Rising Contagious Diseases E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Comprehensive yet succinct insight into the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases including COVID-19, mpox, Ebola, and Lyme disease Rising Contagious Diseases provides basic information about preventing and treating threatening infectious diseases from viral, bacterial, and parasitic sources, including 28 emerging or recurring diseases like COVID-19, mpox, Ebola, bird and swine flu, malaria, Legionnaires', and others. The text highlights molecular surveillance and epidemiology (including zoonotic pathogens or their variants), innovative strategies for pathogen detection, drug and vaccine development, appropriate preventive measures, cost-effective diagnostic procedures (assays), and effective therapeutic strategies. The text is unique due to its broad coverage of today's infectious diseases, covering several which are not similarly addressed elsewhere, with detailed insight from experts around the world. Composed of 30 chapters of fundamental facts alongside practical and clinical data, Rising Contagious Diseases covers sample topics such as: * Re-emergence of certain diseases in recent decades due to dynamic host-pathogen interactions, anthropogenic selection, and climate change * How real-time epidemiological surveillance can improve detection of infectious disease outbreaks or new infections of public health importance * Up-to-date insight on transmission dynamics, epidemiology, clinical manifestation, advances in diagnostics, and management of covered diseases * Effects of disease outbreaks on the world at large, such as through high morbidity and mortality rates and rising healthcare costs With detailed insight on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases, Rising Contagious Diseases is an essential reference for health care professionals, academics in the field of microbiology, immunology, infectious diseases, pathology, pharmacology and public health, and undergraduates and postgraduates in related disciplines.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Biographies
1 Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy
1.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs
1.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs
1.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID‐19
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of COVID‐19
2.3 Current State of the Pandemic
2.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling
2.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future
2.6 Impact of COVID‐19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems
2.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations
2.8 Global Preparedness and Response
2.9 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
3 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease
3.1 History of
Mpox virus
3.2 Characteristics
3.3 Epidemiology
3.4 Transmission
3.5 Pathogenicity
3.6 Risk Factors
3.7 Diagnostic Testing
3.8 Symptoms
3.9 Long‐Term Effects and Complications
3.10 Vaccinations
3.11 Epidemic Management
3.12 Pharmacology
3.13 Future Implications
3.14 Conclusion
References
4 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Transmission Dynamics
4.3 Disease Management
4.4 Morbidity
4.5 Intersections
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies
5.1 Background
5.2 Causative Microorganisms
5.3 Strategies for Containment
5.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza
References
6 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Current Status – Swine Flu
6.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu
6.4 Diagnosis
6.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu
6.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection
7.3 Infection and Pathophysiology
7.4 Immune Response and Vaccine
7.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management
7.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus
7.7 The Way Forward
References
8 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes
8.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus
8.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever
8.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever
8.6 Clinical Manifestation
8.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever
8.8 Prevention of Disease
8.9 Management of Dengue Disease
8.10 Conclusion
References
9 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Geographical Distribution
9.3 The Virus and its Genome
9.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis
9.5 Relationship Between Host‐Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection
9.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus
9.7 Management of West Nile Virus
9.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment
9.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction
References
10 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Life Cycle
10.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus
10.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections
10.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology
10.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection
10.7 Treatment and Prevention
10.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus
10.9 Summary and Conclusion
References
11 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV
11.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD)
11.4 Conclusion
References
12 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools
12.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease
12.4 Conclusion and Future Directions
Acknowledgment
References
13 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Discussion
13.3 Conclusions
References
14 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Epidemiology
14.3 Clinical Manifestation
14.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever
14.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever
14.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs
14.7 Non‐Pharmacological Treatment
14.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms
14.9 Future Prospectives
14.10 Conclusion
References
15 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update
15.1 Background
15.2 Geographical Distribution
15.3 Mode of Transmission
15.4 Reservoir Hosts
15.5 Incidence and Prevalence
15.6 Clinical Presentation
15.7 Diagnostic Methods
15.8 Recent Clinical Reports
15.9 Management and Treatment
15.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions
15.11 Conclusions
References
16 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond
16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease
16.2 Modes of Transmission
16.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management
16.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease
17.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease
17.4 Lifecycle of
T. cruzi
17.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease
17.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease
17.7 Conclusion
References
18 Legionnaires' Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology
18.1 History of
Legionella
spp.
