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- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Remediation of Heavy Metals Meet the challenge of contaminated water with a range of sustainable tools The treatment of water which has been polluted by heavy metals is an increasingly significant environmental challenge in an industrialized global economy. The ongoing revolution in green technologies, however, has seen a range of sustainable methods emerge for treating water, soils, and other parts of the environment polluted by trace metals. By putting these methods into practice, environmental researchers and industrial professionals can improve water quality, and public health globally. Remediation of Heavy Metals offers a clear, accessible reference on these methods and their applications. It offers an overview of the major effects of heavy metal contamination and works through each of the methods or protocols available to remediate soil and minimize pollution at the source. Remediation of Heavy Metals readers will also find: * Comparison of different approaches for heavy metal removal * Detailed discussion of physical, chemical, and biological remediation methods * Case studies demonstrating proper remediation Remediation of Heavy Metals provides key knowledge for environmental scientists, environmental toxicologists, and other researchers or industrial professionals working in heavy metal removal, as well as advanced graduate students in these areas. Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University-AP, Amaravati, India Binota Thokchom, PhD, DST-Inspire faculty member at the Centre of Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India. Pardeep Singh, PhD, Assistant Professor in the Department of Environmental Science, PGDAV College University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. Ali H. Jawad, PhD, Associate Professor in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia. Willis Gwenzi, PhD, Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Bio-economy e.V. (ATB), Potsdam, Germany, and Universität Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Editors’ Biography
Preface
1 Motivation and Novelty
2 Layout/Structure of the Book
3 Target Audience
1 Release, Detection, and Toxicology of Heavy Metals: A Review of the Main Techniques and Their Limitations in Environmental Remediation
1.1 Introduction to Heavy Metals: An Overview
1.2 Industrial Application of Different Metal Ions
1.3 Conclusion
References
2 Heavy Metals Contamination in Environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Heavy Metals in Water
2.3 Heavy Metals in Soil
2.4 Heavy Metals in Biota
2.5 Heavy Metals in Air
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 A Brief Study of the Effects of Heavy Metals and Metalloids on Food Crops
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources of Heavy Metals in Soils and Food Crops
3.3 Impacts on Soil–Plants/Food Crops
3.4 Heavy Metals and Soil Microbes
3.5 Effect of Chromium (Cr) on Plants
3.6 Effect of Lead (Pb) on Plants
3.7 Effect of Arsenic (As) on Plants
3.8 Effect of Cadmium (Cd) on Plants
3.9 Effect of Mercury (Hg) on Plants
3.10 Effect of Nickel (Ni) on Plants
3.11 Future Perspectives
3.12 Conclusion
References
4 Impact of Heavy Metals on Human Health
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Mercury
4.3 Arsenic
4.4 Iron
4.5 Manganese
4.6 Zinc
4.7 Lead
4.8 Chromium
4.9 Copper
4.10 Cadmium
4.11 Nickel
4.12 Radioactive Heavy Metals
4.13 Conclusion
References
5 Different Approaches for Detecting Heavy Metal Ions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Detection
5.3 Methods of Detection
5.4 Conclusion
References
6 Remediation of Heavy Metals in Environmental Resources Using Physical Methods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Toxicity of HMs
6.3 Physical Methods for Remediation of HMs from Wastewater
6.4 Coagulation and Flocculation
6.5 Ion Exchange
6.6 Adsorption
6.7 Membrane Filtration
6.8 Conclusion
References
7 Chemical Approaches to Remediate Heavy Metals
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources of Heavy Metal
7.3 Chemical Remediation Technique for Heavy Metal Contamination in the Environment
7.4 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives
7.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
8 Carbon‐Based Absorption Materials for Heavy Metal Removal
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources of Heavy Metal in Water
8.3 Effects of Water Environmental Chemistry on Heavy Metal Removal
8.4 Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials
8.5 Adsorption Mechanisms
8.6 Conclusion and Outlook
References
9 Industrial Waste‐Derived Materials for Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Polluted Water
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Industrial Wastes: Origin, Amount, and Harmful Effects
9.3 Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination in Water Sources
9.4 Sequestration of Heavy Metals Using Industrial Waste‐Derived Adsorbents
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Biological Remediation of Heavy Metals from Acid Mine Drainage—Recent Advancements
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Acid Mine Drainage
10.3 Role of Microorganisms in the Formation and Remediation of AMD
10.4 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in AMD
10.5 Bottlenecks and Future Prospects
10.6 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
11 Phytoremediation and Microbe‐Assisted Removal of Heavy Metals
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Popular Floral Profiles in Phytoremediation
11.3 Assistance of Microorganisms in Phytoremediation
11.4 Microbial and Plant Symbiosis in Phytoremediation
11.5 Phyto‐Microbe Contributory Roles
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Recycling and Disposal of Spent Metal(loid)‐Laden Adsorbents: Current and Emerging Technologies, and Future Directions
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nature and Health Concerns/Risks of Spent/Used Adsorbents
12.3 Current Recycling and Disposal Technologies
12.4 Emerging Technologies
12.5 Looking Ahead: Future Perspectives and Research Directions
12.6 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Heavy metal and metalloids applications in industrial and other s...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Heavy metal concentration in water.
