamins C and E are all present. T. pratense possesses a high concentration of estrogenic isoflavones. These isoflavones have cardiovascular, skin, and bone-protecting properties [54].
5.4. Leaf
Extraction of plant leaf extracts such as tea leaves [55] or tree and shrub leaves is carried out [56]. When opposed to traditional methods, the utilization of these extracts offers various advantages. The polyphenolic matrix can operate as a capping agent, preventing early oxidation of the iron nanoparticles, and it can be employed as a source of nutrients and microbes for a possible bioremediation activity after chemical treatment.
5.5. Seed
The aqueous seed extract of Jatropha curcas, a tree of major economic value, can be used to create nanoparticles. Because of the presence of 40-50% oil from seed, it has been identified as a possible biodiesel crop. This, through a chemical or lipid-mediated esterification process, can be transformed into biodiesel. Jatropha seed kernels yield 40-60% oil as a valuable end product. It has 47% crude fat, 25% crude protein, 10% crude fiber, 5% moisture, and 8% carbohydrates [57-59].
5.6. Bark
The bark of Pinus eldarica contains a high concentration of phenolic compounds, which have significant antioxidant properties. The goal of this project was to create silver nanoparticles. Pinus bark was employed as a reducing agent in the creation of silver nanoparticles. The bark of the medicinal plant Syzygium cumini is used to reduce blood pressure and gingivitis [60]. Phytochemical substances found in the plant include phenols, tannins, alkaloids, glycosides, amino acids, and flavones [61]. The bark extract is used to create silver nanoparticles that have antibacterial properties against bacteria such as E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Azotobacter cerococcid, and Bacillus licheniformis.
Table 1 Different parts of various plants used to synthesize nanoparticles with variable shapes, sizes, and morphology.
6. Green nanoparticles
Green chemistry is a collection of concepts that reduce the use of harmful compounds in chemical property design, manufacture, and application. Green nanoparticles can be synthesized by the use of microorganisms, plants, etc. Biological methods are more valuable and preferred over Physio-chemical methods. Physio-chemical methods require a large amount of investment, which may allow the use of toxic solvents, and the production of hazardous substances at the end of the process. Whereas chemical methods use more than one chemical species that may lead to toxicity, which harms human health and the environment. Green NPs synthesized from green synthesis have different approaches to synthesis. This process allows the use of natural extracts, such as tree leaves, crops, etc. in place of expensive and highly toxic chemical species and this process is eco-friendly [77]. Green nanoparticles synthesized from traditional methods have some benefits as well as drawbacks. Benefits include extensive scalability [78], high control over the morphology of NPs [79-81], battery conduction innovation, electrical applications [82-86], use in medical processes (disease therapy) [87, 88], and storage of conservation of energy [89-91]. The negative effects include unlimited utilization of organic solvents, which causes neuronal disorders and reproductive risks [92-94]. The use of high pressure and heat during synthesis may result in hazardous working circumstances [95-97]. Excess release of carbon monoxide can cause a greenhouse effect [98, 99].
Due to the harmful effects of traditional methods, the use of these methods has reduced and green synthesis has come into existence. It is clean, safe, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly since it adheres to the 12 principles of green chemistry [100]. Substrates used in this process are bacteria, fungi, yeast, algae, and certain plants. Because of the above properties and applications, this process is beneficial for antimicrobial [101], natural reduction, and stabilizing properties. This process also includes the use of some specific enzymes [102], amino acid groupings [103], proteins, or chemical structures [104, 105]. The 12 principles were reconsidered by Galoszka et al. in 2012 [106]. They suggest the “SIGNIFICANCE” word which includes all these 12 principles.
S-select technological devices.
I- incorporate analyzing processes and tasks.
G-generate minimal waste.
N-never waste energy.
I-implement automating and tiny technique.
F-favor agent derived from renewable sources.
I-improve operational safety.
C-carry out an internal evaluation.
A-Absolute-avoid derivatization.
N-note the sample size and number to a minimum.
C-choose several analytes.
E-eliminate hazardous reagents.
Therefore, from the above text, it is very clear that nanoparticles play a vital role in different fields.
7. Types of green nanoparticles
The types of green nanoparticles metals, ceramics, and polymers, whereas the advanced green nanoparticles are classified as semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nano-engineered materials (Fig. 2).
7.1. Metals
These groups include one or more metallic elements such as silver (Ag), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), gold (Au), and nickel (Ni) [107]. Moreover, nonmetallic components such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are also included. This category shows important structural applications because of their stiffness, strong, ductile behavior, and resistance to fracture [108, 109].
Fig. (2)) Classification of composite materials.7.2. Ceramics
They are intermediates between metallic and nonmetallic elements. These can be oxides, nitrides, or carbides [110], aluminum oxide, silicon nitride, silicon dioxide, and silicon carbide. Other traditional examples of ceramics are porcelain, cement, and glass. These are stiffer and stronger as compared to metals. They are extremely brittle, rigid, and easily fractured. They show low conductivity towards electricity and high resistance to high temperatures. Ceramics can be clear, translucent, or opaque based on the optical character. Fe3O4 is the only ceramic oxide that shows magnetic properties [111].
