Pregnancy and Anti-Infective Agents E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Frontiers in Anti-Infective Agents
- Sprache: Englisch
This concise clinical reference facilitates health consultants and professionals for determining treatment options for some common prenatal and postpartum infections during pregnancy and the puerperium in patients. Key Features- Presents 9 organized, easy to read chapters on anti-infective agents for pregnant patients- Covers pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of relevant anti-infective agents- Includes information on classification and safety of anti-infective agents- Includes treatment of urinary tract infections- Covers medications for sexually transmitted diseases, including a complete section dedicated to HIV medication- Provides information about vulvovaginal infections- Covers the treatment of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy- innovates with information about herbal remedies for infection for patients during pregnancy and breastfeeding Pregnancy and Anti-Infective Agents is therefore, a valuable handbook that enables quick consultation on safe antibiotics for the treatment of a variety of infections in pregnancy.
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Seitenzahl: 321
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020
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FOREWORD
Nutrition is the science that deals with the role of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to growth, development, metabolism and function, often in the context of health and disease. Pharmacology is the science of the study of drug action; a drug is a molecule which has a biochemical or physiological effect within an organism. Typically, in the context of pharmacology, the molecule (i.e., the drug) is used to treat, cure, prevent, or diagnose a disease or to promote well-being and is referred to as a medicine. It is important to note that many drugs are natural substances or derivatives of natural substances. It is immediately evident that there is likely to be some overlap between nutrition and pharmacology, since both are concerned with molecules that exert biochemical and physiological effects within the organism. However, in modern times, neither the teaching nor the scientific practice of nutrition and pharmacology have been considered to have much in common, and they exist quite separately from one another. This is different from earlier times, where the boundaries between these two academic disciplines were not clear and indeed may not have even existed. For example, many foods, food extracts and food-based potions have been used in traditional medicine to prevent and treat diseases and to promote well-being; this practice continues today in many, perhaps most, non-Western cultures. In other words, food can be medicine (i.e., a drug) and medicine can be food. Fortunately, the artificial barrier between nutrition and pharmacology is once more being removed. The pharmaceutical industry is becoming increasingly interested in food components as functional agents that have potential as drugs, while the food industry and nutrition scientists are expected to mainly adopt the practices of pharmacology and the pharmaceutical industry as part of their normal research and development activities.
This blurring of the boundaries is likely to become greater over the next years, and will certainly increase the chances of new discoveries being made by both the food and pharmaceutical industries and of translating those discoveries into new products, new claims, new preventative strategies and new treatments for human disease. In the contexts of these changing research and regulatory environments “At the Crossroads Between Nutrition and Pharmacology” is a timely offering. It brings together a series of articles dealing with bioavailability and bioactivity of a range of natural substances found in foods, suggesting that these nutritional substances have properties that will make them useful in health maintenance, disease prevention and, in some cases, disease treatment. The disease contexts being considered include those that pose an ever increasing threat to the global population, including diabetes, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Thus, the contents of this book are extremely relevant, making it the most welcome addition.
PREFACE
Bacterial, viral and other infections during pregnancy and breastfeeding not only contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality, but also increase the risk of adverse outcomes including miscarriage, stillbirths, fetal malformation and premature labor.
Currently, the main screened prenatal bacterial and viral infections should be treated with antibiotics and antivirals that contribute to the reduction of adverse outcomes cited.
A concise clinical reference that facilitates the consultation by health professionals regarding the risk classification for use in pregnancy and the puerperium of the main anti-infectious agents indicated in the treatment of prevalent prenatal and postpartum infections was the goal in creating Pregnancy and anti-infective agents.
