Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS Edited by one of the most well-respected and prolific engineers in the world and his team, this book provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogen production, conversion, and storage, offering the scientific literature a comprehensive coverage of this important fuel. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are among the most anticipated stationary clean energy devices in renewable and alternative energy. Despite the appreciable improvement in their cost and durability, which are the two major commercialization barriers, their availability has not matched demand. This is mainly due to the use of expensive metal-catalyst, less durable membranes, and poor insight into the ongoing phenomena inside proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Efforts are being made to optimize the use of precious metals as catalyst layers or find alternatives that can be durable for more than 5000 hours. Computational models are also being developed and studied to get an insight into the shortcomings and provide solutions. The announcement by various companies that they will be producing proton exchange membrane fuel cells-based cars by 2025 has accelerated the current research on proton exchange membrane fuel cells. The breakthrough is urgently needed. The membranes, catalysts, polymer electrolytes, and especially the understanding of diffusion layers, need thorough revision and improvement to achieve the target. This exciting breakthrough volume explores these challenges and offers solutions for the industry. Whether for the student, veteran engineer, new hire, or other industry professionals, this is a must-have for any library.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Stationary and Portable Applications of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
1.3 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
2 Graphene-Based Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Membranes
2.3 Graphene: A Proton Exchange Membrane
2.4 Synthesis of GO Composite Membranes
2.5 Graphene Oxide in Fuel Cells
2.6 Characterization Techniques of GO Composite Membranes
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Graphene Nanocomposites as Promising Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Recent Kinds of Fuel Cells
3.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
4 Carbon Nanotube–Based Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Overview of Carbon Nanotube–Based Membranes PEM Cells
References
5 Nanocomposite Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nanocomposite Membranes for PEMFC
5.3 Evaluation Methods of Proton Exchange Membrane Properties
5.4 Nafion-Based Membrane
5.5 Poly(Benzimidazole)–Based Membrane
5.6 Sulfonated Poly(Ether Ether Ketone)–Based Membranes
5.7 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)–Based Membranes
5.8 Sulfonated Polysulfone–Based Membranes
5.9 Chitosan-Based Membranes
5.10 Conclusions
References
6 Organic-Inorganic Composite Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
6.3 Proton Exchange Membrane
6.4 Research Progress of Organic-Inorganic Composite PEM
6.5 Conclusion and Prospection
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
7 Thermoset-Based Composite Bipolar Plates in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theories of Electrical Conductivity in Polymer Composites
7.3 Matrix and Fillers
7.4 The Manufacturing Process of Thermoset-Based Composite BPs
7.5 Effect of Processing Parameters on the Properties Thermoset-Based Composite BPs
7.6 Effect of Polymer Type, Filler Type, and Composition on Properties of Thermoset Composite BPs
7.7 Testing and Characterization of Polymer Composite-Based BPs
7.8 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
8 Metal-Organic Framework Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Aluminium Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.3 Chromium Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.4 Copper Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.5 Cobalt Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.6 Iron Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.7 Nickel Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.8 Platinum Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.9 Zinc Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.10 Zirconium Containing MOFs for PEMFCs
8.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects
9 Fluorinated Membrane Materials for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fluorinated Polymeric Materials for PEMFCs
9.3 Poly(Bibenzimidazole)/Silica Hybrid Membrane
9.4 Poly(Bibenzimidazole) Copolymers Containing Fluorine-Siloxane Membrane
9.5 Sulfonated Fluorinated Poly(Arylene Ethers)
9.6 Fluorinated Sulfonated Polytriazoles
9.7 Fluorinated Polybenzoxazole (6F-PBO)
9.8 Poly(Bibenzimidazole) With Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride-Co-Hexafluoro Propylene)
9.9 Fluorinated Poly(Arylene Ether Ketones)
9.10 Fluorinated Sulfonated Poly(Arylene Ether Sulfone) (6FBPAQSH-XX)
9.11 Fluorinated Poly(Aryl Ether Sulfone) Membranes Cross-Linked Sulfonated Oligomer (c-SPFAES)
9.12 Sulfonated Poly(Arylene Biphenylether Sulfone)-Poly(Arylene Ether) (SPABES-PAE)
9.13 Conclusion
Conflicts of Interest
Acknowledgements
References
10 Membrane Materials in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fuel Cell: Definition and Classification
10.3 Historical Background of Fuel Cell
10.4 Fuel Cell Applications
10.5 Comparison between Fuel Cells and Other Methods
10.6 PEMFCs: Description and Characterization
10.7 Membrane Materials for PEMFC
10.8 Conclusions
References
11 Nafion-Based Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
11.1 Introduction: Background
11.2 Physical Properties
11.3 Nafion Structure
11.4 Water Uptake
11.5 Protonic Conductivity
11.6 Water Transport
11.7 Gas Permeation
11.8 Final Comments
Acknowledgements
References
12 Solid Polymer Electrolytes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Type of Fuel Cells
12.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells
12.3 Basic Properties of PEMFC
12.4 Classification of Solid Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for PEMFC
12.5 Applications
12.6 Conclusions
References
13 Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Transport Phenomena in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
13.1 Introduction
13.2 PEMFC Simulation and Mathematical Modeling
13.3 The Solution Procedures
13.4 Conclusions
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Graphene-based membranes in fuel cells.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Recent developments of graphene based membranes for PEM fuel cells...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Categories of fuel cells with operational specifications. Modified...
Table 5.2 Structures of different polymeric membranes.
Table 5.3 Different Nafion based nanocomposite membranes showing their proto...
Table 5.4 Mechanical strength comparison of plain and TiO
2
-, SiO
2
-, ZrP-adde...
Table 5.5 Different PBI based nanocomposite membranes showing their proton c...
Table 5.6 Outcome of chemical stability tests of plain and ZrO
2
-added nanoco...
Table 5.7 Different SPEEK based nanocomposite membranes showing their proton...
Table 5.8 Comparison of water uptake, proton conductivity, and mechanical st...
Table 5.9 Different PVA based nanocomposite membranes showing their proton c...
Table 5.10 Different Sulfonated polysulfone based nanocomposite membranes sh...