18.2 Bacterial Life Cycle
18.3 Pathogenicity
18.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways
18.5 Ubiquitin Pathways
18.6
Legionella
‐Amoeba Interactions
18.7 Risk Factors
18.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing
18.9 Symptoms
18.10 Long‐Term Effects and Co‐morbidities
18.11 Prevention
18.12 Pharmacology
18.13 Treatments in Development
18.14 New Technologies
18.15 Conclusion
References
19 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat
19.1 Introduction
19.2 World‐Wide Babesiosis Human Infection
19.3 Life Cycle and Transmission
19.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis
19.5 Management of Babesiosis
19.6 Conclusion
References
20 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria
20.1 History of Malaria
20.2 Types of Malaria
20.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally
20.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies
20.5 Diagnosis and Treatment
20.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria
20.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment
20.8 Challenges for National Governments
20.9 Malaria Eradication Programme
20.10 Conclusion
References
21 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Epidemiology
21.3 What Is Cryptosporidium?
21.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection
21.5 Diagnostic Methods
21.6 Management
21.7 Prevention and Control
21.8 Future Perspectives
21.9 Conclusion
References
22 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations
22.3 Microbiology of Leishmania
22.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis
22.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis
22.6 Drug Resistance in
Leishmania
22.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania
22.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs
22.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs
22.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention
22.11 Conclusion
References
23 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis
23.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis
23.4 Need for Novel Treatment
23.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti‐Toxoplasma Activity
23.6 Conclusion and Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
24 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Immunologic Diagnosis
24.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form
24.4 Conclusion
References
25 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends
25.1 Background
25.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection
25.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis
25.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis
25.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals
25.6 The Nematode:
Trichinella
sp.
25.7 Life Cycle of Trichinosis
25.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans
25.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology
25.10 Conclusion
References
26 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Parasitology Diagnosis
26.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies
26.4 Radiology
26.5 Management
26.6 Conclusion
References
27 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis
27.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis
27.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis
27.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis
27.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis
27.7 Conclusion
References
28 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “
Thelaziasis
”
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Causative Agents
28.3 Morphology
28.4 Mode of Transmission
28.5 Hosts and Vectors
28.6 Life Cycle of
Thelazia
Species
28.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species
28.8 Geographical Distribution
28.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis
28.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis
28.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis
28.12 Precautionary Measures
28.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis
28.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control
28.15 Conclusion
References
29 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology
29.1 Introduction
29.2 History
29.3 Parasite
29.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)
29.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma
29.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission
29.7 Pathogenesis of HAT
29.8 Clinical Manifestations
29.9 Diagnosis
29.10 Treatment
29.11 Control and Prevention
29.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention
29.13 Conclusion
References
30 Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re‐Emergence of Infectious Diseases
30.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases
30.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions
30.5 Future Directions
30.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Factors that aid the spread of infections.
Table 1.2 The spread of infectious diseases both emerging new diseases (blu...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Pharmacotherapy in COVID‐19.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 High‐risk populations as defined by the CDC who are recommended f...
Table 3.2 Differential diagnosis for MPXV.
Table 3.3 Public health guidance for risk exposure levels.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 H1N1 and influenza A detection tests and their possible results....
Table 6.2 List of medicinal plants found across the world that are believed...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Symptoms associated with dengue fever.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Old and new world Hantavirus strains' geographic distribution....
Table 10.2 Multiple strategies for the development of a Hantavirus vaccine....
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 History of worldwide outbreaks of the Marburg virus disease.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Preclinical studies evaluating therapeutic drugs and biologics a...
Table 12.2 Preclinical studies evaluating vaccines against NiV.
Table 12.3 Ongoing clinical trials evaluating therapeutic strategies agains...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Chikungunya cases in India 2017–2022.
Table 14.2 Clinical manifestation of chikungunya fever.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Important landmark in the history of Chagas disease.
Table 17.2 List of available commercial diagnostic tests for the serologica...
Table 17.3 Overview of vital strength and weakness of Benznidazole and Nifu...
Table 17.4 Summarizes the key discovery in chagas disease treatment nowaday...
Table 17.5 Recommended surveillance in patients with confirmed
T. cruzi
inf...
Table 17.6 Immunomodulatory agents used in Chronic Chagas Cardiomyopathy.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Effectors and cellular targets.
Table 18.2 Medication guidelines for Legionnaires' disease.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1
Babesia
human infection first reported worldwide.
Table 19.2 Worldwide case distribution of babesiosis human infection.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Goals, milestones, and targets for the Global Technical Strategy...
Table 20.2 History of malaria control globally.
Table 20.3 Technical strategy for malaria eradication by WHO.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Diagnostic methods used to detect the cryptosporidium presence....
Table 21.2 Drugs used for the cryptosporidium infection.
Table 21.3 Preventive measures to be taken for the cryptosporidium infectio...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Ongoing clinical trials pertaining to
Toxoplasmosis gondii
infec...
Table 23.2 Preclinical trials for toxoplasmosis infection.
Table 23.3 Overview of novel and repurposed drugs against toxoplasmosis.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Intervention of antiparasitic regimen for NCC.
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Trichinosis milestones – The significant discovery of Trichinell...
Table 25.2
Trichinella
Species, Host, Pathogenicity level in humans, region...
Chapter 27
Table 27.1 Treatment regimen for GAE caused due to Acanthamoeba species.
Table 27.2 Treatment regimen for GAE caused due to
Balamuthia mandrillaris.
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 Invasion of thelaziasis infection globally.
Table 28.2 Morphological characteristics of various
Thelazia
species.