Table 2.2 Concentration of heavy metals in soil.
Table 2.3 Concentration of heavy metals in some of common vegetables.
Table 2.4 Heavy metal concentration in ambient air.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Heavy metal pollution on some food crops from diverse sources (Ar...
Table 3.2 Permissible limit of some toxic heavy metals in soils and food cr...
Table 3.3 Some detailed effects of chromium, lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercur...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Adequate Mn intake requirements for different age groups.
Table 4.2 RDA limits for different age groups.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Limitations, causes, and outcomes of contamination by various hea...
Table 5.2 Both AAS and its graphitic furnace counterpart, GF‐AAS, are used ...
Table 5.3 AFS and XRFS are helpful methods for the identification of potent...
Table 5.4 Potentiometry for detecting ions of heavy metals.
Table 5.5 Employing several modified electrodes to amperometrically detect ...
Table 5.6 Various heavy metal ion‐detecting voltammetric approaches.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Different classes of heavy metals, with their examples and applic...
Table 6.2 Indian and European (EU) standards for heavy metals in soil, food...
Table 6.3 Advantages and limitations of various treatment technologies for ...
Table 6.4 Maximum contaminant level standards for noxious HMs.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Different remediation techniques, their removal efficiency, and t...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Effect of various factors of certain heavy metal ions’ adsorption...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Examples of waste generated by industries (World Resources Instit...
Table 9.2 Environmental and health risks due to waste.
Table 9.3 Hazardous effects of heavy metal toxicity on human health and aqu...
Table 9.4 Permissible limits of the discharge of some heavy metals in water...
Table 9.5 Adsorption capacities of some industrial (food, cement, sugarcane...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Environmental effects of acid mine drainage.
Table 10.2 Application of bioremediation technique in removal of trace meta...
Table 10.3 Inlet water chemistry for the whole duration of the experiments....
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Prospective plants in heavy metal remediation.
Table 11.2 Pipeline of phytoremediation mechanisms.
Table 11.3 Microbes‐assisted heavy metal decontamination.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Mechanisms and sources of release of heavy metals in water resour...
Figure 1.2 Impact of hazardous heavy metals on human health and analysis, de...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Heavy metal sources in the environment.
Figure 2.2 Heavy metal sources in water and soil.
Figure 2.3 Heavy metal sources in the air.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 An illustration showing different sources of heavy metals that le...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The ROS generation mechanism of Hg.
Figure 4.2 Radioactive material decay types.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Metal ion detection is done using a single‐beam atomic absorption...
Figure 5.2 Here we see a schematic representation involving the K‐capture pr...
Figure 5.3 The components of an XRFS, which is used to evaluate elemental co...
Figure 5.4 To detect Hg
2+
ions, an altered glassy carbon electrode as well a...
Figure 5.5 Finding Cd
2+
, Cu
2+
, and Pb
2+
ions by utilizing the differential p...
Figure 5.6 To determine the presence of zinc ions, a single‐use copper‐based...
Figure 5.7 SWASV for detecting metal ions of various types. SWASV responses ...
Figure 5.8 The “tren‐based tripodal chemosensor” is used in the optical meth...
Figure 5.9 To achieve highly specific optical identification of the Hg
2+
ion...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic representation of the source of heavy metals.
Figure 6.2 Physical methods for remediation of heavy metals (HMs).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Sources of heavy metal.
Figure 7.2 (a) Experimental arrangements for the removal of EDTA‐chelated co...
Figure 7.3 Coagulation process for the removal of antimony, inset showing th...
Figure 7.4 Ion exchange mechanism for the lead removal using ion exchange re...
Figure 7.5 (a) Experimental setup design. Effect of varying (b) time and (c)...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Sources of heavy metal pollution in wastewater.
Figure 8.2 Carbon‐based nanomaterial (CNM) for heavy metal adsorption from w...
Figure 8.3 Different processes of heavy metal remediation.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Illustrating the mechanism, merits, and demerits of best treatme...
Figure 10.2 Potential iron, sulfur, and carbon cycling based on known metabo...
Figure 10.3 (I) (a and b) Schematic representation of the study area; Photog...
Figure 10.4 Schematic presentation of (I) the sulfidogenic system driven by ...
Figure 10.5 (i–iii), (iA) Sulfide concentrations in the effluents from the s...