Table 5.11 Different chitosan based nanocomposite membranes showing their pr...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Different types of fuel cells [1, 6, 7].
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 US DOE technical targets for composite bipolar plates [47, 175, 20...
Table 7.2 Comparative study between the properties of various categories for...
Table 7.3 Description of some of the common electrical conductivity models f...
Table 7.4 Physical, mechanical, and electrical properties of thermoset resin...
Table 7.5 Properties of different conductive filler for bipolar plate applic...
Table 7.6 Summarized description of materials, properties, and manufacturing...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Chromium-MOF.
Table 8.2 Zinc-MOF.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Membrane material used in PEMFCs.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Type of fuel cells and their operating temperature [3, 8].
Table 10.2 PEMFCs in different industries: Applications, prospect, and the m...
Table 10.3 Comparisons of battery, heat engine, and fuel cell [5].
Table 10.4 Various types of block copolymers were examined as a membrane in ...
Table 10.5 PEM preparation methods, their advantages and disadvantages, and ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Physical properties of ECM.
Table 11.2 Water uptake at different temperatures (°C) and eq. times (h) for...
Table 11.3 Tangential direction conductivity measurements of Nafion
®
...
Table 11.4 Normal direction conductivity (NDC-1) measurements of Nafion
®
...
Table 11.5 Normal direction conductivity (NDC-2) measurements of Nafion
®
...
Table 11.6 Summary of EOD Studies (VE, vapor equilibrated; LE, liquid equili...
Table 11.7 Most relevant measurements for diffusion coefficient (
D
), gas sol...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Properties of various types of fuel cells.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 The common considered assumptions for PEMFC modeling. Modified af...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Hydrogen oxide fuel cell (adopted from Xu
et al.
[45]).
Figure 2.2 Direct methanol fuel cell (adopted from Lin
et al.
[47]).
Figure 2.3 Two chambered microbial fuel cell (adopted from Shabani
et al.
[4...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of fuel cell.
Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of graphene oxide.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Single-, double-,Graphiteand multi-layer CNTs [3].
Figure 4.2 Schematic presentation of Pt/PBI-CNT electrode [37].
Figure 4.3 The device structure of PEM fuel cells [59].
Figure 4.4 Thermocell based on a PEM [60].
Figure 4.5 Single-cell PEM fuel cell [72].
Figure 4.6 SEM images of MWCNT [79].
Figure 4.7 Filtration mechanism of CNT membrane [84].
Figure 4.8 CO
2
adsorption structure on (a) Fe-N-SWCNT and (b) Fe-N-DWCNT sur...
Figure 4.9 SEM images of the carbon fibers (a, b), carbon fiber felt (c, d),...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Comparison of fuel cell and diesel engine in converting chemical ...
Figure 5.2 Schematic representation of PEMFC showing different components an...
Figure 5.3 Depicts different characteristic properties influenced by organic...
Figure 5.4 Primary (a) and secondary (b) structure of CsPW. Reprinted from [...
Figure 5.5 ATRA reaction of GO surface with Nafion to give hybrid GO-Nafion ...
Figure 5.6 (a) Fenton’s test result showing weight loss% with respect to tim...
Figure 5.7 Enlarged Bending and rotating motion Zr-O-Zr bond in BaZrO
3
perov...
Figure 5.8 Structures of sulfonated silica nanoparticle (S-SNP) and PBI memb...
Figure 5.9 Surface modification of TiO
2
nanoparticles with cellulose. Reprin...
Figure 5.10 (a) Modification of CNF using aminobenzoic acid and (b) structur...
Figure 5.11 The reaction involved in self-humidification effect of platinum ...
Figure 5.12 Model showing water adhesion on the surface of sulfated zirconia...
Figure 5.13 XRF result of 5% CeO
2
-SPEEK nanocomposite membrane before and af...
Figure 5.14 Schematic representation of water incorporation in La
2
Ce
2
O
7
latt...
Figure 5.15 Surface modification of SBA-15 using 3-Mercaptopropyltrimethoxys...
Figure 5.16 Proton conductivity plot of sulfonated polysulfone (sPSU), GO-Su...
Figure 5.17 Reaction showing an amino acid modification of cellulose whisker...
Figure 5.18 SEM images of (a) A-CSF and (b) SPSF-Ser-CSF. Reprinted from [71...
Figure 5.19 Structure of cellulose, chitin and chitosan. Reprinted from [83]...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic representation and working principle of proton exchange...
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of DMFC operating on methanol and O
2
.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Components of the PEM fuel cell. Reprinted with permission from R...
Figure 7.2 Filler distribution in thermoset composite, (a) at low filler con...
Figure 7.3 The percolation zone of conductive fillers reinforced polymers co...
Figure 7.4 In-plane and through-plane electrical conductivities of (a) NG/PF...
Figure 7.5 Comparison of Mamunya model with experimental conductivity data a...
Figure 7.6 Comparison experimental data with Taherian model of polymer compo...
Figure 7.7 Graphite structure.
Figure 7.8 Structure of a single graphene sheet.
Figure 7.9 The structure of natural flake and expanded graphite.
Figure 7.10 Carbon black structure.
Figure 7.11 Carbon nanotube structure.
Figure 7.12 Carbon fiber structure.
Figure 7.13 SEM micrographs images for (a) graphite (reproduced with permiss...
Figure 7.14 Compression molding process for the manufacturing of thermoset-b...
Figure 7.15 Manufacturing process of Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process...
Figure 7.16 Fabrication of the polymer composite BPs by (a) wet nanoparticle...
Figure 7.17 Resin vacuum impregnation process for preparing the composite BP...
Figure 7.18 Schematic illustration of the mold pressure of thermoset-based c...
Figure 7.19 (a) Photo of plate surface and (b) SEM image of the plate with 1...
Figure 7.20 The variation of the electrical conductivity and flexural streng...
Figure 7.21 Schematic drawing of electrical conductivity path in composite B...
Figure 7.22 Effect of CF length on electrical conductivity, thermal conducti...
Figure 7.23 Compressive and flexural properties of composite BP (EG/CB/GP/PR...