This e-book includes chapters about pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics, as well as sexually transmitted and lower genital tract infections in pregnancy and puerperium. It also allows quick consultation on safe antibiotics for the treatment of urinary tract infection and toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Finally, it innovates in devoting a chapter on promising herbal medicines against infections during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
List of Contributors
Infections in Pregnancy: Maternal and Fetal Risks
Janaína Crispim Freitas,Diana Gonçalves Dantas,Jaline Pessoa Cavalcante,Júlia Alencar de Medeiros,Juliana Davim Ferreira Gomes,Ricardo Ney Cobucci*Abstract
Infections in pregnancy still pose a challenge to public health, especially in less developed countries. They may occur in intrauterine life, and are classified as congenital, or during childbirth and immediate postpartum when they are known as perinatal infections. Infections that occur during pregnancy trigger mechanisms that may culminate in preterm labor, fetal malformations, and fetal and neonatal death. Recognition of signs and symptoms and early diagnosis are the key to reducing the damage that these infections can cause in the mother and the fetus. In this chapter, we will discuss the main infections, risks for maternal and fetal health and strategies that can be used to minimize harm.
BACKGROUND
During pregnancy, an immune tolerance is physiologically developed to decrease the chance of fetal rejection. These mechanisms cause increased vulnerability to some infections leading to serious risks for maternal and fetal health [1]. Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) can occur in intrauterine life, and is classified as congenital, or infections can occur during delivery and immediate postpartum when they are known as perinatal infections [2].
Maternal infections can lead to complications in pregnancy and also in the fetus (Table 1). Among maternal complications, we have an increased risk of spontan-
eous abortion, premature birth and premature rupture of ovularmembranes. Intrauterine or perinatal infections are a significant cause of fetal and neonatal mortality and contribute to greater early or late childhood morbidity. The infected newborn may exhibit abnormal growth, developmental abnormalities or multiple clinical and laboratory abnormalities [1].
For the most important and common infections, the acronym TORCH is used, which brings together diseases that can have similar clinical manifestations: Toxoplasmosis, Others (syphilis, mumps), Rubella, Cytomegalovirus and Herpes simplex. The concept has recently been expanded to include common pathogens such as enteroviruses, hepatitis viruses, HIV, varicella zoster virus and parvovirus B19 in the “other” category [1, 3].
Several factors, independent of each other, can influence the clinical picture of congenital infections, such as the effect of the pathogen on fetal development, the period of gestational age at which the infection occurred, maternal immunity and the mode of transmission of the infection. Infections that occur in early pregnancy usually cause spontaneous abortions or stillbirths, or may be due to a serious maternal systemic infection [4].
Suspected fetal infection can occur if the mother has been exposed or has an already known infection that can trigger vertical transmission, and it may be possible to detect changes in routine ultrasound exams [4]. In the diagnosis, some tests can be used; one such test is the Polymerase Chain Reaction with Reverse Transcription, which detects the presence of genetic material of the pathogen, and is an exam to be used at the beginning of the infection. After this initial phase of the disease, serological tests become important to assist in the diagnosis. The presence of IgM antibody indicates that there is an active infection, while the IgG antibody indicates a previous contact with the pathogen, which can occur during convalescence or with chronic infection. A method that indicates the time of existence of IgG antibodies is the test of avidity, which in pregnant women has an important role in discovering if the infection occurred before or after conception, and should be performed in the first trimester. A high avidity test means that the infection occurred more than 16 weeks before pregnancy, so there is no need for treatment to prevent fetal transmission [5].
Some clinical cases in the newborn may also suggest an acute congenital infection such as jaundice, petechiae, hepato and/or splenomegaly at birth or immediately after delivery, in a newborn that is unusually small for gestational age (SGA). There may also be the possibility of a congenital infection in the newborn with suspected neonatal sepsis but demonstrating negative cultures for fungi and bacteria [4].
For many of these pathogens, prevention or treatments are available and early recognition, including prenatal screening, is essential. Screening during pregnancy for TOCHA infections varies by location. In the United States, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends screening pregnant women for rubella and syphilis in the first prenatal consultation. In addition to this, some countries also recommend screening for toxoplasmosis during prenatal care [1].