Table 28.3 Details of
Thelazia
species invading hosts and year of detection...
Chapter 29
Table 29.1 Taxonomy of
Trypanosoma brucei.
Table 29.2 Classification of tsetse fly.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Impact of diseases on GDP.
Figure 1.2 Factors affecting the surge of emerging and re‐emerging diseases....
Figure 1.3 Burden of disease spread into communicable, noncommunicable, and ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Structure of SARS‐CoV‐2.
Figure 2.2 Modes of transmission of SARS‐CoV‐2.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Pathogenesis of MPXV.
Figure 3.2 Algorithm for MPXV diagnostic testing.
Figure 3.3 CDC recommendations for MPXV vaccination.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The most common symptoms reported during the West Africa outbreak...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of the H1N1 virus, which is responsible for the...
Figure 6.2 Swine influenza virus major subtypes and genotypes in Asia. Major...
Figure 6.3 Transmission of virus from avian to pig and humans leading to the...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Sub‐classification of dengue disease.
Figure 8.2 Life cycle of Aedes mosquito.
Figure 8.3 Diagnosis tests for dengue disease.
Figure 8.4 Preventive approaches for dengue fever.
Figure 8.5 Management of dengue disease.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 An RNA genome from the WN virus contains 5′ non‐coding regions (N...
Figure 9.2 The possible mechanisms by which WNV enters the CNS include: (1) ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Life cycle of Hantavirus.
Figure 10.2 Hantavirus infection in humans.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Protein (top) and genomic (bottom) characteristics of MARV. NP i...
Figure 11.2
Rousettus aegyptiacus
bat, the vector of the Marburg virus.
Figure 11.3 Cycle of transmission of the MARV between the bat (
Rousettus aeg
...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Structural biology of NiV. This illustration demonstrates the in...
Figure 12.2 Transmission and life‐cycle of Nipah virus. This figure depicts ...
Figure 12.3 Immune response to NiV infection. (a) Response of innate immunit...
Figure 12.4 Pathological role of NiV virus. The figure depicts the transmiss...
Figure 12.5 Novel therapeutic approaches against NiV. The sphere of therapeu...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 CHIKV transmission in sylvatic and urban cycle.
Figure 14.2 Mechanism of chikungunya virus in human cells and affected organ...
Figure 14.3 State wise chikungunya fever cases in India (till October 2022)....
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Primary mode of transmission of Lassa virus.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Route of transmission in Chagas disease.
Figure 17.2 The
T. cruzi
life cycle demonstrates the many protozoan forms fo...
Figure 17.3 Overview of Chagas disease clinical manifestations, diagnosis, m...
Figure 17.4 Parasitological, serological, and molecular diagnostic methods f...
Figure 17.5 Flowchart for an organized approach to Chagas disease prevention...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1
Legionella pneumophila
life cycle.
Figure 18.2 Clinical presentation of Legionnaires' disease.
Figure 18.3 Treatments in development for
Legionella pneumophila
.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Schematic diagram showing global transmission of human babesiosi...
Figure 19.2 Life cycle and transmission of Babesia species.
Figure 19.3 Schematic diagram showing Giemsa‐stained thin blood smears ring ...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Plasmodium life cycle.
Figure 20.2 Distribution of malaria cases across some countries.
Figure 20.3 Various diagnosis test of malaria.
Figure 20.4 Prevention of malaria.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Transmission of Cryptosporidium in every medium.
Figure 21.2 Life cycle of Cryptosporidium.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1
Leishmania
parasite (a) promastigote stage, (b) amastigote stage...
Figure 22.2 Life cycle of
Leishmania
parasite.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Ultrastructure of
Toxoplasma gondii
.
Figure 23.2 Lifecycle of
T. gondii
and its transmission.
Figure 23.3 Timeline of conventional therapy.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Lifecycle of
Taenia solium
.
Figure 24.2 Schematic representation illustrating
Taenia solium
and its effe...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 The global prevalence of
Trichinella
in pigs in different geogra...
Figure 25.2 Life cycle of
Trichinella
sp.
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Mechanisms involved in pathogenesis of GAE caused due to the inf...
Figure 27.2 Showing the pathogenesis and combined factors leading to granulo...
Figure 27.3 Defense mechanism of the host against several species of Acantha...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 A slit‐lamp examination eye infected with thelaziasis [4].
Figure 28.2 Microscopic image of adult
Thelazia
species [14].
Figure 28.3 SEM image of
Thelazia gulosa
's posterior ends [11].
Figure 28.4 Microscopic image of
Thelazia rhodesii
anterior and posterior en...
Figure 28.5 Transmission cycle of Thelaziasis species.
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Classification of Trypanosomes. * Sub species.
Figure 29.2 Reproductive cycle of tsetse fly.
Figure 29.3 Transmission triads.
Figure 29.4 Life cycle
T.b. gambiense
and
rhodesiense
.