Figure 7.24 Schematic of thermal conductivity path in composites (a) G/GP/PB...
Figure 7.25 Thermal conductivities of G/GP/CNT/PBA composites at 25°C. Repri...
Figure 7.26 (a) Schematic diagram of measurement setup for electrical conduc...
Figure 7.27 Schematic of the measurement setup for the through-plane electri...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of (a) tortuous and (b) consecutive proton...
Figure 8.2 Schematic representation of proton transport occurring via Grotth...
Figure 8.3 Structure of MOF
9
and graph displaying high proton conductivity ...
Figure 8.4 A possible pathway for proton conduction in hybrid MOF
13
(reprod...
Figure 8.5 A possible pathway for proton conduction of the PEMs in
14a
and
1
...
Figure 8.6 Schematic illustration of Proton conduction in
22
(reproduced fro...
Figure 8.7 Changes in impedance spectrum of
25c
at different temperatures wi...
Figure 8.8 Illustration of formation of electrocatalyst from Pt-MOF,
30
(rep...
Figure 8.9 Illustration of formation of confined PFSA/
31a
or
31b
composite m...
Figure 8.10 Schematic representation of fabrication of
MOF
-derived Fe-N/C ca...
Figure 8.11 Schematic representation of formation of nanocomposite PEM using...
Figure 8.12 The proton conduction in hybrid membranes of C-SPAEKS/Im-
37
(rep...
Figure 8.13 The proton conduction in
42a
/Nafion-0.6,
42a
+
42b
/Nafion-0.6, and...
Figure 8.14 Schematic representation of proton conduction under (a) high hum...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Diagram of fuel cell operation.
Figure 9.2 The simplified structure of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (P...
Figure 9.3 Fluorinated polymer PEM for fuel cell applications.
Scheme 9.1 (a) Synthesis of fluorine containing PBI polymer [15].
Scheme 9.1 (b) Preparation process of PBI/silica hybrid membrane material [1...
Scheme 9.2 Synthesis of PBI copolymers containing fluorine-siloxane membrane...
Scheme 9.3 (a) Synthesis of hydroxy-terminated sulfonated poly(arylene ether...
Scheme 9.3 (b) Sulfonated and fluorinated multiblock polymer by copolymeriza...
Scheme 9.4 (a) S-DFBP-HFDP (S-FPAEs) was developed by 4,4-(hexafluoroisoprop...
Scheme 9.4 (b) S-DFBP-BPA [sulfonated-fluorinated poly(arylene ethers)] was ...
Scheme 9.5 (a) Synthesis of 4,4-bis[3-trifluoromethyl-4(4-azidophenoxy)pheny...
Scheme 9.5 (b) Synthesis of sulfonated polytriazoles polymer [30].
Scheme 9.6 Synthesis of fluorinated polybenzoxazole membranes by poly(hydrox...
Scheme 9.7 Synthesis of hexasulfophenyl pendants containing fluorinated poly...
Scheme 9.8 Synthetic route of fluorinated poly(ether sulfones) with disulfon...
Scheme 9.9 The synthetic route of membranes of 6F-sulfonated poly(arylene et...
Scheme 9.10 Preparation process of SIPAES [45].
Figure 9.4 Diagram illustrating characteristics of fluorinated polymer proto...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The historical background of fuel cell technology [9].
Figure 10.2 Schematic of a PEM fuel cell. H
2
(fuel) and air (oxidant) [14]....
Figure 10.3 The range of different structures of PFSA: Nafion™ and Flemion™ ...
Figure 10.4 Examples of partially fluorinated systems: trifluorostyrene-base...
Figure 10.5 Phenol-formaldehyde sulfonated resin: It is used as PEM [24].
Figure 10.6 Samples of PEMs grafted by irradiation: PVDF-g-PSSA (a); poly(et...
Figure 10.7 Various methods of PEMs preparation [9].
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Chemical structure of Nafion (from the authors).
Figure 11.2 The TGA and DTG of Nafion 117. Reprinted from [14], Copyright 20...
Figure 11.3 Typical SAXS pattern for Nafion membrane at different moisture c...
Figure 11.4 Typical WAXS pattern for Nafion membrane (from the authors).
Figure 11.5 Equilibrium values of λ between 20°C to 140°C for Nafion 117 aft...
Figure 11.6 Water uptake as a function of equilibration time for Nafion 117 ...
Figure 11.7 λ as a function of water activity (from the authors).
Figure 11.8 Schematic representation of the different proton conduction mech...
Figure 11.9 Conductivity in Nafion 117 versus percent of relative humidity o...
Figure 11.10 Conductivity in Nafion 117 vs. of λ. Reprinted based on referen...
Figure 11.11 Diagram of the water transport processes within a PEMFCs (from ...
Figure 11.12 Arrhenius plot of H
2
permeability (
P
mH
) in Nafion 117 at dehyd...
Figure 11.13 Arrhenius plot of O
2
permeability (
P
mO
) in Nafion 117 at dehyd...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Basic structure of fuel cell.
Figure 12.2 Various types of fuel cells (reprinted with the permission from ...
Figure 12.3 Schematic representation of PEMFC.
Figure 12.4 Proton conduction mechanism in Nafion membrane as a result of it...
Figure 12.5 Radiation Grafting method for the synthesis of PEM membranes (re...
Figure 12.6 Schematic view of applications of PEMFCs.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 A schematic diagram of a PEMFC. Modified after Wilberforce
et al
Figure 13.2 PEMFC modeling solution procedure.
Figure 13.3 A velocity diagram against pressure drop for all modified flow p...
Figure 13.4 Contours of relative humidity at the middle plane of cathode CL ...
Figure 13.5 Polarization curves under baffle height effects. Reprinted with ...
Figure 13.6 Different channel structures used in the study of Selvaraj
et al
Figure 13.7 Polarization curves of different cases. Reprinted with permissio...
Figure 13.8 Local current density distribution in CLS of cathode sides (
Vcel
...
Figure 13.9 Mass fraction distribution of different species: (a) hydrogen an...
Figure 13.10 Distribution of different parameters on membrane cathode interf...
Figure 13.11 Comparison of simulation results and experimental data. Modifie...
