Porphyrin-Based Composites E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Discover the transformative potential of porphyrin-based composites in Porphyrin-Based Composites where readers will learn how these innovative materials enhance industrial sectors by combining multiple porphyrin components to create durable, sensitive, and efficient technologies that outperform traditional materials.
This book highlights the benefits of adopting porphyrin composites and discusses how they are used in different industrial sectors. Combining multiple porphyrin components is used to create materials with properties that are not possible with individual components, remove restrictions of water-insolubility, and ultimately lead to the development of durable and more sensitive technological materials. Composite materials have been essential to human life for thousands of years, beginning with the construction of houses by the first civilizations and advancing to modern technologies. Originating in the mid-twentieth century, composite materials show promise as a class of engineering materials that offer new opportunities for contemporary technology and have been beneficially incorporated into practically every sector due to their ability to choose elements, tune them to achieve the desired qualities, and efficiently use those features through design. Additionally, composite materials offer greater strength- and modulus-to-weight ratios than standard engineering materials. Materials based on porphyrin composites are used in a wide range of applications, including sensors, molecular probes, electrical gadgets, electronic devices, construction materials, catalysis, medicine, and environmental and energy applications.
Readers will find the book:
- Provides an overview of several porphyrin composites as model materials for commercial settings;
- Discusses fundamental, experimental, and theoretical research on structural and physicochemical properties of porphyrin composites;
- Demonstrates how complementary and alternative material designs that use porphyrin composites have evolved;
- Emphasizes important uses for cutting-edge, multipurpose materials that might contribute to a more sustainable society;
- Opens new possibilities by examining the role of developing unique hybrid, composite, and higher-order hierarchical materials that may be utilized to make valuable chemicals.
Audience
Researchers, academicians, chemists, industry experts, and students working in the fields of materials and environmental sciences, engineering, textiles, biology, and medicine.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Part I: Overview of Porphyrins
1 Composite Materials Utilizing Porphyrin Template: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Development and Construction of Porphyrin Composites
1.3 Applications of Porphyrin-Based Composites
1.4 Future Perspectives
1.5 Conclusion
References
2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis Methods for Porphyrin Composites
2.3 Characterization Techniques
2.4 Physical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials
2.5 Mechanical Properties of Porphyrin Composite Materials
2.6 Influence of Porphyrin Functionalization on Properties
2.7 Applications of Porphyrin Composite Materials
2.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives
2.9 Conclusion
References
3 Porphyrin Composite Materials Analysis, Design, Manufacturing and Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Porphyrin Aspects
3.3 The Analogs Design of Porphyrins
3.4 Composites
3.5 Types of Porphyrin-Based Composites Framework
3.6 Few Important Methods for Analysis of Porphyrins
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 Advanced Characterization Methods and Characterization Types for Porphyrins
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Characterization Techniques Utilized for Porphyrins Analysis
4.3 HOMO-LUMO Relations for Porphyrins
4.4 Optical and Electro-Field Analysis
4.5 Applications in Solar Cells
4.6 DLS Analysis for Porphyrins
4.7 AFM Analysis for Porphyrins
4.8 Conclusion
References
Part II: Source, Design, Manufacturing, Properties and Fundamentals
5 Spectroscopic Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Porphyrins
5.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin
5.4 Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposites Materials
5.5 Properties of Porphyrin-Functionalized Nanocomposite Materials
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 Electrochemical Advancements in Porphyrin Materials: From Fundamentals to Electrocatalytic Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals of Porphyrin-Based Materials
6.3 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Electrocatalysis Applications
6.4 Conclusion and Outlooks
References
7 Manifestation of Porphyrin Composites in Variety of Photocatalytic Processes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Porphyrin Composites
7.3 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites
7.4 Photocatalytic Applications of Porphyrin Composites
7.5 Conclusions
References
8 The Use of Porphyrin Composite Materials as Catalyst in a Variety of Application Sectors
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Related Works
8.3 Porphyrin-Based MOFs: Synthesis Methods, Structural Characteristics, and Characterization Techniques
8.4 Design and Construction of Porphyrin-Based MOFs
8.5 Application of Porphyrin-Based MOFs
8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
Part III: Advantages and Applications of Porphyrin Composites Materials
9 Porphyrin Composites Provide New Design and Building Construction Options
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Design Idea of Porphyrin Compound Material
9.3 Construction of Porphyrin Electrochemiluminescence Molecules
9.4 Construction and Characterization of Porphyrin Surface Interface Transport Molecules
9.5 Composite of Porphyrins with Carbon-Based Materials
9.6 Porphyrin-Based MOFs, COFs, HOFs Porous Materials and Properties
9.7 Construction of Composite Materials of Porphyrins and Metal Nanoparticles
9.8 Properties of Porphyrin Nuclei
9.9 Application of Porphyrin Nuclei
9.10 Conclusion and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