This chapter aims to discuss the main infections acquired during pregnancy, the risks to maternal and fetal health, and the screening, diagnosis and treatment strategies that can be used to minimize the damage.
VIRAL INFECTIONS
Rubella
Rubella is caused by an RNA virus of the Togavirus family (togavirus and Rubivirus genus), with humans acting as its only reservoir. Transmission occurs through direct contact with droplets of nasopharyngeal secretions from an infected individual, its replication occurs in the upper respiratory tract and its dissemination occurs by hematogenous route [6].
Rubella usually has a mild, self-limited and relatively benign clinical picture. However, maternal rubella infection, especially during the first trimester of pregnancy, where there is a high risk of vertical transmission (80-100%), can be catastrophic for the fetus [6]. The infection can result in spontaneous abortion and fetal death or the development of Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS) with severe effects on the fetus [3]. The risk decreases in the second quarter (10% - 20%) and increases again close to term (up to 60%) [3].
The MTCT of the rubella virus occurs through hematogenous dissemination during maternal viremia, which usually occurs five to seven days after inoculation of the virus. After infecting the placenta, the virus spreads through the vascular system of the developing fetus and can affect several organs and systems [7].
The classic triad of CRS is characterized by sensorineural deafness, cataracts and cardiac malformations, such as persistence of the artery canal (in 20% of cases) and hypoplasia of the pulmonary artery (12% of cases). These clinical manifestations usually occur if the fetal infection occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy [3].
Cataracts are present in 25% of CRS cases, being bilateral in approximately half of the cases. In addition to cataracts, other ophthalmic abnormalities can occur in around 40% of cases, these include pigmentary retinopathy and glaucoma [8].
The later manifestation of CRS is permanent hearing loss that can appear after two years of life. Hearing loss is usually sensorineural and bilateral and occurs in approximately 80% of patients. It may be the only manifestation of this syndrome, and ranges from mild to severe and may worsen over time [7, 8].
Other cardiovascular disease defects such as pulmonary valve stenosis, aortic valve stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, interatrial communication, interventricular communication and tetralogy of Fallot have also been reported [8].
During the neonatal period, it can cause prematurity, intrauterine growth retardation, microcephaly, radiolucent bone disease, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, jaundice, hepatitis, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and purpuric skin lesions. Many of these manifestations are transient and can resolve spontaneously in days or weeks [3].
Rubella is preventable through the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine (MMR); 1 dose of the vaccine is recommended for women of childbearing age who are not immune [3]. CRS is becoming increasingly rare in developed countries with immunization programs against established rubella. However, intermittent rubella outbreaks continue to occur in other parts of the world and CRS remains a concern [6].
With regard to late manifestations, in addition to hearing loss, CRS can also cause psychomotor retardation, speech delay, attention deficit and hyperactivity syndrome, autism, behavioral disorders, progressive encephalopathy, endocrine and immunological disorders [7].
The diagnosis of CRS can be carried out by detecting rubella-specific IgM antibody in serum or umbilical cord blood, which can be more useful until 2 months of age, although in some children, it can be detected until 12 months. The detection of specific IgG in an increasing and persistent form in the serum during the first 7 to 11 months of life can also confirm CRS, but in certain cases, the IgG avidity test can be performed. Rubella virus RNA detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in nasopharyngeal smears, urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood at birth also provides laboratory evidence for the diagnosis of CRS [8].
All newborns with CRS are considered contagious up to at least 1 year of age, unless 2 cultures of clinical samples are negative for rubella virus after 3 months of age [3]. The clinical management of CRS depends on the clinical manifestations that may develop or progress over time, and supportive care and surveillance must be performed. The use of antiviral or biological agents is not recommended, as they do not alter the clinical course of rubella intrauterine infection [9].