Figure 10.6 (I) Monitoring of the Fe (a) and As removal rates (b) in the fie...
Figure 10.7 (a) SEM images and SEM‐EDS analyses of the developed cake layer ...
Figure 10.8 Schematic representation of the continuous flow bioreactor simul...
Figure 10.9 (i) Changes in the (a) Cu dissolution rate, (b) total Fe concent...
Figure 10.10 (i) Schematic representation of Cu removal mechanism by
T. lixi
...
Figure 10.11 (i) Species distribution diagram as a function of pH for the sy...
Figure 10.12 (i) Characterization of
Escherichia coli
inclusions of PHB bead...
Figure 10.13 (i) Speculative action and mechanisms for an Mn mine drainage t...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Phytoimmobilization sequential steps.
Figure 11.2 Phytoremedial mechanisms and microbial assisted phytoremediation...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 A conceptual depiction of a life cycle of an adsorbent from prec...
Figure 12.2 A summary depiction of the current and emerging methods for the ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Editors’ Biography
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Remediation of Heavy Metals
Sustainable Technologies and Recent Advances
Edited by
Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian
SRM University‐AP, Andhra Pradesh, India
Binota Thokchom
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India
Pardeep Singh
University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ali H. Jawad
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Willis Gwenzi
Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Bio‐economy e.V. (ATB), Potsdam, Germany
Universität Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany
This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The rights of Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian, Binota Thokchom, Pardeep Singh, Ali H. Jawad, and Willis Gwenzi to be identified as the editors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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List of Contributors
Laxmi R. AdilDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Pinki R. AgrawalEnvironmental Sciences and Biomedical MetrologyCSIR‐National Physical LaboratoryNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
Deeksha AithaniSchool of Environmental SciencesJawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew DelhiIndia
V. AlagesanSchool of Chemical and BiotechnologySASTRA Deemed UniversityThanjavur, Tamil NaduIndia
C. ArunDepartment of BioTechnologyPeriyar Maniammai Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University)Thanjavur, Tamil NaduIndia
Debika BarmanDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Rinkumoni BarmanCentral Ground Water Board, North Eastern RegionDepartment of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga RejuvenationMinistry of Jal ShaktiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Soumalya BhowmikCentre for NanotechnologyIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
ChanchalDepartment of ChemistryDCRUSTMurthal, HaryanaIndia
ChankitDepartment of ChemistryDCRUSTMurthal, HaryanaIndia
Suparna DattaCentral Ground Water Board, Eastern RegionDepartment of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga RejuvenationMinistry of Jal ShaktiKolkata, West BengalIndia
Ngangbam R. DeviDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Snigdha DuttaCentral Ground Water Board, North Eastern RegionDepartment of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga RejuvenationMinistry of Jal ShaktiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Dison S. P. FrancoDepartment of Civil and EnvironmentalUniversidad de la Costa, CUCBarranquilla, Colombia
Anadi GayenCentral Ground Water Board, Eastern Region, Department of Water Resources River Development and Ganga RejuvenationMinistry of Jal ShaktiKolkata, West BengalIndia
Jordana GeorginDepartment of Civil and EnvironmentalUniversidad de la Costa, CUCBarranquilla, Colombia
Rajdikshit GogoiDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Willis GwenziFaculty of Organic Agricultural SciencesUniversität Kassel, Grassland Science and Renewable Plant ResourcesWitzenhausen, GermanyDepartment of Technology AssessmentLeibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB)Potsdam, Germany
Ziaul HasanDepartment of BiosciencesJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DelhiIndiaCentre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic SciencesJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
Tauseef HassanCenter for Nanoscience and NanotechnologyJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
R.V. HemavathyDepartment of BiotechnologyRajalakshmi Engineering CollegeThandalam, Chennai, Tamil NaduIndia
Maimur HossainDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
IttishreeDepartment of PharmacognosyHindu College of PharmacySonipat, HaryanaIndia
Parameswar K. IyerDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndiaCentre for NanotechnologyIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Arif JamalDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
Vinod KashyapDepartment of ChemistryNational Institute of TechnologyTiruchirappalli, Tamil NaduIndia
Raju KhanCSIR – Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI)Bhopal, Madhya PradeshIndiaAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar PradeshIndia
Ruhima KhanDepartment of ChemistryGauhati UniversityGuwahati, AssamIndia
Vedika KhareSchool of NanotechnologyUTD, RGPV CampusBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia
Jyoti KushawahaSchool of Environmental SciencesJawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew DelhiIndia
Zakio MakuvaraDepartment of Physics, Geography and Environmental SciencesSchool of Natural SciencesGreat Zimbabwe UniversityMasvingo, ZimbabweDepartment of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life SciencesCollege of Agriculture and Environmental SciencesUniversity of South AfricaPretoria, South Africa