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 Infectious disease transmission to humans.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Biographies
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Rising Contagious Diseases
Basics, Management, and Treatments
Edited by
Seth Kwabena Amponsah
Department of Medical PharmacologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccra, Ghana
Ranjita Shegokar
Chief Scientific Officer (CSO)Capnomed GmbH, Germany
and
Yashwant V. Pathak
USF Health Taneja College of PharmacUniversity of South FloridaTampa FL, USAandFaculty of PharmacyAirlangga UniversitySurabaya, Indonesia
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Amponsah, Seth Kwabena, editor. | Shegokar, Ranjita, editor. | Pathak, Yashwant, editor.Title: Rising contagious diseases : basics, management, and treatments / edited by Seth Kwabena Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar and Yashwant V. Pathak.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023039506 (print) | LCCN 2023039507 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394188710 (cloth) | ISBN 9781394188727 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394188734 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Communicable Diseases, Emerging–prevention & control | Communicable Disease Control–trendsClassification: LCC RA566 (print) | LCC RA566 (ebook) | NLM WA 110 | DDC 616.9/8–dc23/eng/20231211LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023039506LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023039507
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Baac3nes/Getty Images
Dedication
This book is dedicated to all health workers who continuously work hard to save the lives of many people with infectious diseases. Thank you for your dedication, commitment, and courage. Deepest gratitude and admiration to all scientists who have made contributions toward getting a better understanding of infectious pathogens and also to researchers who work tirelessly to develop new drugs and vaccines.
Additionally, this book is dedicated to all the rishis, sages, shamans, and medicine men and women of ancient traditions and cultures who have contributed to the development of drugs and nutraceuticals. They have kept health science alive for the past several millennia.
List of Contributors
Abdullah AbdelkawiTaneja College of PharmacyUniversity of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited States
Ismaila AdamsDepartment of Medical PharmacologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Ofosua Adi‐DakoDepartment of Pharmaceutics and MicrobiologySchool of PharmacyUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
Selorme AdukpoDepartment of Pharmaceutics and MicrobiologySchool of PharmacyUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
AlkaAmity Institute of Pharmacy, LucknowAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Seth K. AmponsahDepartment of Medical PharmacologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Abigail AningDepartment of Clinical PathologyNoguchi Memorial Institute for Medical ResearchUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
Orhan E. ArslanDepartment of Cellular Biology and PharmacologyFlorida International University Herbert WertheimCollege of MedicineMiami, FLUnited States
Arti BagadaDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of Health SciencesSaurashtra UniversityRajkot, GujaratIndia
Shwetlana BandyopadhyayMGM College of PharmacyChiraura, PatnaIndia
Praful D. BharadiaDepartment of PharmaceuticsL. M. College of PharmacyAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Sachin P. BhattGyanmanjari Pharmacy CollegeGujarat Technological UniversityBhavnagar, GujaratIndia
Eugene BoafoDepartment of Medical PharmacologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Chinmoyee BorahDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty ofScience and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Kwasi A. BugyeiDepartment of Medical PharmacologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Ananya ChandaDepartment of Pharmaceutical TechnologySchool of Medical SciencesADAMAS UniversityKolkata, West BengalIndia
ChandrakantaDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of TechnologySir J. C. Bose TechnicalCampus Bhimtal, Kumaun University NainitalNainital, UttarakhandIndia
Moitreyee ChattopadhyayDepartment of Pharmaceutical TechnologyMaulana Abul Kalam Azad University of TechnologyKolkata, West BengalIndia
Neha ChintapallyUniversity of South Florida Morsani College ofMedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Mehul ChorawalaDepartment of Pharmacology and Pharmacy PracticeL. M. College of Pharmacy, Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Ankit ChoudharyDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of Science and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Carina CopleyCollege of Agriculture and Life SciencesThe University of FloridaGainesville, FLUnited States
Jeannez DanielUniversity of South Florida Morsani College of MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Aparoop DasDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Debankini DasguptaDepartment of PharmacologyMGM College of PharmacyPatna, BiharIndia
Sandipan DasguptaDepartment of Pharmaceutical TechnologyMaulana Abul Kalam Azad University of TechnologyKolkata, West BengalIndia
Akua O. ForsonDepartment of Medical Laboratory Sciences, School ofBiomedical and Allied Health SciencesUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
Mainak GhoshDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of Science and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Urvashee GogoiDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Bismarck A. HottorDepartment of AnatomyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Avani N. JoshiGyanmanjari Pharmacy College, GujaratTechnological UniversityBhavnagar, GujaratIndia
Bibhuti B. KakotiDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty ofScience and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Avinash D. KhadelaDepartment of PharmacologyL. M. College of PharmacyAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Nirjari KothariDepartment of Pharmacology and Pharmacy PracticeL. M. College of Pharmacy, Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Awo A. KwapongDepartment of Pharmaceutics and Microbiology, Schoolof PharmacyUniversity of GhanaAccraGhana
Monali LahiriDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Facultyof Science and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Anjali MahapatraUniversity of South Florida Morsani College of MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Subhasundar MajiDepartment of Pharmaceutical TechnologyMaulana Abul Kalam Azad University of TechnologyKolkata, West BengalIndia