Figure 13.12 Comparison of simulation results and measured data of water sat...
Figure 13.13 Constant and varying porosity gas diffusion layer numerical res...
Figure 13.14 The effect of different over-potentials on the distribution of ...
Figure 13.15 The effect of different over-potentials on the distribution of ...
Figure 13.16 The effect of different over-potentials on the distribution of ...
Figure 13.17 The effect of different over-potentials on the current density ...
Figure 13.18 The effect of difference between inlet pressure and outlet pres...
Figure 13.19 The effects of different ratios of land width to channel width ...
Figure 13.20 The effect of different contact angles on water removing from g...
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Electrochemical Methods and Computational Fluid Dynamics
Edited by
InamuddinOmid MoradiandMohd Imran Ahamed
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119829331
Front cover images supplied by Wikimedia CommonsCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are among the most awaited near-future stationary clean energy devices just next to rechargeable batteries. Despite the appreciable improvement in their cost and durability, which are the two major commercialization barriers, our ambition has not yet reached at par mainly due to the use of expensive metal-catalyst, less durable membrane, and poor insight into the ongoing phenomena inside the PEMFCs. Efforts are being made to optimize the use of precious metals of platinum as catalyst layers or find alternatives that can be durable for more than 5,000 h. The computational models are also being developed and studied to get an insight into the shortcomings and get a remedy. The announcement by various companies including Toyota for PEMFC-based cars by 2025 has accelerated the current research on PEMFCs. A breakthrough is urgently needed. The membranes, catalysts, polymer electrolytes, and, especially, the understanding of diffusion layers need thorough revision and improvement to achieve the target.
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: Electrochemical Methods and Computational Fluid Dynamics is intended to present experimental and computational techniques that are used to understand the phenomena inside the PEMFCs. The latest potential materials for electrode and membrane application, which are currently under active research, are thoroughly covered. The PEMFC electrolyte needs to be solid as the portable application of hydrogen is too risky. The literature on polymer electrolytes has developed recently. Some chapters are devoted to understanding these electrolytes, their shortcomings, and potential improvements. Further, the successful computational fluid dynamics models are discussed to help the reader understand diffusion phenomena that cannot be understood analytically. This book should be useful for engineers, environmentalists, governmental policy planners, non-governmental organizations, faculty, researchers, students from academics, and laboratories that are linked directly or indirectly to PEMFCs, for most awaited near-future stationary clean energy devices. Based on thematic topics, the book edition contains the following 13 chapters:
Chapter 1 is intended to represent an overview of stationary and portable applications of PEMFCs. Hydrogen, alcohol, and microbial cells are presented for existing applications. Besides, the applications of micro fuel cells are included, the challenges and promising applications of each cell are also offered.
Chapter 2 discusses the use of graphene oxide as a proton exchange membrane material. The application of modified graphene oxide membranes in fuel cells to enhance proton conductivity is reported in detail. Methods to synthesize graphene oxide membranes and techniques to characterize are discussed in light of research experiments.
Chapter 3 discusses the recent trend of graphene and its nanocomposites in the modifications of membrane-based fuel cells. The understanding of graphene features, prospects of graphene nanocomposites as membranes for fuel cell technology, and their influence on the performances of PEMFCs are also presented.
Chapter 4 discusses the carbon nanotube–based membranes for PEMFCs. In addition, the role of carbon nanotube toward PEMFCs is discussed. Various reported research papers, are reviewed and their mechanism and efficiency are also discussed.
Chapter 5 presents diverse nanoadditives and polymer matrices utilized in nanocomposite proton exchange membrane preparation for fuel cells. Thermal stability, chemical stability, and water uptake capacity of membranes are discussed in detail. The major focus is given to the proton conductivity of nanocomposite membranes with a change in percentage composition of nanoadditives.
Chapter 6 discusses various research progress and achievements of inorganic-organic composite membranes for PEMFCs. The major focus has elucidated the characteristics, advantages, design principles, and the relationship between various inorganic fillers and the properties of composite proton exchange membranes. The future development direction has also prospected.
Chapter 7 overviews the present research studies being performed on thermoset composites for bipolar plate applications. The influence of different conductive fillers and parameters of manufacturing methods on the properties of thermoset-based composite bipolar plates is discussed in detail. This chapter also includes theories of electrical conductivity and the characterization of polymer composite-based bipolar plates.
Chapter 8 discusses various design strategies of metal-organic frameworks for the PEMFCs and their performance in different matrices. This chapter mainly focuses on the advantages, limitations, and future applicability of the existing designs of metal-organic frameworks described in the literature.
Chapter 9 focuses on research in proton exchange membrane material based on fluorinated polymers. The preparation process, synthetic protocols, and properties of the various fluorinated membrane materials to achieve the effective compatibility of fuel cells are discussed. Special attention is given regarding the synthesis of fluorinated poly(aryl ether sulfone) membranes cross-linked sulfonated oligomer as the potential membrane in the construction of PEMFCs.
Chapter 10 discusses various categories of PEMFC materials, and advantages, disadvantages, and performance of each proton exchange membrane preparation method are considered in detail. The definition of a fuel cell, classifications, historical background, and its applications are explained. The critical parameters to characterize them also are discussed.
Chapter 11 details the properties of the Nafion membrane, which is the most widely used and researched proton exchange membrane. Throughout this chapter, the more relevant structural and transport models are exhaustively discussed and connected with the operation improvement of fuel cells. In addition, relevant results from different studies and authors are summarized.
Chapter 12 discusses the basics of fuel cells and their types. In addition, their working principle and application are also discussed in detail. The main focus is given to communicate the PEMFCs and the type of solid polymer electrolyte membranes along with their applications.
Chapter 13 focuses on CFD simulation and mathematical modeling of transport phenomena in PEMFCs. The effects of flow field configuration and operating parameters on PEMFCs performance are discussed. Different software and codes like ANSYS Fluent, COMSOL, lattice Boltzmann, and OpenFOAM to simulate PEMFCs are reviewed.