Jerikias MarumureDepartment of Physics, Geography and Environmental Sciences, School of Natural SciencesGreat Zimbabwe UniversityMasvingo, ZimbabweDepartment of Life and Consumer Sciences, School of Agriculture and Life SciencesCollege of Agriculture and Environmental SciencesUniversity of South AfricaPretoria, South Africa
Ching T. MoiDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Geetmani S. NongthombamDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Arpana PariharCSIR – Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI)Bhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia
Retwik ParuiDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Keisham RadhapyariCentral Ground Water Board, North Eastern RegionDepartment of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga RejuvenationMinistry of Jal ShaktiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Chandrasekaran RamprasadSchool of Civil EngineeringCentre for Advanced Research in Environment (CARE)SASTRA Deemed to be UniversityThanjavur, Tamil NaduIndia
Sathya Albert ManoharanSchool of Chemical and BiotechnologySASTRA UniversityThanjavur, Tamil NaduIndia
A. SethupathyDepartment of Chemical EngineeringAnjalai Ammal Mahalingam Engineering College KovilvenniThiruvarur, Tamil NaduIndia
Ashok K. SharmaDepartment of ChemistryDCRUSTMurthal, HaryanaIndia
Rahul SharmaEnvironmental Sciences and Biomedical MetrologyCSIR‐National Physical LaboratoryNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
Tinoziva T. SimbanegaviDepartment of Soil Science and EnvironmentFaculty of Agriculture Environment and Food SystemsUniversity of ZimbabweHarare, Zimbabwe
Ayushi SinghalCSIR – Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI)Bhopal, Madhya PradeshIndiaAcademy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar PradeshIndia
Gagan Kant TripathiSchool of NanotechnologyUTD, RGPV CampusBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia
Priya Dharshini VeeraragavanSchool of Chemical and BiotechnologySASTRA UniversityThanjavur, Tamil NaduIndia
Editors’ Biography
Dr. Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian is currently working as an associate professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University‐AP, India. Previously, he worked in the Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, India. He received his Doctor of Philosophy degree from the National Institute of Technology, Calicut, India. He was awarded a Post‐Doctoral Fellowship by the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, 2015, Germany. He was further awarded the National Post‐Doctoral Fellowship from SERB‐DST, 2016–2018, India. Dr. Selvasembian was awarded as Young Scientist by DST, India, for the BRICS Conclave held in Durban, South Africa, in 2018, and was the recipient of the Hiyoshi Young Leaf Award from Hiyoshi Ecological Services, Hiyoshi Corporation, Japan, in 2018. His major research interests are bioremediation and wastewater treatment. He is an Editorial Board Member in Separation and Purification Reviews, Scientific Reports, Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, and Environmental Management. He is also serving as Associate Editor in the International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, IET Nanobiotechnology, Frontiers in Environmental Chemistry, and as an Academic Editor for Adsorption Science and Technology. He has published more than 100 peer‐reviewed international research articles and contributed several book chapters. He is editing books from prestigious publishers such as Elsevier, Wiley, CRC, and Springer. Recently, Dr. Selvasembian was listed in the top 2% of most cited research scientists in the world, as per data published by Stanford University USA.
Dr. Binota Thokchom is a DST‐Inspire faculty at the Centre of Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati. She obtained her PhD from Korea University, Seoul, in 2016. Her working area varies from combating environmental issues, especially water‐related crises, to nanomaterial synthesis, simulation, and prediction of works through various software. She has published many research articles and technical reports while participating in various national and international conferences, workshops, and seminars.
Dr. Pardeep Singh is presently working as an assistant professor (Department of Environmental Science, PGDAV College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India). He obtained his master degree from the Department of Environmental Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India, in 2011. He obtained his doctorate degree from the Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) in Varanasi in 2017. The area of his doctoral research is the degradation of organic pollutants through various indigenously isolated microbes and by using various types of photocatalysts. He has published more than 35 papers in international journals in the field of waste management.
Dr. Ali H. Jawad is an associate professor at the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. He received his Ph.D. in environmental chemistry from Universiti Sains Malaysia in 2011. He has over 100 publications in reputed and high‐impact factor international journals with total citations (1938) and a Hirsch (H) index of 27. He is currently the Chief Editor of Science Letters journal, and he also serves as Editor for several international journals. He received a Top Peer Review award from Publons (Web of Science) in 2019. So far, he has served as an active reviewer for 72 high‐impact international journals with a total number of completed reviews of 284. He is a principal investigator for several international and national research grants. His current research is focused on the synthesis of chitosan‐based nanocomposite biopolymers and the development of activated carbon from biomass waste for waste water treatment applications.