Rahul K. MauryaAmity Institute of Pharmacy, LucknowAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Deepak MishraAmity Institute of Pharmacy, LucknowAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Badrud D. MohammadDepartment of Pharmaceutical ChemistryGRT Institute of Pharmaceutical Educationand ResearchTirutanni, Tamil NaduIndia
Lucy MohapatraAmity Institute of Pharmacy, LucknowAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Muhasina K. MuhamadkazimDepartment of PharmacognosyJSS College of PharmacyJSS Academy of Higher Education & ResearchOoty, The Nilgiris, Tamil NaduIndia
Vishwas H. NagendraDepartment of Pharmacy PracticeJSS College of PharmacyJSS Academy of Higher Education & ResearchOoty, Tamil NaduIndia
Meera NagpalUniversity of South Florida Morsani College ofMedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Lawandashisha NongrangDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Facultyof Science and EngineeringDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Lynn NguyenUniversity of South Florida Morsani College of MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Eric N. Y. NyarkoDepartment of Chemical PathologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Emmanuel K. OforiDepartment of Chemical PathologyUniversity of Ghana Medical SchoolAccraGhana
Verner N. OrishDepartment of Microbiology and ImmunologySchool of MedicineUniversity of Health and Allied SciencesHoGhana
Vaishnavi M. OzaDepartment of PharmaceuticsL. M. College of PharmacyAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Aanshi PandyaDepartment of Pharmacology and Pharmacy PracticeL. M. College of Pharmacy, Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Sambit K. ParidaSeth Vishambhar Nath Institute of PharmacyBarabanki, Uttar PradeshIndia
Rihana B. PatnoolDepartment of Pharmacy PracticeJSS College of PharmacyJSS Academy of Higher Education & ResearchOoty, Tamil NaduIndia
Komal ParmarDepartment of Pharmacy, ROFELShri G.M. Bilakhia College of PharmacyVapi, GujaratIndia
Anita PatelR & D DepartmentSamrajya Aromatics Pvt. Ltd.Gandhinagar, GujaratIndia
Dhara PatelPioneer Pharmacy CollegeVadodara, GujaratIndia
Geeta PatelShree S K Patel College of PharmaceuticalEducation and ResearchGanpat UniversityKherva, GujaratIndia
Grishma PatelPioneer Pharmacy CollegeVadodara, GujaratIndia
Jayvadan K. PatelFormulation and Development Aavis PharmaceuticalsHoschton, GAUnited StatesAavis Pharmaceuticals, Hoschton, Georgia, USAandFaculty of Pharmacy, Sankalchand Patel UniversityVisnagar, Gujarat, India
Kshama PatelJudy Genshaft Honors CollegeThe University of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited States
Manish P. PatelDepartment of PharmaceuticsL. M. College of PharmacyAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Nisarg PatelDepartment of PharmacognosyAPMC College of PharmaceuticalEducation and ResearchHimatnagar, GujaratIndia
Priya PatelDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of Health SciencesSaurashtra UniversityRajkot, GujaratIndia
Vivek PatelSun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.Vadodara, GujaratIndia
Kalyani PathakDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Sivasankaran PonnusankarDepartment of Pharmacy PracticeJSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of HigherEducation & ResearchOoty, Tamil NaduIndia
Manash P. PathakFaculty of Pharmaceutical SciencesAssam Down Town UniversityGuwahati, AssamIndia
Yashwant V. PathakUSF Health Taneja College of PharmacyUniversity of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited StatesFaculty of PharmacyAirlangga UniversitySurabayaIndonesia
Bhupendra G. PrajapatiDepartment of Pharmaceutics and PharmaceuticalTechnologyShree S K Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education andResearch, Ganpat UniversityMehsana, GujaratIndia
Charles PreussDepartment of Molecular Pharmacology & PhysiologyUniversity of South Florida Morsani College of MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Jasmine PrimusJudy Genshaft Honors CollegeThe University of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited States
Archana N. SahDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of TechnologySir J. C. Bose TechnicalCampus Bhimtal, Kumaun University NainitalNainital, UttarakhandIndia
Riya SaikiaDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh, AssamIndia
Aayushi ShahDepartment of Pharmacology andPharmacy PracticeL. M. College of Pharmacy, Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Ishika ShahDepartment of Pharmacology andPharmacy PracticeL. M. College of Pharmacy, Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Ranjita ShegokarCapnomed GmbHTübingenGermany
Aliyah SlimTaneja College of PharmacyUniversity of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited States
Hemangi B. TannaDepartment of PharmaceuticsL. M. College of PharmacyAhmedabad, GujaratIndia
Alok S. TripathiDepartment of PharmacologyERA College of Pharmacy, ERA UniversityLucknow, Uttar PradeshIndia
Elizabeth TwumDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesCollege of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee HealthScience CenterMemphis, TNUnited States
Nasir VadiaDepartment of Pharmaceutical SciencesFaculty of Health SciencesMarwadi UniversityRajkot, GujaratIndia
Vernon VolanteUniversity of South Florida Morsani Collegeof MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Julia WangUniversity of South Florida Morsani Collegeof MedicineTampa, FLUnited States
Mohammad YasirAmity Institute of Pharmacy, LucknowAmity University Uttar PradeshNoida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Zaineb ZinouneTaneja College of PharmacyUniversity of South FloridaTampa, FLUnited States
Foreword
Infectious diseases are known to cause morbidity and mortality in several populations. Despite significant progress made over the years, infectious diseases are still a threat to global health. A number of infectious agents have emerged and re‐emerged in recent decades due to the dynamic host–pathogen interplay, niche adaptation, and increase in human mobility and density. Some of the infectious agents include Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) viruses, Zika virus, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) viruses, and Ebola virus. Furthermore, in the last three years, the world has had to deal with the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19), which has caused many deaths across the world. In all these, active and passive surveillance systems with prompt reporting and analysis of data are important in the early detection of emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases. The quest to promote ONE HEALTH by the World Health Organization is proving a lead and guide to global efforts in containing emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases.