10 A Comprehensive Review of Molecular Mechanisms Involved in Development of Porphyria, Due to Defective Porphyrin Biosynthesis in the Human Body
10.1 Porphyrin Composites in Medicine – An Introduction
10.2 Nature of Porphyrins
10.3 Porphyrin Biosynthesis in Humans
10.4 Porphyria- Erythropoietic Disorders Due to Defects in Porphyrin Metabolism
10.5 Acquired Porphyrias Due to EXCESsive Arsenic and Lead Exposure
10.6 Diagnosis of Porphyrias
10.7 Newer Therapeutics for Porphyrias: Givosiran Treatment and Afamelanotide Application
10.8 Conclusion
Bibliography
11 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles and Their Potential Scopes for Targeted Drug Delivery and Cancer Therapy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Porphyrin and Their Advantage in Medical Science
11.3 Porphyrin-Based Nanoparticles (PBNPs)
11.4 Porphyrin-Based Micelles
11.5 Porphyrin-Conjugated Mesenchymal Stem Cells
11.6 Metal-Metalloporphyrin Frameworks (MMPFs)
11.7 Porphyrin-Loaded Covalent-Organic Frameworks (COFs)
11.8 Porphyrin-Based Noble Metallic NPs
11.9 Porphyrin-Based Quantum Dots
11.10 Implication of PBNPs in Targeted Drug Delivery
11.11 Potential Scope of PB-NPs in Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
11.12 Limitations
11.13 Conclusions
References
12 Role and Scope of Porphyrin Composites in Biotechnology
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Therapeutic Roles of Porphyrins
12.3 The Role of Porphyrins in Medical Imaging
12.4 Bifunctional Functions of Porphyrin Conjugates
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage and Conversion
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Porphyrin-Based Composites
13.3 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Storage
13.4 Porphyrin Composites for Energy Conversion
13.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
14 Porous Organic Frameworks Based on Porphyrinoids for Clean Energy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 COFs in Catalysis
14.3 COF-Based Organic Materials and Their Synthesis
14.4 Designing of Porphyrin-Based COF Catalysts
14.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
15 Porphyrin Composite Materials as an Electrode, a Material for Thin Films and Battery Components
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Porphyrin Composites as Electrode Materials
15.3 Porphyrin Composites in Battery Components
15.4 Thin Films of Porphyrin Composites
15.5 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE)
15.6 Structural and Morphological Properties of Porphyrin Composite Thin Films
15.7 Applications of Porphyrin Thin Films in Various Sectors
15.8 Future Directions and Emerging Trends
15.9 Current State of Porphyrin Composite Research
15.10 Emerging Trends in Porphyrin Composite Materials
15.11 Future Prospects and Potential Breakthroughs
15.12 Conclusion
References
16 Porphyrin Composite Materials as Electronic Component: Electronic Devices and Electronic Gadgets
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin and Porphyrin Composite Materials
16.3 Porphyrin Composite Materials for Electronic Gadgets and Devices
16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
17 Advances of Porphyrin Composites for the Effective Adsorption and Degradation of Pollutants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Structural Features of Porphyrin Composites
17.3 Synthesis and Properties of Different Porphyrin Composites
17.4 Porphyrin-Based Materials for Selective Adsorption of Pollutants
17.5 Desorption, Regeneration, and Reusability of Porphyrin Materials
17.6 Concluding Remarks
References
18 Thin Film of Porphyrin for Heavy Metal Ion Sensing
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Monolayer of Free Base Porphyrin Molecule and Its Characterization
18.3 Sensing Application of Tetraphenylporphyrin
18.4 Conclusion
References
19 Porphyrin Composite in the Agriculture and Food Industries
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Background
19.3 Impact on Agriculture
19.4 Impact on Food Industry
19.5 Conclusion
References
20 Porphyrin Nanocomposites for Synergistic Treatment and Diagnostics: Biostability, Biocompatibility, and Therapeutic Efficacy
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Biostability of Porphyrin Nanocomposites
20.3 Biocompatibility of Porphyrin Nanocomposites
20.4 Therapeutic Efficacy of Porphyrin Nanocomposites
20.5 Future Perspectives and Challenges
20.6 Conclusions
References
21 Diversity, Stability, and Selectivity for Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Diversity in Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials
21.3 Introduction to Various Composite Materials Incorporating Porphyrins
21.4 Stability of Porphyrin-Based Composite Materials
21.5 Strategies to Enhance Stability of Porphyrins
21.6 Conclusions
References
22 Future Scope, Performance, Challenges, and Opportunities of Porphyrin Composite Materials
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Future Scope of Porphyrin Composite Materials
22.3 Performance Characteristics of Porphyrin Composite Materials
22.4 Challenges in Developing Porphyrin Composite Materials
22.5 Opportunities for Porphyrin Composite Materials
22.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 HPLC analyses on different samples with various analytes and eluent...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Average nano-size, structure, and properties of particles as a resu...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Conjugated porphyrins, their structure, and applications [34]...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 MOF framework based porphyrinoids as organic linkers tested forele...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Specific capacity of porphyrin-based materials in batteries.
Table 15.2 Performance characteristics of electrochemical cathode materials.
Table 15.3 The anode material’s electrochemical performance characteri...
Table 15.4 An overview of the porphyrin-based rechargeable batteries’...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 A brief summary for the degradation of various pollutants through...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Association and dissociation time constants for metal ion species.