Highlights:
Introduces the readers and professionals with the details of the basics, working principles, and applications of fuel cells
Explores the features and applications of graphene oxide as proton exchange membrane material
Focuses on progress, applications, mechanisms, and efficacy of different types of PEMFCs
Highlights of metal-organic frameworks for the PEMFCs and their performance
CFD simulation and mathematical modeling of transport phenomena in PEMFCs
InamuddinOmid MoradiMohd Imran Ahamed
1Stationary and Portable Applications of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Shahram Mehdipour-Ataei* and Maryam Mohammadi
Faculty of Polymer Science, Iran Polymer and Petrochemical Institute, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have been extensively evaluated for transportation applications due to the advantages such as lightweight, fast start-up, and zero emission. Some commercial products are also now being used worldwide. Moreover, because of the increasing advancement of technology and the integration of human life with new electronic technologies as well as the Internet, there is a growing trend for alternative or auxiliary sources of power for battery systems and portable devices. In addition, the requisite sources of power in areas that are remote and suffer from energy shortages are the other challenge. PEMFCs are the future vision for powering stationary and portable resources from massive power plants to cell phones. This chapter presents a variety of stationary and portable applications of PEMFCs, including hydrogen, alcohol, microbial, and micro fuel cells. Each section presents applications, achievements, and challenges. Finally, the prospects for the development of these technologies as reliable and applicable sources in the real world are presented.
Keywords: PEM fuel cell, applications, portable, stationary, hydrogen fuel cell, methanol fuel cell, microbial fuel cell, micro fuel cell
1.1 Introduction
Because of the zero or very low emission, proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are promising in transportation. The first commercial application of these technologies in transportation may be urban buses. The Scania hybrid bus is an example of this technology. In addition, fuel cells are applicable in any energy-driving device. The power of less than 1 W to several megawatts can be supplied by this technology due to the modularity, static nature, and variety. These features make a fuel cell a substitute for conventional heat engines used for transportation and power generation. Fuel cells are also an integral part of future technologies for energy conversion and storage, along with electrolyzers, batteries, flow systems, and renewable energy technologies. Lack of global market, high capital, high cost of components, and durability are the limiting factors of the mass market. However, Toyota, Hyundai, Honda, and others have commercialized their own products. Thus, the widespread usage of this technology has been made possible bypassing fossil fuel–powered to fuel cell–powered vehicles. Moreover, the use of fuel cells in US space programs continues, and PEMFCs are also considered for this purpose [1–11].
Fuel cell applications can be considered into three groups: portable, stationary, and transportation.
Low-temperature fuel cells are fit for portable and emergency power due to the short heating time. Portable fuel cells perform in the power range of 5–500 watts. Some examples of portable applications of PEMFCs in real-world include portable power generators for light personal usage in camping, continuous power systems, portable power sources as a replacement for batteries in laptops, computers, cell phones, radios, cameras, military electronics, boats, scooters, toys, kits, home lighting, emergency lights, and chargers.
Fuel cells can also regareded for stationary power generation including in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. In addition, by using fuel cells that operate in the range of medium to high temperature, the use of excess generated heat increases the overall efficiency and offers useful power for heating domestic water and space. A static power range of 1–50 MW can be supplied by PEMFCs. In telecommunication applications as an example of small-scale stationary power, the power range is 1–100 kW. Some applications of PEMFCs for stationary power supply include emergency backup (EPS) or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) for telecommunication networks, airports, hospitals, and training centers; remote or local power supply for small villages, buildings, and military camps; micro fuel cells, combined heat and power generation (CHP), and power regulation systems, in which surplus electricity is stored to hydrogen by electrolysis of water and converted into electricity when needed.
Transportation applications of PEMFCs include diverse types of trucks, buses, automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles, golf vehicles, service vehicles, boats, submarines, aircraft, and locomotives [3, 11–18].
Fuel cell applications can be also classified on the basis of a special need or removing a problem. High reliable power (computer equipment, communication facilities, and call as well as data processing centers), emission reduction or elimination (vehicles, industrial facilities, airports, and areas with severe emission standards for greenhouses), limited access to the electricity grid (rural or remote areas), and the availability of biogas (waste treatment plants and conversion of waste gases into electricity and heat with slight environmental impact by fuel cells) are in this classification [19].
The leading countries in the development of fuel cells include United States, Germany, Japan, Canada, and South Korea [18].
1.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
PEMFCs are the most common types of fuel cell technology that are the focus of studies. The high power density, fast start-up, low manufacturing cost, long lifetime, flexibility, and widespread use in portable devices, transportation, and stationary applications are the superior characteristics of these types of cells compared to other types of fuel cells. About 90% of research studies and developments in fuel cells are in the field of PEMFCs; low operating temperatures and, therefore, reduced heat loss, small size, and lightweight make them suitable for automotive and transportation applications. They are a good choice for powering buses and commercial hydrogen vehicles as well. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells have also been developed as a suitable replacement for existing batteries.
One of the most well-known research centers of PEMFCs is Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), which has released valuable achievements. In addition, renewable energy laboratories all over the world are representing their new successes every day [11, 17, 20–24].
1.2.1 Stationary Applications
In the early 1990s, according to the attained results from the performance and cost of PEMFCs for transportation applications, these types of cells were considered stationary, albeit with limited heat output.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are capable of producing power in the range of a few watts to hundreds of kilowatts. Thus, these cells are applicable in almost any application that requires local power, including backup, remote, and uninterruptible power supply. The stationary application of PEMFCs includes decentralized power generation at the scale of 50–250 kW or less than 10 kW. However, it is required to focus on the small power range of 1–5 kW in the UPS or auxiliary power unit systems to be used for medium or large appliances for stationary applications [14, 24–27].
The distributed power of PEMFCs is usable for stationary applications in a variety of locations. Some of the applications include the main power source for areas where there is no access by the grid, supplementary power supply that operates in parallel with the power grid, supplementary power supply in renewable energy systems like photovoltaic and wind turbines, and emergency generators to remove power grid faults. Initial ages of stationary PEMFCs were designed for the residential power supply to use the generated heat for domestic, which significantly increases efficiency. A 250-kW stationary unit developed by Ballard Generation that runs on natural gas; other types that work with propane, hydrogen, or anaerobic digestion gas have also been designed and fully established. Besides, prototype units have been successfully achieved in the United States, Japan, and Europe [11, 13, 14, 16, 24, 25, 28, 29].