After carefully going through the literature, I found that there are few books available on the market that compile the various emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases. This edited book has 30 chapters that highlight relevant aspects of infectious diseases the world has faced over the last few decades. Some of the emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases in the book include Ebola virus disease, bird flu, swine flu, COVID‐19, mpox, Chikungunya fever, Chagas disease, among others. Renowned scientists and researchers in infectious diseases have made contributions to this book, with each chapter well written, concise, and easy‐to‐understand. I believe that this book will be a great resource for clinicians, scientists, researchers, and students all over the world.
I am very delighted to write the foreword for this book, Rising Contagious Diseases: Basics, Management, and Treatments, edited by Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak. I want to congratulate the editors of this book for a great job done. To all contributing authors, I say kudos. I look forward to seeing this book on the market for the use of all relevant stakeholders and cannot wait to get a personal copy.
July 8, 2023
Prof. Edwin Alfred YawsonPublic Health Consultant and Dean, University of Ghana Medical SchoolAccra, Ghana
Preface
Infectious diseases such as COVID‐19, Ebola virus disease, swine flu, and mpox have caused morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many of these infectious diseases have emerged and/or re‐emerged in recent decades due to dynamic host–pathogen interactions, anthropogenic selection, and climate change. The aforementioned factors present major challenges to public health; hence, there is a need for appropriate preventive measures, cost‐effective diagnostic procedures (assays), and effective therapeutic strategies. Additionally, real‐time epidemiological surveillance can improve the detection of infectious disease outbreaks or new infections of public health importance.
Over the years, there has been growing interest in the field of emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases; however, there appear to be few books that cover recent trends. The current book gives a compilation of information on several emerging and re‐emerging infectious diseases. Due to the fact that medicine is a fast‐evolving field, it is important that information on current trends be documented. This book offers thorough, but succinct, details into many aspects of infectious diseases (transmission dynamics, epidemiology, clinical manifestation, advances in diagnostics, and management), such as COVID‐19, mpox, Ebola virus disease, bird flu, swine flu, Zika virus, Chikungunya fever, Chagas disease, toxoplasmosis, and neurocysticercosis, among others.
Due to high priority for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases, most of the primary audience (health care professionals, academic institutions, especially academicians who are working in the fields of microbiology, immunology, infectious diseases, pathology, pharmacology, and public health) and secondary audience (undergraduate and postgraduate students) will be interested in this book. The book contains 30 chapters with rich content, presenting fundamental facts, as well as practical and clinically related data.
Renowned scientists and researchers in the field of infectious diseases are the contributors to this book which highlights molecular surveillance and epidemiology (including newly characterized zoonotic pathogens or their variants), innovative strategies for pathogen detection, drug and vaccine development, and disease prevention and control. The editors believe that this book is timely and will meet the needs of both primary and secondary audience.
The editors appreciate the efforts of all contributors who shared their knowledge through chapters. The editors are also grateful to John Wiley & Sons, Inc. for facilitating all processes involved in getting this book published.
July 8, 2023
Seth Kwabena AmponsahAccra, Ghana Ranjita ShegokarTübingen, GermanyYashwant V. PathakTampa, FL, United States
Biographies
Seth Kwabena Amponsah is currently a senior lecturer and head of the Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School. He has an MPhil and Ph.D. in pharmacology. He has had post‐doctoral fellowships under the BANGA‐Africa Project and BSU III (DANIDA – Denmark). He has over 12 years' experience in teaching and research. He teaches students in the medical school, school of pharmacy, school of nursing and midwifery, and school of biomedical and allied health sciences. His research focus includes clinical pharmacology (infectious disease and antimicrobial stewardship): prudent use of antimicrobials, antimicrobial level monitoring, and efficacy of antimicrobials in patients. He also has experience in population pharmacokinetic modeling, non‐compartment pharmacokinetic estimation, and pharmacokinetic evaluation of new drug formulations. He has supervised several undergraduate and postgraduate students. He has published over 50 research articles, 1 book, 10 book chapters, and several conference abstracts. He is an academic editor for PLOS One and an associate editor for Pan African Medical Journal.