Table 18.2 The comparison of sensitivity and LDC of ILS film deposited at thr...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Composites applied for supply of pesticides and agrochemicals.
Table 19.2 Metal-porphyrin composites and some detected toxins.
Table 19.3 Some poisons removed by porphyrin composite.
Table 19.4 Toxic metal ions in agriculture detected by porphyrin composite.
Table 19.5 Pathogenic metals eliminated by porphyrin composites.
Table 19.6 Some micro-organisms eliminated by porphyrin composite.
Table 19.7 Structures of some selected herbicides
a
, fungici...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Biostability and biocompatibility considerations of porphyrin nano...
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Biostability and biocomapatability considerations of porphyrin nan...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Biostability and biocompatibility considerations of porphyrin nano...
List of Figures
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 (a) Porphyrin (b) metal induced porphyrin (c) porphyrin composite.
Figure 1.2 Porphyrin composite.
Figure 1.3 Overview of porphyrin composite synthesis.
Figure 1.4 Application of porphyrin-based composite.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Structure of porphyrin.
Figure 2.2 Synthesis of porphyrin composites.
Figure 2.3 Characterization techniques of porphyrin composites.
Figure 2.4 Physical and mechanical properties of porphyrin composites.
Figure 2.5 Application of porphyrin composite materials.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Structure of porphyrin.
Figure 3.2 Fischer reaction for porphyrin synthesis.
Figure 3.3 Reaction-based approach.
Figure 3.4 Porphyrin synthesis by the Adler and Longo method.
Figure 3.5 Porphyrin synthesis by Lindsey method.
Figure 3.6 Porphyrin derivatives are synthesized using two different types of...
Figure 3.7 Synthesis of trans-substituted porphyrin from dipyromethane.
Figure 3.8 Synthesis of A
2
BC tetra-substituted trans-porphyrin fro...
Figure 3.9 The illustration of several electron type porphyrins (a) 22...
Figure 3.10 The structure of metalloporphyrins.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 UV-vis spectrum of porphyrin with in insert the enlargement of Q r...
Figure 4.2 Porphyrin spectra of TPP and porphyrin derivatives [27]....
Figure 4.3 Photovoltaic analysis results and properties of TAPP (poly)nanofib...
Figure 4.4 Average nano-size histogram (50 nm) calculated from DLS analysis...
Figure 4.5 Nanoporphyrins AFM result histogram found at 50 nm (mean) [1]....
Figure 4.6 Positions of nanoporphyrins in the AFM topogram [1]....
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The porphyrin rings with carbon atom symbols.
Figure 5.2 Meso-substituted porphyrins are made via the Adler-Longo process.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Various porphyrin-based materials and their electrocatalytic appli...
Figure 6.2 Chemical structures of porphyrin, chlorin, bacteriochlorin, and is...
Figure 6.3 Metalloporphyrin possible electrochemical reactions.
Figure 6.4 Schematic illustration of the electrolysis process of water.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Porphyrin ring.
Figure 7.2 Some important photocatalytic applications of porphyrin composites.
Figure 7.3 Plausible mechanism for photocataytic production of H
2
...
Figure 7.4 General mechanism for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollut...
Figure 7.5 General mechanism for photocatalytic conversion of CO
2
.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Overall flow diagram.
Figure 8.2 Porphyrinic MOF synthesis in two or three dimensions.
Figure 8.3 Synthesis of Pt ultrathin MOF nanosheets with single-atom coordina...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of porphyrin molecule and its peripheral modific...
Figure 9.2 Schematic classification of porphyrin composites.
Figure 9.3 ECL emission mechanism of the luminol-H
2
O
2
...
Figure 9.4 Structural expressions of Tet-Ru and Otc-Ru.
Figure 9.5 The structural formula of TCPP (a) and TSPP (b).
Figure 9.6 Oxygen-involved ECL of metal-free porphyrins and metalloporphyrins...
Figure 9.7 Synthesis of porphyrin derivative.
Figure 9.8 Electrochemical luminescence diagram of ZnTPPh and H
2
TPP.
Figure 9.9 Schematic illustration of the (a) preparation procedures of Fc-TCP...
Figure 9.10 The preparation process of different porphyrin points (TCPP, ZnTC...
Figure 9.11 Processes of BL and IEIECL.
Figure 9.12 Steady-state voltammograms of three zinc porphyrins containing di...
Figure 9.13 Electron transfer process of ZnTArP-HQ bimolecular reaction at th...
Figure 9.14 Charge transfer process of H-aggregate (left) and J-aggregate (ri...
Figure 9.15 Porphyrins regulate charge transfer processes.
Figure 9.16 Schematic diagram of the integrated photoanodes and charge transf...
Figure 9.17 Reverse regulation strategy of NiO/NiTCPP photocathode.
Figure 9.18 Schematic diagram of surface state repair.
Figure 9.19 (a) Photoexcited cationic TMPyP undergoes charge-transfer interac...
Figure 9.20 Illustration of label-free electrochemiluminescence assay for tel...