The backup power market for banks, hospitals, and telecommunications, in which there is a need for reliable power sources to prevent unexpected power downfall that causes very high cost, has attracted a lot of attention. Nonetheless, the high cost of PEMFCs is still an obstacle limits the global usage of stationary applications. Nonetheless, several commercial units such as CHP GenSysTM Blue Plug Power, Ballard FCgenTM 1020 ACS, and Ballard FCgen 10 -1030V3 fuel cell systems have been established in several places [11, 12, 14, 15].
The CHP GenSysTM fuel cell system has been installed in New York State for domestic. Ballard Power System is also available for use on telecommunication tower sites in India and Denmark to provide backup power. Besides, a model project was carried out in 2008 in Japan for the installation of ENE FARM class residential fuel cell. Small stationary units with a power of less than 10 kW were also installed for domestic usage, uninterruptible power supply, and backup power in commercial and remote locations [11, 16, 28].
Among the numerous successful projects, the Ballard Generation system is the largest plant to date. The output power of this plant is 250 kW. This PEMFC system is powered by natural gas and can be efficiently used as a backup source for emergency facilities such as hospitals. Moreover, these units produce large quantities of excess heat and hot water. These products are commonly used by the surrounding society and thus improve the efficiency [7].
The infrared effects of fuel cells like in submarines are very attractive for military applications. Many prototypes of this type have been successfully tested recently [7, 30].
The production of ammonia and direct regenerated iron are other stationary applications of fuel cell technology. By direct regenerated iron fuel cells, global production has grown significantly, which supply the present demand of hydrogen in refineries [7].
1.2.2 Portable Applications
Because of the limited capacity of batteries and the growing demand for energy for modern portable devices including laptops, mobile phones, and military radios, PEMFC systems have the potential to be supplemented or replaced with batteries. Thus, PEMFCs will serve as a vision for portable power supply. Portable systems working by PEMFC get into two main applications based on the generated power. The cells with below 100 W are applicable as substitute for battery, and the ones with more than 1 kW are suitable for portable generators [7, 11, 14, 31].
In hydrogen PEMFCs, providing safe hydrogen is a challenge. To this end, hydrogen is used as a liquid fuel for portable applications. On the other hand, compressed hydrogen is a practical answer for transportation, but it is not fit for portable devices due to the low volume energy density and storage space. In addition, carrying hydrogen is not possible. The replacement of liquid or solid fuels is a suggested solution; however, it requires a fuel refining process, which complicates systems. Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is promising for portable applications. Nevertheless, the practical application of DMFCs is prevented by the low performance and high methanol crossover. Direct borohydride fuel cell is another potential system for portable applications. However, the high cost of borohydride and the purification of by-products while performing are the obstacles. Most importantly, the rapid development and success of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery technology in powering laptops, cell phones, etc., is the remaining challenge that must be considered [26, 27, 31].
A number of large companies including Sony, Toshiba, Motorola, LG, Samsung, SFC Smart Fuel Cell, Samsung DSI, Neah power systems, MTI micro, Horizon, Jadoo power systems, Viaspace/Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Corporation, and CMR fuel cells have their own research and development units in portable PEMFCs [11].
1.2.3 Hydrogen PEMFCs
The best option for high-energy long-term power sources is hydrogen PEMFC. In such applications, hydrogen in the form of a metal or chemical hydride is stored in a tank and oxygen is supplied from the air.
An advanced hydrogen portable power cell based on a 50-W PEMFC was developed in the United States. The system was intended for commercial and military applications, which was successfully used by the Marine Corps. Moreover, Allis-Chalmers developed golf carts with hydrogen fuel cells. Testing fuel cell stacks to generate power for welders and forklifts is also another activity of Allis-Chalmers [20, 26, 27, 30, 32].
However, as mentioned earlier, the challenge of hydrogen fuel for PEMFCs for mobile and portable applications is to provide safe hydrogen.
1.2.4 Alcohol PEMFCs
1.2.4.1 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells with methanol fuel were considered by projects in the United States, Japan, and Europe, especially in LANL. This type of fuel cell is a promising prospect for portable applications. Any small-scale device, which works by rechargeable batteries, can work by DMFC as well. However, DMFCs are not suitable candidates for high power output applications [25].
The rapid growth of mobile communications and Internet services has led to growing demand for portable devices with high power, long operation, small size, and lightweight. Fast CPUs, high-resolution displays, and wireless connections are examples that increase the demand for power supply.
The present power supply systems for portable devices are often rechargeable lithium batteries and nickel batteries. Lithium batteries, in particular, have a major market in portable devices such as laptops and cell phones. Nonetheless, because of the low energy density and short operating time, Li-ion batteries or any other rechargeable batteries cannot meet the high power and long-lasting needs for portable devices. The DMFCs are future technology as portable power supplies. In other words, the higher energy density and grid independence of DMFCs compared to Li-ion battery systems have turned these systems into devices to complement or replace these batteries. However, many problems, including high price and methanol crossover, must be addressed for DMFCs to economically complement or replace Li-ion batteries. A research study compared the total cost of a DMFC to Li-ion batteries for a 20-W laptop computer with a lifespan of 3,000 h in Korea. The total cost was 140 and 362 $ for the battery and DMFC, respectively. The high fuel consumption arisen from the loss of methanol by crossover is the reason of high price of DMFC. Therefore, the necessity of competition of DMFCs with Li-ion batteries includes reducing methanol crossover and price to 10−9 times and less than 0.5 $/kg, respectively. Under these circumstances, if the cost of DMFC production drops to 6.30 $/watt, then the DMFC will be reasonable compared to the Li-ion battery. On top of that, the regulations recently prohibited the use of highly flammable methanol on airline flights that must be cared for [14, 26, 27].