Cytomegalovirus
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a DNA herpevirus. Cytomegalovirus infection is a common viral infection worldwide and has a stable prevalence of about 4 in 1000 births [10]. The seroprevalence of CMV varies according to population and age. While in developed countries, CMV seroprevalence in women of childbearing age ranges from less than 50 to 85%, in developing countries seroprevalence approaches 100%, this high prevalence can be attributed to exposure through breastfeeding and due to worse conditions of life [11]. Certain factors such as low socioeconomic level, contact with children under 3 years of age, especially if they are in day care, age above 25 to 30 years, greater parity, and living in a developing country increase the prevalence [12].
Transplacental transmission of CMV can occur in women who acquire the first CMV infection in pregnancy (primary infection) or in women with pre-existing antibodies to CMV by reactivating a previous infection or by acquiring a new viral strain [11]. Vertical transmission is higher in pregnant women who have primary infection during pregnancy and the rate of transmission becomes higher with advancing gestational age [12]. In 90% of cases, primary CMV infection during pregnancy is not apparent; however, when it manifests, it shows nonspecific symptoms such as mild fever, rhinitis, pharyngitis, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, and fatigue [12].
Congenital CMV infection is the leading cause of non-hereditary sensorineural hearing loss [1, 13] and it is also associated with long term neurodevelopmental impairment, including cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, visual impairment and seizures [1, 13]. At birth, 85 to 90% of infected babies are asymptomatic and 10 to 15% have a symptomatic disease. In symptomatic children, clinical manifestations include petechiae, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, thrombocy-topenia, SGA, microcephaly, intracranial calcifications, sensorineural hearing loss, chorioretinitis and seizures [1, 12].
The testing of pregnant women for CMV is indicated when mononucleosis-like diseases are suspected or when a fetal abnormality suggestive of congenital CMV infection is detected in the prenatal ultrasound examination. Seroconversion of IgG specific to CMV is the gold standard for determining primary infections in a previously known non-immune pregnant woman clinically suspected of CMV. However, as pre-conceptual serological screening for CMV is not routinely performed in several countries, seroconversion data is not always available. In the absence of a seroconversion test, IgG avidity detections have been shown to be useful in determining the timing of an infection and, therefore, the risk of intrauterine transmission. Low avidity IgGs are associated with recent infections, between two to four months, while a high avidity index indicates past infections, more than six months ago. However, there are some limitations regarding the use of IgG avidity, as there are still no ideal well established cutoff points for low and high avidity as these vary between laboratories and also commercial avidity antibody assays have variable performance characteristics [14, 15].
Currently, it is recommended to offer invasive (aminocentesis and cordocentesis) and non-invasive (ultrasound and magnetic resonance) methods for prenatal diagnosis when fetal infection is suspected in women with primary infection with high CMV levels [12]. Treatment of symptomatic children with ganciclovir leads to a better prognosis during the first year of life [10].
Herpes Simplex Virus
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a DNA virus that is a member of the Herpesviridae family. Neonatal HSV infection occurs in 1 in 3,200 to 10,000 births, and despite the low prevalence of fetal VSH infection it is still worrying, as it can result in great morbidity and mortality [16].
Neonatal HSV has three distinct periods of acquisition: intrauterine, perinatal and postnatal. Intrauterine transmission is very rare. The perinatal represents the majority (85%) of cases and occurs when the pregnant woman has active genital lesions, symptomatic or asymptomatic, during labor. Postnatal represents about 10% of cases and occurs when the newborn maintains contact with oral herpetic lesions of the parent or family member [16].
The manifestations are different according to the area of involvement and can be classified into three main categories. The infection is located only in the eyes, mouth and skin (SEM); it can affect the CNS with or without SEM involvement, or it can occur in a disseminated form in multiple organs [1]. In all categories of neonatal HSV infection, the use of Acyclovir is recommended, being the antiviral agent of choice [17].