Figure 9.21 (a) Electrochemiluminescence mechanism diagram of ZnBCBTP@ MWCNTs...
Figure 9.22 (a) Immobilization of the catalyst-carbon composite on GC (M...
Figure 9.23 Schematic illustration of the preparation of the CuTCPP hybridize...
Figure 9.24 (a) Synthesis illustration of HBCNN/CoPMOF. (b) Diagram of...
Figure 9.25 Synthesis of dimeric porphyrins [120].
Figure 9.26 Optoelectronic and interfacial properties of C
60
@PCN-2...
Figure 9.27 Proposed reaction mechanisms for coupled photocatalytic PhCH...
Figure 9.28 Schematic illustration of the proposed “
in situ
lig...
Figure 9.29 (a) structure of Hf-DBP NMOF and the Schematic Description of Sin...
Figure 9.30 Synthetic of TTCOF-M and the related photocatalytic CO2 reduction...
Figure 9.31 (a) Crystal structure of microporous porphyrin-based HOFs-1,...
Figure 9.32 Schematic representation of the construction of PFC-71, PFC-72-Co...
Figure 9.33 Schematic representation of the typical synthesis of porous organ...
Figure 9.34 (a) Synthesis process and structure of FePPOP-1 and HPPOP-1, (b)...
Figure 9.35 Gold nanorod-porphyrin nanocomposites coated with mesoporous sili...
Figure 9.36 (a) Image of the light-dependent components of photosynthesis emb...
Figure 9.37 (a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of PEF-based core-s...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Eight enzymes involved in biosynthesis of haem, first and last 3...
Figure 10.2 Genetic pathway of porphyrin synthesis in human beings. Defective...
Figure 10.3 Photosensitive rash of a patient that developed after exposure to...
Figure 10.4 Plasma fluorescence technology to detect porphyrias. Our original...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Structure of porphyrin.
Figure 11.2 Various types of PBNPs with potential implications in drug delive...
Figure 11.3 Major areas of application for porphyrin-based nanoparticles (PBN...
Figure 11.4 Porphyrin NP–mediated targeting of cancer cells. Porphyrin...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Medical imaging domains of porphyrins [34]. “Reprinted (ad...
Figure 12.2 Typical structure of
meso
-sulphonatophenyl porphyrin which...
Figure 12.3 (a) Photodynamic therapy (PDT) application and (b) fluorescence...
Figure 12.4 Foto-termal terapi ve porfin üretmede singlet oksijen vas...
Figure 12.5 Dual functionality of porphyrins, (a) intravenous injection of th...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Numerical (a) and site (b) designation of various atomic position...
Figure 13.2 Structure of porphyrin (a) and their derivatives: i) derivatizati...
Figure 13.3 Schematic representation of the possible interaction of conductin...
Figure 13.4 Illustration depicting 5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP) stru...
Figure 13.5 Porphyrin-based organic linkers for framework materials in MOFs a...
Figure 13.6 Illustration depicting the schematic functioning of an electrosta...
Figure 13.7 Schematic illustration depicting the functioning of the lithium-i...
Figure 13.8 Schematic operation of Li-S battery (a); Por-COF hollow spheres a...
Figure 13.9 Schematic operation of a Zinc-nickel (a) and zinc-air (b) batteri...
Figure 13.10 Schematic operation of a sodium-ion battery [91].
Figure 13.11 Schematic operation of a redox flow battery [92].
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) Imine condensation of dialdehyde and triamine forming polymin...
Figure 14.2 Synthesis of Imine linked COFs; reprinted with permission from re...
Figure 14.3 Scheme illustrates the CO
2
reduction pathway for diffe...
Figure 14.4 Representation of various MOFs based on the nature of linkers.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Porphyrin’s molecular structure where M is metal ions (Zn...
Figure 15.2 Redox behavior of porphyrins in energy storage devices [14].
Figure 15.3 Raman spectra of (a) CuDEPP and PP14TFSI, PP14TFSI, and CuDEPP;...
Figure 15.4 Possible electrochemical reaction [14].
Figure 15.5 Li/SOCl
2
battery’s discharge curve [23].
Figure 15.6 Li/SOCl
2
battery’s relative energy catalyzed by...
Figure 15.7 Schematic illustration of fuel cell [34].
Figure 15.8 (a) MN
4
-metalloporphyrin electrocatalysts’ chem...
Figure 15.9 Synthesis route of Fe-N-C catalyst having core shell [47].
Figure 15.10 Diagrammatic representation of an organic Li-ion battery’...
Figure 15.11 The structural composition of porphyrin molecules and mesomeric...
Figure 15.12 Structure of small molecules porphyrin. Synthesis route of CoTCP...
Figure 15.13 Synthesis of Por-COF [65].
Figure 15.14 Depiction of creating PNG through the conformal deposition of PO...
Figure 15.15 (a) Na-ion battery. (b) Creating graphene oxide frameworks with...
Figure 15.16 The Y-PVDF ion-selective membrane’s ion-selectivity conce...
Figure 15.17 Thermal evaporation: (a) process chamber lay out, (b) evaporatio...