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Battelle, Casio, and Ultracell are some manufacturers of DMFCs. In addition, many companies of fuel cell technology such as Antig, DMFC Corp., DTI energy, Energy Visions Inc., INI Power, MTI Micro Fuel Cells, Neah Power, Plug Power, and Smart Fuel Cell as well as communications and electricity companies like Fujitsu, IBM, LG, Motorola, NTT, Sanyo, Samsung, Sony, and Toshiba have introduced a variety of DMFC prototypes as laptop power supplies. These diverse products of companies compete with each other in weight, dimensions, power output, and concentration of methanol. The total volume of the system is one of the most important commercialization factors of DMFC prototypes for laptops, which determines power density, energy density, and the concentration of methanol solution. To gain an effective integration of DMFC system with laptop computers for optimizing power output level and operating time, Toshiba and NEC have embedded the power supply on the below back of the laptop computer. In reverse, the laptop lens was selected as the location of power supply in the prototypes by Sanyo and Samsung Electronics. Despite the successes in introducing DMFC systems for laptops, commercialization has been delayed due to the methanol ban on airplanes and high production cost, which is at least 10 times higher than Li-ion batteries [26, 27, 33].
DMFC is the smallest fuel cell, which can be developed due to the possibility of direct injection of fuel, air-breathing, and low operating temperature. Therefore, this type of fuel cell is actually a good technology for portable generators. However, DMFC currently cannot meet the power generation needs of many real portable applications [14].
1.2.4.2 Direct Dimethyl Ether Fuel Cell
Significant efforts have been made to find alternative fuels for PEMFCs to power portable energy systems. Because there are safety and technical barriers about using hydrogen and methanol. Hydrogen PEMFCs have a high power density due to the simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and its ease of oxidation. However, hydrogen suffers from problems related to low storage density, production, and infrastructure. Becaue of the more simplicity of DMFC compared to hydrogen cell, it better fits for portable applications. Performance loss of DMFC compared to hydrogen PEMFC is accepted against the easy storage and density of methanol. However, fuel storage density and toxicity of methanol are DMFC drawbacks for portable applications. Methanol is toxic when ingested or inhaled excessively, disperses rapidly in groundwater, has a colorless flame, and is more corrosive than gasoline. In this way, direct dimethyl ether polymer electrolyte fuel cell (DMEFC) has been proposed for portable applications. Dimethyl ether is a potential fuel for direct oxidation cells due to the combination of the benefits of hydrogen (pump-free feed) and methanol (high energy density storage). DMEFC stacks are currently larger than DMFC equivalents; however, the absence of a pump and lower toxicity compared to methanol significantly reduces size, weight, and complexity of the system [34].
1.2.5 Microbial Fuel Cells
Bioelectrochemical fuel cell systems with polymer membranes are another type of fuel cell in which electrochemically active microorganisms catalyze reactions. Although much research is still needed, the emerging microbial electrochemical field has a good potential to compete with modern technologies. The main drawback of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) is the lack of sufficient energy production. The expensive electrode, membrane, and cathode catalyst are also other limitations.
In addition to electricity generation, microbial fuel cells have many under investigation applications in wastewater treatment, water desalination, removal and recovery of metals, production of hydrogen in electrolysis cells, remote biosensors, elimination of pollutants, production of chemicals and fuel, and recovery of solar energy.
The application of MFCs as energy sources of spacecraft has been reported that is a validation of the applicability of these devices for practical usage. The maximum power density of MFCs is 2–3 W/m2 under a suitable buffer and the temperature of about 30°C [12, 14, 15, 35–39].
1.2.5.1 Electricity Generation
The primary application of MFC technology is bioelectricity generation. The reports of cell phone charging by generated power from a MFC stack is a validation to this application. Regarding the low power output and the expensive materials of MFCs in comparison with the low-cost of fossil fuels, the competition of MFCs with existing technologies is not possible. Given that low cost membranes or membrane-less systems is developed, the commercialization would be accessible. Some hybrid MFC-based technologies have emerged with a bright prospect for practical applications and scaleup. These applications are discussed in the following sections [19, 35, 37, 40].
1.2.5.2 Microbial Desalination Cells
The basic principle of desalination cells is to use the potential at the anode and cathode to perform on-site desalination. Microbial desalination cells have a third chamber in which the anion exchange membrane and cation exchange membrane are located between the anode and cathode chambers. Removing the membrane by using MFCs with one chamber reduces costs and internal ohmic resistance. However, preventing short circuits and the need to keep the electrodes close to each other is a challenge in membrane-less MFCs. Other separators with higher porosity ranges such as ceramics, soil, and sand are used to decrease the distances of electrodes and improve power density. In this case, the growth of the biofilm on the separator, which may affect the performance of the MFC, must be concerned. The design should be optimized in such a way that high power density along with inexpensive constituents and simplicity of the system is brought. Ieropoulos and coworkers proposed an applicable reactor setup, which met the requirement of low-cost materials [29, 38, 39].
1.2.5.3 Removal of Metals From Industrial Waste
MFCs can be used to remove metals from industrial waste. Basic metals such as copper, nickel, iron, zinc, cobalt, and lead are used in large quantities. Generally, four mechanisms including the recovery of metals by aerobic cathodes and biocathodes in the MFC or by an external energy source have been reported. Conversion of Cu2+ to metallic copper at the MFC cathode, which is coupled with microbial oxidation of organic matter and power generation, is an example. In addition, the removal and recovery of uranium from contaminated sediments with poised electrodes as an electron donor is used for microorganisms [39].
1.2.5.4 Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment concurrent with power generation is one of the most basic applications of MFC. As stated, the MFC technique can also be used for water desalination, but wastewater treatment is considered as the most practical application of this system. The conventional activated sludge reactors can be replaced with MFCs as bioreactor units for electricity generation, biomass production, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal. MFCs as biological devices can treat wastewater to inorganic materials in natural environments. The recovery of useful products such as electricity and hydrogen is one of the advantages of wastewater treatment MFCs over other primary remediation processes. Various types of industrial and domestic wastewater, including agricultural, distillation plants, food, and dairy, have been studied as substrates. Removal of bioelectrochemical organics and removal and recovery of bioelectrochemical nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus are the processes involved in this application. Although the treatment of high toxic effluents by MFCs in not attained completely, these technologies can still lessen the COD of the effluent sufficiently to see discharge regulations prior to release into the environment. In addition, wastewater, which is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals, fatty acids, etc., is treated by MFCs.