Ranjita Shegokar holds a PhD degree in Pharmaceutical Technology from the SNDT University, India, and has been a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics and NutriCosmetics at the Free University of Berlin, Germany. For the last many years, she has been working with various multinational pharmaceutical companies in technical/R&D leadership roles. Currently, she serves as Chief Scientific Officer (CSO) at Capnopharm GmbH, Germany. She has authored several research articles and book chapters and presented her research at many national/international conferences. She has filed multiple patent applications in the areas of drug delivery and targeting. Besides that, she has edited many trending books in the area of pharmaceutical nanotechnology and drug delivery aspects. For her research, she has received many prestigious national and international awards, among them include recently received prestigious German Innovation Award 2022. Her areas of interest include polymeric nanoparticles, nanocrystals, lipid nanoparticles (SLNs/NLCs), nanoemulsions, cancer drug targeting, and the role of excipients in delivery systems.
Yashwant V. Pathak has over 15 years of versatile administrative experience in an institution of higher education as dean (and over 30 years as faculty and as a researcher in higher education after his PhD). Presently holds the position of associate dean for Faculty Affairs and Tenured Professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences. He is an internationally recognized scholar, researcher, and educator in the areas of health care education, nanotechnology, drug delivery systems, and nutraceuticals. He has received many international and national awards including four Fulbright Fellowships, Endeavour Executive Fellowship by the Australian Government, four outstanding faculty awards, and he was selected as Fellow of the American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 2021. He has published over 350 research publications, reviews, and chapters in various books. He has edited over 60 books in various fields including nanotechnology, nutraceuticals, conflict management, and cultural studies. He is also actively involved in many non‐profit organizations, to mention a few, Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh, USA; Sewa International USA; International Accreditation Council for Dharma Schools and Colleges; International Commission for Human Rights and Religious Freedom; and Uberoi Foundation for Religious Studies, among others.
1Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview
Ranjita Shegokar1, Seth K. Amponsah2, and Yashwant V. Pathak3
1 Capnomed GmbH, Tübingen, Germany
2 Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
3 USF Health Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
1.1 Introduction
Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. There are a number of factors that can spread infections, some of which are summarized in Table 1.1. Infections can be transmitted by human contact, environmental means, animal contact, or insect bites [1]. Typical infectious diseases have symptoms like fever, diarrhea, fatigue, and muscle aches or can have other symptoms. Many infectious diseases are treated with antibiotics (specifically bacteria‐caused infections), antiviral medications (virus‐mediated infections), and antifungals (fungi‐related infections). Over the years, however, a number of pathogens responsible for these infectious diseases have become resistant to drugs due to mutations [2]. For some infectious diseases vaccines are currently available. For e.g. the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends two doses of chickenpox vaccine for individuals who have never had chickenpox. Also, for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) up to two to four shots of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)‐based vaccine are recommended [3].
Some common emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) and re‐emerging infectious diseases (REIDs) include– chickenpox, Lyme disease, diphtheria, COVID‐19, influenza, West Nile virus, among others. This chapter gives an overview of EIDs and REIDs and their impact on human lives and social structure.
1.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy
Data suggests that there is some association between infectious disease burden and the economic state of a country–per capita income or gross domestic product (GDP), as illustrated in Figure 1.1. COVID‐19 is the best example to reference for economic impacts [4]. A number of developing countries have struggled to deal with the impact of infectious diseases and running their economies. This very much depends on the financial capacity of each country. The question here is, “Do these developing countries put in place policies that mimic developed countries without understanding affordability, impacts, or the massive investment needed in dealing with infectious diseases?” It is also questionable how the challenges of mental and stress impact, woman/child abuse, and suicidal attempts associated with countrywide restrictions are helpful to developing countries [4]. Indeed, a country's economy is run on a “healthy population” which serves as the main workforce. The repercussions of a diseased population (the workforce) due to a lack of medical care and national and internal travel bans imposed on people cannot be overemphasized [5]. There are many more factors on all fronts that affect not only the spread but also the prevention of such communicable diseases. Any EID and REID are a threat to humanity and needs to be tackled with pre‐planning and good medical access to the population by each country.
Table 1.1 Factors that aid the spread of infections.
Human
Pathogens
Vectors and reservoirs
Age
Type of pathogen
Genetic plasticity
Lifestyle
Mutation rate
Vector capacity
Food habits
Adaptive emergence
Geographical mutations
Immunity
Contamination frequency
Transfer frequency
Bioterrorism
Resistance to drugs
Organ reservoirs
Access to healthcare, food and water quality, animal‐human consumption and contact, air pollution, availability of detection methods, cost of therapy, and societal‐medical layers.
Figure 1.1 Impact of diseases on GDP.