Prof. Willis Gwenzi is an Alexander von Humboldt Fellow, and Guest Full Professor of Biosystems and Environmental Engineering co‐hosted by Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Bio‐economy e.V. (ATB), Potsdam, and Universität Kassel, Germany. Willis has published over 150 articles in high‐impact international peer‐reviewed journals, one edited book on merging contaminants by Elsevier, and over 30 edited book chapters. Four of his seminal papers are rated as Highly Cited and Hot papers by Clarivate/Web of Science. He has over 15 experience in university research and development, teaching, community service and consulting. His research focuses on environmental remediation, water/wastewater treatment, emerging contaminants, bioenergy, circular bioeconomy, life cycle assessment, health risk assessments, and industrial symbiosis. He has mentored over 100 early‐career researchers. Willis is a regular reviewer for top international journals, and international funding agencies. His academic and research excellence has be recognized internationally by over 20 merit awards, honours, scholarships and research grants. Willis earned: (1) a PhD in Environmental Systems Engineering from the University of Western Australia, (2) a M.Sc. in Water Resources Engineering and Management with merit, (3) a B. Sc. Honours with a first class/distinction, and (4) a Postgraduate Certificate in Applied Groundwater Modelling (UNESCO‐IHE, Netherlands).
Preface
1 Motivation and Novelty
Environmental pollution by heavy metals is a global problem posing environmental and human health risks. Heavy metals are highly toxic, bioaccumulate, and persistent, thus, their health risks may last for a long period following their release into the environment. Traditionally, several insitu and ex‐situ conventional technologies have been used for the remediation of heavy metals, but most of them have limitations, including high cost. Thus, recent years have witnessed the rapid advances in our understanding of heavy metals. These advances cover the following aspects: (i) ecological and health risks, including toxicology and phytotoxicity; (ii) detection tools; (iii) sustainable and novel remediation technologies; and (iv) final disposal of heavy metal‐laden waste materials such as spent adsorbents. However, on the one hand, existing books tend to pay particular attention to conventional remediation methods. On the other hand, information on recent advances on heavy metals remains scattered in individual articles. Therefore, the present 12‐book chapter addresses this gap by providing an up‐to‐date comprehensive synthesis of recent advances in heavy metals.
The 12 chapters address aspects that can be classified under the following main categories:
The environmental release, occurrence, and behavior of heavy metals
The detection methods for heavy metals in environmental matrices
Ecological risk of heavy metals and metalloids, including phytotoxicity in food crops
Human health risks of heavy metals
Remediation of heavy metals using chemical methods
Novel carbon‐based adsorption (bio)materials for metal remediation
Application of novel adsorbents from industrial wastes to remove heavy metals
Phytoremediation of heavy metals, including microbe‐assisted removal
Bioremediation of heavy metals in acid mine drainage
Recycling and disposal of spent metal(loid)‐laden adsorbents
Compared to earlier books on related topics that often focus on one aspect, the present book tracks heavy metals from their release into the environment, behavior and fate, ecological and human health risks, remediation using various methods, and disposal of metal‐laden spent adsorbents. Overall, the book provides a one‐stop comprehensive discussion of heavy metals in the environment.
2 Layout/Structure of the Book
The book has a total 12 chapters, each one structured in the format of a comprehensive review paper based on critical analysis of the evidence. In the chapters, a state‐of‐the art on the topic is presented, followed by future perspectives, including knowledge gaps.
The chapters are presented in a logical sequence, starting with those on release and occurrence of heavy metals, followed by health risks, mitigation, and then disposal of spent metal‐laden adsorbents.
The book is well‐illustrated with several figures and tables.
The presentation in terms of structure, language, and style is approachable, making it easy for the reader to understand.
3 Target Audience
This book is a must‐have resource and indispensable for those interested in understanding recent advances in the environmental occurrence, behavior, health risk, mitigation of heavy metals, and disposal of metal‐laden wastes. Specific target groups for the book include:
Undergraduate students in environmental sciences, environmental engineering, and mining‐related disciplines such as environmental geology and metallurgy.
Postgraduate students in environmental sciences, environmental engineering, and related disciplines.
Academics and researchers in environmental sciences, environmental engineering, and health risk assessment.
Practitioners in environmental management, public health, and occupational health and safety.
Environmental regulatory agencies and decision‐ and policy‐makers.
Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rangabhashiyam S
Dr. Binota Thokchom
Dr. Pardeep Singh
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali H. Jawad
Prof. Dr. Willis Gwenzi
1Release, Detection, and Toxicology of Heavy Metals: A Review of the Main Techniques and Their Limitations in Environmental Remediation
Dison S. P. Franco1, Jordana Georgin1, and Chandrasekaran Ramprasad2
1 Department of Civil and Environmental, Universidad de la Costa, CUC, Barranquilla, Colombia
2 School of Civil Engineering, Centre for Advanced Research in Environment (CARE), SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
1.1 Introduction to Heavy Metals: An Overview
The group of heavy metals has been the focus of much research and scientific studies for two reasons: they are released into the environment on a daily basis in different regions of the world and are highly harmful to human and animal health (Proshad et al. 2021). They are classified as heavy due to their high molecular weight being detected in biological and environmental samples in various source compositions (Proshad et al. 2021). When they are harmful to health, regardless of the concentration, they are classified as heavy metals, namely: zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), thallium (Tl), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), vanadium (V), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), and lead (Pb) (Li et al. 2014). Both physiological and biological functioning depend on these elements (Lien et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2018). Several activities in society are responsible for the release of these ions (Kim and Kim 2020). The source of release in food crops varies greatly by region of the world. In developed countries, the use of fertilizers such as sewage sludge and industrial effluents is the activity that mostly releases metals into the environment. In developing countries, irrigation with incorrectly treated sludge and effluents becomes the main input of heavy metals into the soil (Rai and Singh 2018). However, the deposition of these contaminants in the environment still involves several mechanisms. Therefore, these ions are released in different compartments present in society, namely: urban systems with industries, agricultural activities, watersheds, mining activities, public transport vehicles, and estuaries, among others (Figure 1.1). Distribution can occur on a regional, local, or global scale. Studies on the presence of heavy metals in watersheds are complex because they involve several sources such as soil, atmospheric deposition, river water, sediment, and biosphere. Physical–chemical processes, such as water‐rock interactions from riverside and flood plains, atmospheric deposition (Nickel et al. 2014), and soil erosion and leaching (Li et al. 2020) are classified as carriers of contaminants. In this respect, river water acts as a sink for contaminants within the watershed. In the image, we can see that river water is the primary carrier, whereas the secondary carriers are sediments, atmospheric deposition, and soil.
Figure 1.1 Mechanisms and sources of release of heavy metals in water resources.
The degree of toxicity of these ions in food crops requires specific attention to define the real damage to health that each metal can generate. Some metals such as iron, copper, and zinc are essential in metabolic processes in biota (Zhuang et al. 2009). Uréase has nickel in its composition, and it is known that in large concentrations it can cause problems for human health (Zhuang et al. 2009). These interactions between food, soil, and plants are a model of abiotic‐biotic linkages in the environment. Maintaining a balanced soil in relation to the presence of metals is essential, as sustenance and the food source depend on it. However, the unbalanced presence of these elements can cause a disturbance; an example is industrial activities such as the manufacture of chemicals (alkalis and chlorine), thermoelectric plants, energy industries, foundries, and textiles, among others, which are considered punctual sources of metal release. Agricultural runoff and soil erosion are classified as non‐point sources (Figure 1.1). In addition to the human health problem, these elements alter the activities and microbial interactions of the soil, directly affecting its fertility and quality (Gadd 2010; Gall et al. 2015; Rai and Singh 2018). Other living organisms such as insects and even mammals that are needed by the soil are harmed (Gall et al. 2015; Bartrons and Peñuelas 2017; Rai and Singh 2018). Some cultures use various plants for medicinal purposes; therefore, determining the presence of metals in these plants is highly necessary since it can bring other damage to the health of these people (Shen et al. 2017). Another concern is that some species can bioaccumulate in their tissues metals such as cadmium, chromium, arsenic, lead, and iron; this situation is aggravated when these plants are close to areas of point sources (El Hamiani et al. 2015; Bolan et al. 2017; Kim et al. 2017; Kohzadi et al. 2019). Not only are species grown in the open air subject to contamination, but those grown in greenhouses are also subject to contamination; however, iron is not present in these crops due to lower lighting (Ling et al. 2017). Knowing the mechanisms that involve the release of metals in soil and food is essential for planning remediation technologies.