Figure 15.18 Diagram of electron beam physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) equi...
Figure 15.19 (a) Magnetron sputter deposition, (b) DC sputter deposition, and...
Figure 15.20 Schematic diagram of a solid-source MBE growth chamber [75].
Figure 15.21 (a) The fundamental mechanism of atomic layer deposition is outl...
Figure 15.22 Diagram schematic of the system for improved chemical vapor depo...
Figure 15.23 Scheme of the experimental set-up for liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE)...
Figure 15.24 Fluorescence detection using ultra-thin film sensors made from p...
Figure 15.25 Creation of a durable and sensitive electrochemical sensor using...
Figure 15.26 Porphyrin/phthalocyanine compounds in the advancement of perovsk...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Structure of different tetrapyrrole systems.
Scheme 16.1 (a) Pyrrole-ar...
Scheme 16.2 Synthetic fram...
Figure 16.2 Application of porphyrin-based materials.
Figure 16.3
In situ
and post-synthesis porphyrin integration in MOFs...
Figure 16.4 Synthetic methods for constructing porphyrin COFs [19].
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Assembly of (a) cationic porphyrin, (b) anionic porphyrin, and (c...
Figure 17.2 A multitude of porphyrin: Classification, properties, interaction...
Figure 17.3 Schematic representation of bio-multifunctional noncovalent porph...
Figure 17.4 Detailed presentation of the nanotubes coated with the porphyrin...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 The chemical structure of free base tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP) mo...
Figure 18.2 A schematic diagram of an LB trough. The components are: (1) tefl...
Figure 18.3 Surface pressure–area per molecule (
π
-A...
Figure 18.4 A schematic diagram of an inverse Langmuir-Schaefer (ILS). The co...
Figure 18.5 AFM images of the ILS film of
H
2
TPP
mole...
Figure 18.6 FESEM images of ILS film deposited at different values of...
Figure 18.7 (a) Schematic diagram of QCM equipped with flow cell (b) photogra...
Figure 18.8 Kinetic curves were obtained from the open-source QCM setup durin...
Figure 18.9 The calibration curves obtained from sensing of heavy metal ions...
Figure 18.10 FESEM images of interacted ILS functional layer of H
2
...
Figure 18.11 Schematic diagram of the sensing phenomena.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Porphyrin ring and naturally occurring porphyrins. (b) and (c) ar...
Figure 19.2 Molecular structures of (a) tebuconazole, (b) gibberellin, and (c...
Figure 19.3 Motifs (top) and structures (bottom) of P-224, P-222, and P-223 [...
Figure 19.4 (a) Mechanism of the release of tebuconazole and (b) preparation...
Figure 19.5 (a) MPRT comparison between CuSO
4
and porphyrin compos...
Figure 19.6 Structure of chlorophyll composites applied by the food industrie...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Applications of porphyrin nanocomposites in biomedical fields.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Molecular structure of porphyrins [1].
Figure 21.2 Applications of porphyrin nanocomposite [18].
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Porphyrin nanocomposites utilized in variety of applications.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Porphyrin-Based Composites
Materials and Applications
Edited by
Umar Ali Dar
Key Laboratory of Biobased Polymer Materials, College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
Mohd. Shahnawaz
Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College Drass, A Constituent College of University of Ladakh, Drass, Ladakh UT, India
and
Puja Gupta
School of Biosciences, RIMT University, Mandi Gobindgarh, Sirhind, Punjab
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-21438-9
Front cover image courtesy of Wikimedia CommonsCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Porphyrins are flexible, planar, and conjugated macrocyclic heterocyclic tetrapyrrole substances. With their chromophores and large conjugated systems, porphyrins are sensitive to even small changes. This sensitivity allows for the customization of materials for specific applications, based on the variety and mechanistic understanding of porphyrins. Porphyrins and their counterparts have become a prominent platform for novel composite, polymeric, and hybrid materials. These fascinating structures play a key role in material chemistry due to their large size, broad systems, and adaptable metal ion coordination. Porphyrin composites are ideal for functionalization and post-synthesis modifications, offering a broad range of property values that can be tailored for various applications.
Porphyrins can be functionalized to enhance their properties, introducing new chemical and functional sites. Various substituents can be grafted onto the outer ring of the porphyrin structure, enabling the creation of a wide range of porphyrin-based products. Achieving this requires careful selection of donor-acceptor porphyrin precursors as linkers, which mediate covalent and noncovalent interactions and facilitate the construction of porphyrin composites. The primary driving forces for complexation and molecular flattening are the synergistic electrostatic and π-π stacking interactions between the porphyrin and other combining materials, as well as through doping or functionalization.