Maternal diagnosis is clinical and generally does not require additional tests [18]. In the presence of genital herpes during pregnancy, suppressive antiviral therapy after 36 weeks of gestation may be indicated to reduce the risk of vertical transmission during labor and delivery. However, it is important to mention that no clinical intervention completely eliminates the risk of neonatal herpes infection. The approach with antiviral therapy in pregnant women with HSV is in accordance with ACOG and takes into account the classification of the infection (primary genital herpes, first non-primary genital episode, recurrent herpes), the severity of symptoms, and the time of infection in relation to childbirth [18].
Varicella Zoster Virus
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is one of the types of herpesviruses that causes infection in humans. Infection in children is mild and self-limiting, while in adults the disease can progress more severely. In pregnancy, the consequences of chickenpox infection can be a risk for both mother and fetus. It is a very contagious infectious disease transmitted by infected droplets in the nasopharyngeal mucosa or by direct contact with the vesicular secretion containing viruses and, though rare, by the spread of the virus through the air. It may also be transmitted transplacentally causing congenital disease [19].
VZV infection has two clinical manifestations: chickenpox and herpes zoster (HZ). The first is manifested by itchy rashes that start as macules that then develop into papules and then vesicles and can turn into crusted pustules, which can coexist in several different stages of the lesion. After primary infection, VZV is latent in the sensory nerve nodes and can reactivate later in life causing HZ, which is not associated with the occurrence of fetal damage.
In pregnant women, the infection can complicate, leading to meningitis, encephalitis, cerebellar ataxia, pneumonia, secondary bacterial infection, glomerulonephritis, myocarditis, eye disease, adrenal insufficiency and death. Varicella pneumonia is the most common complication in pregnant women and its risk factor is caused by a history of smoking and the presence of more than 100 vesicles on the skin [19].
In the fetus, the early onset of chickenpox at between 8 and 20 weeks has the main consequence of the development of congenital varicella syndrome. Its clinical manifestations are: low birth weight, skin scars that can be depressed and pigmented in a dermatomal distribution; cataract, chorioretinitis, microphthalmia, nystagmus, hypoplastic limbs, cortical atrophy, seizure, gastroesophageal reflux and atretic or stenotic intestine. This syndrome is associated with 30% mortality in the first months of life and a 15% chance of developing HZ by the age of 4 [19].
Maternal diagnosis is clinically based on skin lesions and generally does not require additional tests. Fetal infection can be diagnosed by PCR of fetal blood or amniotic fluid to VZV DNA in conjunction with ultrasound to detect fetal abnormalities. Treatment is carried out with acyclovir. It is important that before conception, women are evaluated if they have immunization for the varicella virus, either by previous infection or immunization by vaccine. In women without previous immunization and who have had contact and been infected with chickenpox, they may receive post-exposure prophylaxis that should be performed with varicella-zoster immunoglobulin [19].
Parvovirus B19
Parvovirus B19 is a single-stranded DNA virus that infects 1 to 5% of pregnant women. It belongs to the Parvoviridae family and transmission may occur by respiratory droplets, blood content or transplacental route. The vertical transmission rate is approximately 35% and occurs in 1 to 3 weeks after maternal infection during peak viremia, but the risk of fetal damage is small and of the sequelae is even less [3, 20].
In pregnancy, many women may be asymptomatic. If symptomatic, Parvovirus b19 infection begins with nonspecific symptoms such as fever, malaise, myalgia, and headache. After this stage, there is the appearance of a facial rash known as the chewed face and an itchy macular rash on the trunk, which spreads to the extremities and may be accompanied by polyarthritis. In the fetus, the infection may resolve itself or cause serious damage such as fetal death, severe anemia, non-immune fetal hydrops caused by fetal heart failure, myocardial insufficiency, thrombocytopenia, maternal mirror syndrome and more rarely meningoencephalitis. The risk of an adverse result in the fetus is increased when the infection occurs in the first two months of gestation, the risk is reduced in the second half of pregnancy and is rare in the last 2 months [3, 20].