Due to the high toxicity of some metals, public bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have established release limits into the environment (Carolin et al. 2017). The permitted range (10–250 mg l−1) varies depending on the metal and the regulatory agency; however, if the value is exceeded, it can cause serious damage to different regions of the human body (Vinod Kumar et al. 2014). Due to physical and chemical interactions, ions are rapidly absorbed by biological matrices through different pathways (Ray and Shipley 2015; Tan et al. 2015; Priyadarshini and Pradhan 2017; Ragab et al. 2017). The excessive release of these ions, added to consumption by the body, leads to serious health problems, making their detection and removal from the environment a major social challenge, as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
In order to perform the detection of toxic ions even in small concentrations, highly sensitive techniques were developed (Figure 1.2), with the most commonly applied being inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS) and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) (Sener et al. 2014; Oliveira et al. 2015). For removal and remediation, it is possible to observe different analytical methods that have been created and improved in recent times (chemical precipitation, electrochemical methods, ion exchange, and bioremoval); however, they are little applied due to cost (Kiatkumjorn et al. 2014; Swain et al. 2015). With the application of nanomaterials, the colorimetric technique has shown high selectivity, being efficient in environmental monitoring. Based on color change (plasmon resonance), detection by visible UV absorption spectrophotometry can also be applied. However, bringing together all the advantages such as selectivity, low cost, and environmental friendliness, there are still barriers that can be overcome with advanced technologies in optics, electronics, and electrochemistry (Zhao et al. 2017). With a greater number of desirable variables, detection in nanomaterials has been gaining ground in recent years (Hung et al. 2010; Anwar et al. 2018; Rossi et al. 2021). In this area, sensitive and efficient nanoprobes have also been developed for detecting metal ions (Liu et al. 2019). By causing a change in the surface and color plasmon resonance absorption peak, colorimetric sensors modify metal‐induced particle segregation. The target ion provides the agglomeration of nanoparticles by changing the color of the solution (Wang et al. 2020).
Aiming to prevent damage to human and environmental health, calorimetric probes based on nanomaterials using plasmon resonance were applied to detect metals in low concentrations present in food samples and water resources (Shrivas and Wu 2007; Shrivas et al. 2015). For the same purpose, Khalkho et al. (2021) used Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) coupled with liquid/liquid solvent extraction, single drop microextraction (SDME), and cloud point microextraction techniques. By focusing on metals harmful to health, studies prove that the method of preconcentration of ions using sodium diethyldithiocarbamate immobilized in polyurethane foam (PU‐NaDDC) successfully detected the target pollutant both in biological environmental samples and in liquid environmental samples (dos Santos et al. 2009). Using the same method, it was also possible to detect mercury ions in sedimented areas (dos Santos et al. 2009). Seeking to determine the presence of copper in organic food samples,Shrivas and Jaiswal (2013) used the method based on the separation and preconcentration of the target present in an extraction solvent containing PBITU together with a dispersion solvent. Shrivas and Wu (2007) jointly used SDME with atmospheric pressure mass spectrometry (AP)‐MALDI to analyze the presence of metal ions in real river water samples in gas chromatography (GC), high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE).
Figure 1.2 Impact of hazardous heavy metals on human health and analysis, detection, and treatment technologies.
The analytical methods improved and developed so far are soxhlet extraction, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), solvent‐based liquid phase microextraction (LLME), solid phase extraction (SPE), solvent microextraction (SME), dispersive microextraction (DME), solid phase microextraction (SPME), SDME, and liquid–liquid microextraction (SLM), all focused on preconcentration and isolation of metals in food, biological, and environmental samples (Liang and Sang 2008; Kocot and Sitko 2014; Vessally et al. 2018). The great advantage of these analytical methods is the speed of the analysis, the ease of operation, and the high sensitivity to the presence of metallic ions; all these points provide high performance in analysis with different sophisticated instruments.
1.2 Industrial Application of Different Metal Ions
Heavy metals and metalloids have various applications in the industrial arena for manufacturing processes, coating purposes, and finishing purposes. The elements such as cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), silver (Ag), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and the platinum group elements are considered heavy metals because their specific densities are at least five times that of water. Since the beginning of recorded history, metals have influenced human communities and history. Several cultures have transitioned between the bronze and iron ages, and various metals have been widely tested in their tools and weaponry. Although the ancients were aware of a variety of metals and non‐metals, the greatest number of elements from raw ore was crucial throughout the industrial revolution (1700–1900) (Buyst 2018; Wångmar 2022). Several heavy metals discovered in ancient times came into use in the late 1990s. For instance, scandium, found in the year 1879, has a niche usage in the modern day (Benvenuto 2016). Researchers nowadays are focusing on the use of recovered heavy metals and rare earth metals from waste for various applications (Selvi et al. 2019; Tang et al. 2019; Ramprasad et al. 2022).
Heavy metals have several applications in various industries and other sectors that are discussed in Table 1.1. There are limited reports on the application of metal and derived metal oxides in various industries like textile, tanning, leather, rubber, electrical, electronics, plating, paint, petroleum, mining, and biomedical. Raw heavy metals and metallic composites, as well as nanoparticles made of lead, gold, silver, platinum, zinc, copper, and palladium, for instance, have been widely employed in a variety of goods, from cosmetics to pharmaceuticals, electrical to automobiles, and medical industries.