Researchers have begun to invent and employ a variety of functional materials with high performance, thanks to advancements in materials science. This book provides an in-depth exploration of porphyrin composites, highlighting their diverse properties, advantages, and practical applications across various industrial sectors. By examining the unique characteristics and functionalities of these composites, the book offers valuable insights into their role in enhancing processes and products. Notably, porphyrins are highly desirable building blocks for chemical sensors due to their high extinction coefficients and fluorescence properties. Furthermore, the integration of porphyrins with electronic technology and mobile devices can lead to the development of real-time, quick, and convenient sensors, responding to the increasing demand for such approaches in modern society. Porphyrin-based materials are used in a wide range of applications, including sensors, molecular probes, electronics, construction materials, catalysis, medicine, and environmental and energy solutions. Additionally, combining multiple porphyrin components allows for the creation of materials with properties unattainable by individual components, overcoming water-insolubility limitations, and resulting in more sensitive and resilient materials. This volume is divided into three Parts and features 22 chapters contributed by experts from around the world.
Part I “Overview of Porphyrins” starts with Chapter 1 providing a review of composites, including their classification, production, and key elements. Chapter 2 delves into the physical and mechanical properties associated with porphyrin composite materials. Chapter 3 details the synthesis techniques for porphyrin and porphyrin-derived complexes, covering their production, design, and analysis. Chapter 4 explores various characterization techniques, offering a thorough explanation of porphyrin characterization investigations.
Part II on “Source, Design, Manufacturing, Properties and Fundamentals” starts with Chapter 5 highlighting advances in the spectroscopic nonlinear optical characteristics of porphyrin-functionalized nanocomposite materials. Chapter 6 focuses on understanding porphyrin materials and their significant influence in electrocatalysis. Chapter 7 discusses developments in porphyrin composites for photocatalysts, while Chapter 8 summarizes the use of porphyrin-composite materials as catalysts across various sectors.
Part III on “Advantages and Applications of Porphyrin Composites Materials” starts with Chapter 9 presenting novel approaches to designing and constructing porphyrin composites, and Chapter 10 provides an in-depth analysis of clinical symptoms by investigating the underlying molecular processes.
Chapter 11 examines the recent advancements and mechanisms of action of porphyrin-based nanoparticles in cancer therapies, targeted drug delivery, and early diagnostics. Chapter 12 discusses the role and scope of porphyrin composites in biotechnology. Chapter 13 summarizes the latest developments in the design of porphyrin-based composites and their broad implications for reducing carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water splitting using electrocatalysis. Chapter 14 focuses on porphyrin-based MOFs and COFs and their applications in material chemistry, particularly for CO2 reduction.
Chapter 15 explores the application of porphyrin composite materials in electrodes, thin films, and battery components. Chapter 16 investigates their use as key components in electronic devices and gadgets. Chapter 17 offers a detailed discussion of the composition, production, characteristics, and unique uses of porphyrin composites for removing organic and inorganic contaminants from aqueous systems. Chapter 18 presents the capacity of free-base tetraphenylporphyrin (H2TPP) to sense heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions.
Chapter 19 explains the diverse applications of metal-porphyrin composites in modern agriculture and food management, such as agrochemical delivery, controlled nutrient release, pollutant detection, toxic metal ion removal, pesticide elimination, and photo-catalytic antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi, as well as uses in the food industry. Chapter 20 investigates the potential applications of porphyrin nanocomposites in diagnostics and synergistic therapies.
Chapter 21 discusses contemporary developments in porphyrin-based materials, focusing on structural modification, variety, stability, and selectivity. Chapter 22 examines how to enhance product quality through various composite materials, different forms of porphyrins, and the latest developments in synthesis techniques, while addressing issues of stability, scalability, and cost-effectiveness.
We hope that this reference book becomes a valuable tool for understanding and enjoying the various topics discussed in its chapters. We are grateful to the contributing authors for their dedication and expertise, and we extend our thanks to the reviewers who have provided invaluable feedback throughout the preparation of this volume. Finally, we thank Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their support and publication.
January 2025
Part IOVERVIEW OF PORPHYRINS
1Composite Materials Utilizing Porphyrin Template: An Overview
Umar Ali Dar1*, Shazia Nabi2 and Mohd Shahnawaz3
1Key Laboratory of Biobased Polymer Materials, College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
2Department of Chemistry, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
3Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College Drass, A Constituent College of University of Ladakh, Drass, Ladakh UT, India
Abstract
Porphyrins are complex ring-like compounds that are crucial for certain functions in the body, such as transporting oxygen and producing food through a process called photosynthesis. The ability to dissolve or decompose easily makes them not practical at all; however, changes in their structure have been found to provide additional properties to them thus making them more useful. Consequentially, these composites help to enhance many kinds of material characteristics such as conductivity, reactivity, and optical behavior, which would not otherwise be achieved if they were used alone. In the present chapter, an attempt was made to highlight the development of porphyrin-based composites into novel materials by offering an in-depth overview and a greater understanding of their flexibility and developments. All aspects of their preparation, manufacture, alterations, and possible uses are covered in the discussion. The chapter also explores the wide range of potential applications for porphyrin-based materials, from biomedical to sensing and catalysis.