Despite all these advances, because of the complex nature of wastewater, a fully optimized configuration of MFCs as a wastewater treatment or energy recovery device has not yet been achieved. Thus, further research is needed before organizing large plants. In recent years, the first reports of practical applications of this technology in the real world are emerging [35, 37–39].
In the cases in which power recovery is not the priority, series or parallel stack geometries, as well as single cells, have been reported for practical applications. However, few prototypes have been developed for scaleup worldwide. Tube MFCs by the University of Queensland and iMETland project at the University of Alcalá de Henares in Spain are some of the efforts for this application. However, commercial wastewater treatment reactors do not exist that arise from the high cost of electrodes and separators [38].
The application of MFCs in wastewater treatment systems has also been investigated in the Live Building Challenge. Although a variety of decentralized wastewater treatment technologies are available, MFCs will be regarded as a replacement to these technologies for application in Live Building Challenge. In addition, MFCs are suitable for extensive use in places without water and electricity infrastructures [41].
1.2.5.5 Microbial Solar Cells and Fuel Cells
Harvesting solar energy and synthesizing organics are conducted by microbial solar cells using photosynthetic. Microbial carbon adsorbent cells are similar to these types of cells. Because the cathode chamber is sprayed with CO2, it is possible that photosynthetic microorganisms degrade this greenhouse gas to organic matters. The organic matter can be converted to ethanol, biofertilizer, hydrogen, and amino acids. Sedimentary microbial fuel cells in which in situ generation of energy form sustainable sources is done has a dissimilar concept of MFC [38].
1.2.5.6 Biosensors
In addition to energy harvesting, MFCs can be an ideal option for biosensors to detect contaminants in remote areas. Biosensors require low-cost energy sources to operate and minimum maintenance operations. Rivers, lakes, seas, sediments, and anywhere that periodic replacement of the battery is difficult are the options for this application of MFCs. These systems based on MFCs can operate for up to five years without any maintenance. Moreover, MFCs do not need converters and operate by highly sensitive biocatalysts that have fast reaction to environmental fluctuations [35, 37, 38].
The Benthic Unattended Generator can be regarded as the first practical implementation of the MFC for the supply of oceanographic instruments using organic matter in water sediments [36].
1.2.5.7 Biohydrogen Production
Biohydrogen production is another useful application of MFCs. In this type of MFC, the production of hydrogen is made by bacterial fermentation of the substrates, which results in protons and electrons in the attendance of electrodes [37].
The conventional two-chamber MFCs can be converted into microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) to produce hydrogen. A MEC the same as a MFC consists of two chambers that are separated by an ion exchange membrane: the anode and the cathode. The produced hydrogen by the MEC can be stored and used to generate electricity. Therefore, MFCs can be combined with the MEC for electricity generation to meet electrical demand [35].
1.2.6 Micro Fuel Cells
Micro fuel cells are of intense attention due to the need for an UPS in portable electronics. The rapid growth in demand for power systems has led to that batteries cannot meet the need due to long charging times and low power capacity. These two problems can be removed by using portable micro PEMFCs. These devices can be made in small dimensions without loss of efficiency. Several methods proposed by researchers for making portable micro fuel cells. The typical power for portable electronics is in the range of 5–50 W; however, the focus is on values less than 5 W for micro power applications. [11, 18, 20, 42, 43].
The goal of using micro fuel cell is to maximize power generation for miniature energy-harvesting devices. These devices are suitable for applications that require small energy sources. Three types of fuels can feed this type of fuel cell: pure hydrogen; pure hydrocarbons like methanol, ethanol, formic acid, and ethylene glycol; and hydrogen in modified hydrocarbons. DMFCs are one of the best candidates for micro fuel cell applications. These types of cells are suitable power sources for personal digital assistance, laptops, cell phones, and hybrid battery chargers with a maximum power of 1–50 W. Pure hydrogen feed is challenging due to the lack of suitable materials for small-scale storage. Safety issue related to hydrogen carrying in wireless electronics is the other problem [33, 38, 42].
Micro biofuel cells are also of the micro fuel cells which can be implemented in implantable medical devices and micro-sensors such as pacemakers and glucose sensors, artificial valve power supplies, and the operation of robots [33].
Some of the major companies in the field of small PEMFCs are Toshiba FCP, Plug Power, P21, Matsushita, IdaTech, Hydrogenics, Eneos Celltech, Ebara Ballard, ClearEdge, and Altergy [11].
1.3 Conclusion and Future Perspective
Because of the modularity, PEMFCs can be applied to any device that needs a power source. These applications can be classified into three categories: transportation, stationary, and portable.
According to the research studies, it can be said that hydrogen PEMFCs are preferred for transportation and stationary applications due to the need for high power output. On the other hand, safety requirements for carrying hydrogen in portable devices are the remaining challenge. Methanol PEMFCs serve as a vision for portable applications. However, the low power of these cells and the toxicity of methanol are some of the limitations. Another problem is the ban on carrying methanol fuel on aircraft. Thus, other alcohols including dimethyl ether and ethanol have been studied as fuel. However, there is still a need for research and troubleshooting. Microbial fuel cells with polymer membranes are preferred in combined/hybrid applications due to their low power output. In other words, in this type of cell, electricity generation is the second priority along with other applications including wastewater treatment, desalination, production of hydrogen, and acting as biosensors.
Micro fuel cells as a subcategory of all types of cells are interesting technologies for a variety of applications, especially for portable. A variety of hydrogen, methanol, and microbial cells can be scaled down for this purpose. So far, numerous prototypes of PEMFC systems have been tested and introduced. Some of the products, especially hydrogen PEMFCs for transportations have reached the commercial level. Nevertheless, there is still a need to reduce costs, improve performance, and durability to reach the global market and widespread usage. A report on the market of PEMFCs and the forecast in the time range of 2016–2026 is available by Mordor Intelligence [44].
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