There is no screening routine for Parvovirus B19, investigation is performed when there are signs of fetal hydrops in the ultrasonography or during the lifetime of symptomatic maternal infection [3]. To confirm the maternal infection, IgM antibody capture radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked imumunosorbent assay (ELISA) can detect 80-90% of cases with clinical infection, IgM antibody can be detected ten days after the exposure and may persist for three months. To confirm the fetal infection, amniotic or fetal fluid PCR can be used, but viral particles are only detected during the viremia period. In addition, the measurement of IgM antibody in fetal blood can be performed, but the result can be negative even during the surveillance of infection because the fetus only produces IgM after 22 weeks. If fetal death occurs, the diagnosis is made by histopathology [20, 21].
Pregnant women with confirmed infection after 20 weeks of gestation should perform periodic ultrasounds to look for signs of fetal hydrops. However, this procedure is controversial because the risk of fetal harm is low and it is not known whether there is an advantage in monitoring, since the benefit of the intervention is not clear. In fetal management, for a noninvasive investigation of anemia, Doppler assessment of the fetal middle cerebral artery (MCA), peak systolic velocity (PSV) and ductus venosus velocity can be used initially. If severe anemia is detected, cordocentesis should be performed to better assess the anemia and evaluate the indication of intrauterine red blood transfusion. Another approach would be the administration of intravenous immunoglobulin, but there is no formal indication due to limited studies [21].
Influenza
Influenza is a respiratory viral infection caused by the influenza virus, responsible for annual winter epidemics when new strains appear in humans [22]. It is a common and generally self-limiting infection, but complications among pregnant and postpartum women are more prevalent. These occur through cardiopulmonary adaptive changes occurring during pregnancy. These changes include increased heart rate and stroke volume, and reduced pulmonary residual capacity, they may increase the risk of hypoxemia and contribute to the increased severity [23]. There is also an increase in hospitalizations and bed rest in intensive care as well as respiratory diseases mainly in pregnant women with comorbidities such as diabetes, heart problems, chronic renal disease, malignancy and immunosuppression [24, 25]. Historically, the mortality of acute respiratory distress syndrome in pregnancy is high (30% -60%) [26].
The symptoms in pregnant women are similar to those in other populations, and include fever, headache, myalgia, shortness of breath, cough, sore throat and rhinorrhea. The diagnosis is clinical, but some tests can be performed in clinical practice [25]. The test with the greatest specificity and sensitivity is that of RT-PCR, which can differentiate the influenza subtypes. Another alternative is the rapid testing of antigens, but they have a much lower sensitivity [27].
Transplacental transmission of influenza virus is a rare event that appears to be limited to highly pathogenic influenza viruses such as HPAI A and H5N1. However, other serotypes such as H1N1, H2N2 and others have led to increased miscarriages, premature births and maternal mortality during epidemics [24]. Exposure to maternal influenza virus in the first trimester of gestation may be associated with an increased risk of congenital abnormalities such as neural tube defects, hydrocephalus, congenital heart defects, cleft lip, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities and limb defects [16, 25]. The cause of the abnormalities seems to be based on hyperthermia in the embryonic period. However, further research is needed in the area to eliminate confusing elements found in the results [24].
Treatment with antivirals is indicated for pregnant women with suspected or confirmed influenza. Studies have shown that the length of hospital stay was shorter in patients who received therapy in the first 48 hours of symptom onset compared to those who received it after that period. The drugs used in pregnancy are oseltamivir, zanamivir and peramivir for 5 days, but this period may be extended in more severe cases. Oseltamivir is the most used due to its better absorption in the system and to the greater knowledge of its use in pregnant women. Although studies on the safety of these drugs are limited, the benefits of their use outweigh the potential risks. The use of antipyretics is an important possibility since studies have associated fever with fetal damage [25].