Keywords: Porphyrins, composites, hybrid materials, applications
1.1 Introduction
A family of chemical compounds known as porphyrin has been derived from the Greek word (porphyra), meaning purple. This is a heterocyclic, tetrapyrrole macrocyclic organic compound, and its primary structure is called porphine [1]. Porphines are composed of four pyrrole subunits interconnected at α carbon atom via methylidene (CH) bridge, possessing 26 π electrons, with 18π electrons forming the planer continuous cycle satisfying the huckel (4n+2) rule of aromaticity. However, its substituted derivatives are named as porphyrin [2]. Surprisingly, meso-substituted porphyrins are not found in nature. They may be synthesized using a variety of techniques depending on the intended result for practical reasons [3]. Porphyrins are extensively distributed in nature and are crucial to activities like oxygen transport and photosynthesis [4]. Over the past 50 years, porphyrins have been thoroughly investigated for their interactions with natural proteins and their role in enzyme catalysis. These fascinating structures are an important part of material chemistry due to their vast size, broad systems, and adaptability of metal ion coordination [5–8]. This makes them a perfect topic for functionalization and post-synthesis alterations aimed at producing porphyrin hybrid materials [9–12].
Its practical applicability is limited by the porphyrin molecule’s inadequate water solubility, low optical stability, and strong π-π interaction with stiff macrocyclic molecules that cause aggregation [13–18]. There are primarily two strategies to address these issues. One involves molecularly altering the structural properties of porphyrins. For instance, by controlling the surrounding and center metal ions [11, 19, 20]. Second is the development of composites based on porphyrins [21–24]. This method not only corrects the fundamental problems with porphyrin molecules but also achieves the emergence of novel shapes and functions, one of the present hotspots in scientific inquiry. Porphyrin molecules can produce novel materials with clearly defined shapes and characteristics by being added to various supporting surfaces. One of the major benefits of using porphyrin templates in the synthesis of composite materials is their ability to control the size and shape of the final product. Several chemistries have been added to the porphyrin skeleton to increase porphyrin-based compounds’ variety, stability, and selectivity. Porphyrin-based composites can significantly enhance the functionalities of porphyrins extending their applications. Porphyrin composite materials are an emerging class of frameworks with multiple applications across various disciplines. Diverse porphyrin composite materials with various properties are of growing importance where porphyrins are embedded with metals, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), polymers, carbon, nanomaterials, etc. (Figure 1.1) [10, 25–29]. The composites with porphyrin templates enable engineering the materials in terms of size, shape, and chemistry with multifunctionality. The new developments in functional materials, composites, and hybrid structures containing porphyrins with rich chemistry were attributed to intricate binding modes in porphyrin molecules.
Figure 1.1 (a) Porphyrin (b) metal induced porphyrin (c) porphyrin composite.
1.2 Development and Construction of Porphyrin Composites
Materials composed of porphyrin molecules combined with other materials or incorporated into a host matrix are known as porphyrin composites. Porphyrins have been incorporated into a range of composite materials by adding porphyrin or metalloporphyrin species into composites by covalent, non-covalent bonding, doping, impregnation, and intercalation. A porphyrin composite includes (1) carbon-based materials, (2) porous materials, (3) metal nanoparticles, and (4) core-shell materials (Figure 1.2) [25].
When carbon-based nanomaterials like graphene, graphene carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), graphene oxide, graphite carbon nitride, and fullerenes (C60) are combined with porphyrins or metalized porphyrin, hybrid materials have been attained [30, 31]. Four primary categories of porphyrin-based porous materials are known as porphyrin-based MOFs, porphyrin-based covalent organic frameworks (COFs), porphyrin-based amorphous porous organic polymers (POPs), and porphyrin-based hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs). Porphyrins and metals combine to generate metal-porphyrin frameworks (MPFs), a subclass of MOFs. Porphyrin complexes are also able to be coupled with other nanomaterials, like SiO2 and TiO2, and metal clusters, like C60 and zirconium oxo clusters, among others [10, 31–33]. The core-shell structure includes Porphyrin-based polymer and porphyrin–core-shell structure nanomaterials and has been discussed in detail in other chapters.
Figure 1.2 Porphyrin composite.
1.2.1 Porphyrin Synthesis and Functionalization
Many techniques, including template-assisted, contemporary, and classical techniques, are used to synthesize porphyrin. The traditional Adler-Longo technique is used to synthesize metalloporphyrins. The Rothemund-Kokka method is another traditional technique for synthesizing porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. This method has been used to synthesize a large number of additional metalloporphyrins, including those containing iron, zinc, and copper [34]. Microwave-assisted synthesis is one modern technique (Palmisano et al., 2015).
Porphyrins have been functionalized to enhance their functional characteristics, this has added new chemical and functional sites. Functionalizing of porphyrins includes halogenations, metalation, substitution, click chemistry, etc. [35–38]. The porphyrin rings have different substituents grafted onto their outer ring, which has been demonstrated by carefully choosing from a variety of donor-acceptor porphyrin precursors as linkers that mediate as covalent and non-covalent contact and allow one to build porphyrin composites [35]. The primary driving force for complexation and molecular flattening is the electrostatic and π-π stacking synergistic interaction between the porphyrin and other combing materials as discussed in detail in the coming chapters. Researchers have started to invent and employ a variety of functional materials to produce high performance, thanks to the advancement of materials science.