1.3 Conclusion
The environment and ecosystem have been harmed by the rapid industrialization and increasing pace of population expansion, which is a very serious worry on a global scale. Solitarily, if the three sphere's such as atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are devoid of harmful substances, only then we can attain a sustainable ecosystem. All types of ecosystems have been greatly impacted by these dangerous components, which have disrupted the various interconnected food chains of ecosystems. The present study concludes that there are various sources for the heavy metals released into the environment such as industries, domestic utilities, agricultural fertilizers, vehicular emissions, and mining activities. The released heavy metals have many toxicological effects, such as bioaccumulation and biomagnification, leading to cancer and other health‐related issues. The detection methods of heavy metals in the various environmental compartments like soil, water, air, and plants were discussed like UV spectrometer, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC MS), and HPLC. The various physical, chemical, and biological remediation techniques available for cleaning heavy metals from the environment were elaborately discussed. The study concludes that heavy metals and metalloids have various industrial applications that are highlighted. Heavy metals have their own occupational health risk if they exceed the permissible limits.
Table 1.1 Heavy metal and metalloids applications in industrial and other sectors.
Heavy metals or metalloids
Industry applied
The function of heavy metals in industry
Occupational health risks and effects
Permissible limits (mg l
−1
)
References
Arsenic (As)
Rubber
Additive in catalyst
Internal cancer, skin lesions, and death
0.01
Yahaya and Don (
2014
), Kim et al. (
2015
), Pronk et al. (
2020
), and Orosun (
2021
)
Steel
Metal processing plants
Dye and paint
Additive and preservative
Chromium (Cr)
Chrome plating
Raw material for processing
Ulcer, skin irritation, liver, and kidney damage
0.05
Jobby et al. (
2018
), Vaiopoulou and Gikas (
2020
), and Alvarez et al. (
2021
)
Leather
Tanning process
Textile and pulp
Manufacturing process
Copper (Cu)
Plastic
Coating and refining
Hypochromic anemia, leukopenia, and osteoporosis
0.1
Lipowsky and Arpaci (
2007
), ur Rehman and Lee (
2014
), Siemon et al. (
2020
), Zamindar et al. (
2020
), and Li et al. (
2021
)
Electroplating
Metal refining and solar cell preparation
Pesticide and fertilizer
Raw material for processing
Automotive industry
Plain bearings, bushes, valve guides, and brake pipes
Electrical industry
Wires, ignition solenoid, resistors, relays, and connectors
Nickel (Ni)
Painting
Raw material for painting
Dermatitis, myocarditis, fibrosis, and nasopharyngeal tumors
0.2
Scheppe et al. (
2002
), Salihoglu and Salihoglu (
2016
), and Wahba et al. (
2017
)
Automobile and electrical
Galvanization and paint processing
Lead (Pb)
Rubber and leather
Catalyst additive
Vomiting, immediate abortion, kidney, brain, and nervous system damage
0.1
Chen et al. (
2009
), Rocha et al. (
2012
), Drath and Horch (
2014
), Tian et al. (
2015
), and Varshney et al. (
2019
)
Electroplating
Metal coating
Electrical and electronics
Mobile batteries
Petroleum
Leaded gasoline, petrol‐based materials
Mercury (Hg)
Metallurgy and metal plating
Raw material and additive
Nausea, hypersensitivity, memory problems, kidney and heart diseases
0.01
Brooks (
2012
), Izatt et al. (
2015
), Bradberry (
2016
), and Matta and Gjyli (
2016
)
Chemical manufacturing
Processing and synthesis of chemicals
Zinc (Zn)
Rubber and metallurgical
Raw material processing
Vomiting, nausea, immunity disorders, and respiratory effects
0.5
Yin et al. (
2015
), Uikey and Vishwakarma (
2016
), and Mirzaei and Darroudi (
2017
)
Electrical and electronics
Batteries and wires
Textile and paint
Additive and pigments
Biomedical
Ointments and preservatives
Metal–organic framework (MOF)
Electrical and electronic
Energy storage devices mainly include supercapacitors, batteries, and electrode materials
NA
NA
Kinik et al. (
2017
), Zhou et al. (
2021
), Ryu et al. (
2021
), Dharmalingam et al. (
2022
), Mujahid et al. (
2022
), and Lin et al. (
2023
)
Biomedical
Carrier in anticancer and antimicrobial drugs
Chemical industry
Gas storage
Liquid metals (LMs)
Biomedical industry
Self‐healant, electrical and thermal conductor
NA
NA
Yan et al. (
2018
) and Deng et al. (
2021
)
Electrical and electronics
Solar power panels
Advanced functional materials, metal‐organic frameworks, graphene oxides, carbon nanotubes, and metalloids were being developed and used predominantly in many industries. Further research is needed to address the removal of such emerging pollutants using novel and sustainable technologies. Additionally, the emerging removal technology should address issues of efficiency, effectiveness, cost of operation and maintenance, toxicity of by‐products, and proper handling of post‐remediation waste. Effective enforcement of public policies and legal requirements governing environmental protection is also necessary, in addition to the use of engineering and technological methods.
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