1.2.2 Synthesis of Porphyrin Composites
A composite material is created by combining two materials that are not the same in order to create a material with more performance characteristics than the individual components. Composite materials typically consist of one continuous phase with one or more discontinuous phases dispersed throughout. Components classified as hybrids have many discontinuous stages of varying types. In general, discontinuous phases have better mechanical qualities and are tougher than continuous phases. We refer to the continuous phase as the “matrix.” The term “reinforcement”, or “reinforcing material,” refers to the discontinuous phase [39]. The synthesis of porphyrin has the following key steps (Figure 1.3). Choose the substance you wish to use to composite the porphyrin. This might be a substance of choice, a polymer, or a nanoparticle. Make the composite material’s surface more porphyrin-attachment-friendly. Functionalization with appropriate groups that may interact with the porphyrin may be necessary for this. Adhere the porphyrin via covalent or non-covalent interactions to the surface modification. By changing the synthesis conditions or adding functional groups that improve particular features, you may modify the porphyrin composite for use in particular applications [39, 40].
Figure 1.3 Overview of porphyrin composite synthesis.
1.3 Applications of Porphyrin-Based Composites
Porphyrins and their counterparts have become a prominent platform for novel composite, polymeric, and hybrid materials, as well as 2D and 3D porous materials, as a result of their great features, opening up new opportunities for more sensitive and durable materials (Figure 1.4). Porphyrin-based composite materials are developing rapidly in the fields of medicine, energy, catalysts, environmental remediation, etc., and are used as a unique topic to develop a synergetic paradigm for rising technological construction. They are presented as possessing cutting-edge technology to meet objectives for best execution applications by employing a novel strategy to reduce weight, provide better mechanical properties, enhance cost competitiveness, and broaden the body of knowledge on composites.
Figure 1.4 Application of porphyrin-based composite.
1.3.1 Energy
Porphyrin composites are evolving as key materials in the energy field as emerging energy conversion systems and storage. Photovoltaic technologies include dye-sensitized solar cells (PCE 14%), bulk heterojunction-organic solar cells (1–10%), and perovskite solar cells. They serve as a photocatalyst to convert light energy into chemical energy. Furthermore, because of their special electrochemical redox characteristics, they function as electrode materials. Apart from the light conversion system, porphyrins and related molecules have been recently developed for energy storage systems such as supercapacitors and rechargeable batteries [12, 41–46].
Medicine: Porphyrins can be utilized to create composite materials with increased hydrophilicity, immunological tolerance, longer tissue longevity, and targeted targeting. Materials generated from porphyrins have been widely used in biomedical areas, particularly in photodynamic treatment (PDT), cancer therapy, biosensors, and bioimaging [21, 35, 47–49].
1.3.2 Device Materials
Porphyrin composites are being utilized in electrode materials, semiconductors, electronics materials, and electronic functionalities in devices including diodes, rectifiers, wires, and capacitors [50–54].
1.3.3 Remediation
Porphyrin composites show promise for environmental remediation because they form metal complexes that effectively capture and remove pollutants from water and air, including organic dyes, heavy and toxic metal ions, and pharmaceuticals. They also work as effective photocatalysts for pollutant degradation [25, 55–59].
1.3.4 Nanotechnology
Porphyrin-based nanomaterials are prospective building blocks for sophisticated materials that can be assembled by self-assembly. These materials can be used in a variety of applications, including PDT, solar energy conversion, sensors, optical energy or information storage, and nanocatalysts [30, 60–65].
1.3.5 Agriculture
Porphyrin composites have demonstrated enhanced promise in agriculture since they function as adaptable agents for plant protection. They can be used as sensing materials to monitor environmental variables in agricultural contexts, for the controlled release of pesticides, and to promote disease resistance [66, 67].
1.3.6 Catalysis
Porphyrin composites showed notable benefits as Lewis acid catalysts, oxidation catalysts, photocatalysts, and electrocatalysts, thanks to the redox characteristics and functional diversity of porphyrins [68–72].
1.4 Future Perspectives
Since porphyrin-based composites are still a relatively young topic, there are several potential and challenges for further study at this time. The stability and durability of porphyrin-based composites are among their primary challenges; they are prone to degradation in a variety of environments, which restricts their practical applications. Other challenges include scalability and commercialization, which are followed by biocompatibility and toxicity, which are still poorly understood. In order to assure the safety of porphyrin-based composites for use in biomedical applications, future research might concentrate on creating materials that are more stable and durable as well as scaling up manufacturing to commercial levels and thoroughly assessing their toxicity and biocompatibility. Integrating additional materials and technologies, such as graphene, CNTs, and nanocarriers, to improve the performance of porphyrin-based composites is another difficulty. Ongoing research and development in the field could lead to the discovery of novel materials and technologies that have a significant impact on society, especially in addressing some of the pressing global challenges, such as climate change and healthcare.
1.5 Conclusion
Porphyrin-based composites can be transformed into novel materials by addressing all elements of their manufacturing, preparation, modification, and prospective uses. These innovations address fundamental limits, expand functionality, and offer up different usage across numerous fields by improving material qualities and adaptable architectures.
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