1.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs
The world is dramatically changing on all fronts and requires changing attitudes, policies, and science to tackle infectious diseases [6]. Factors like sudden changing environmental factors, demographic influences, lifestyle, and technologically connected factors not only affect the risk of pathogen emergence, and alterations, but also disturbs the whole economies of countries (Figures 1.2 and 1.3). More futuristic, faster research and related processes, regulation of both wild and domestic animal populations, and inter country collaborations are important aspects of the prevention and management of EIDs and REIDs [7].
Figure 1.2 Factors affecting the surge of emerging and re‐emerging diseases.
Figure 1.3 Burden of disease spread into communicable, noncommunicable, and injuries.
Source: Our World in Data / https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total‐disease‐burden‐by‐cause / CC BY 4.0 / Public Domain
1.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs
Increased capital investment in infectious disease outbreak countries is key in preventing the spread. For e.g. World Health Organization (WHO) recently formed a hub for pandemic and epidemic intelligence. Further, efforts are being made to develop universal vaccines that could provide a monumental leap to treat infectious diseases. Each country has learned its lessons from COVID‐19 and understood the importance of preparedness in fighting infectious diseases at the detection, treatment, hospitalization, and vaccine development front [4]. It is noteworthy that a majority of infectious diseases are of zoonotic origin, thus, this aspect also needs to be effectively tackled [7]. Besides this, each country has to secure in‐house production of medicines for effective management of EIDs and REIDs.
1.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades
There have been a number of EIDs and REIDs over the last few decades. Table 1.2 shows the year of their outbreak.
1.5.1 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)
The first case of MERS was reported in 2012 in Saudi Arabia, and this spread to more than 25 countries. MERS is known to have originated from camels and eventually humans were infected. Symptoms typically include fever, cough, and shortness of breath, and often progress to pneumonia, similar to COVID‐19 [8].
Table 1.2 The spread of infectious diseases both emerging new diseases (blue) and re‐merging (gray) diseases.
Year
EIDS/REIDS
1981
HIV/AIDS
1982
E. coli
1989
Hepatitis C virus
1993
Hantavirus pulmonary infection
1997
H5N1 influenza
1998
Nipah virus
1999
West Nile virus
2000
Dengue
2001
Anthrax infection
2002
West Nile
2002
SARS‐CoV
2004
Marburg/MARV
2004
Dengue
2005
Chikungunya
2006
XDR tuberculosis
2006
Cholera
2009
Swine flu/H1N1
2010
Measles
2012
MERS
2013
Ebola
2013
Chikungunya – H7N9 influenza
2015
Zika
2016
Yellow Fever
2018
Lassa disease
2018
Ebola
2019
Covid‐19
1.5.2 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
SARS originated from small mammals and emerged to infect humans sometime in 2002. Infection with the SARS virus causes acute respiratory distress (severe breathing difficulty) and is known to have a mortality rate of about 10% [9].
1.5.3 COVID‐19
A number of chapters in this book will give relevant information about COVID‐19. COVID‐19 affected the mental, physical, and economic aspects of not only individuals but also many societies. Currently, the spread of this disease is on the decline, but COVID‐19 has taught many nations the need to prepare for possible pandemics in the future.
1.5.4 Dengue
Dengue viruses are spread through the bite of an infected mosquito (Ae. aegypti or Ae. albopictus). Mild dengue symptoms last two to seven days while severe dengue can be life‐threatening within a few hours. Dengue is caused by one of four related viruses (known as dengue virus 1, 2, 3, and 4). Up to 400 million people have been infected with dengue [10].
1.5.5 Ebola
Ebola is a rare and deadly disease caused by infection with a virus of the family Filoviridae, genus Ebolavirus. Ebola can cause disease in humans and other primates (monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees). Ebola was first discovered in 1976 near the Ebola River. Symptoms of the disease appears around 2–21 days after infection, but the average length of time is 8–10 days. Ebola vaccine is recommended by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Food and Drugs Authority (FDA).
1.5.6 Influenza
Influenza or flu is a contagious viral infection that can cause mild to severe symptoms and life‐threatening complications, including death, even in healthy children and adults. Annual flu vaccination is the best way to prevent influenza. Treatment of flu with antiviral drugs can reduce influenza symptoms.
1.5.7 Viral Hepatitis
The most common types of viral hepatitis are hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C. Hepatitis A is usually a short‐term infection and does not become chronic. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C can begin as short‐term, acute infections, but they also have the potential to lead to chronic disease and long‐term liver problems [11]. There are effective vaccines to prevent hepatitis A and hepatitis B. Although there is currently no vaccine for hepatitis C, there are effective treatments.
1.5.8 Mpox
Mpox virus belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus. Mpox was first discovered in 1958 when two outbreaks of a pox‐like disease occurred in colonies of monkeys kept for research. The first human case of mpox was reported in 1970. The United States declared a public health emergency for mpox in August 2022, as there was a surge in the number of cases. Symptoms of the disease usually start within three weeks of exposure.
1.5.9 Zika Virus
Zika virus disease is caused by a virus transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes. The virus was isolated for the first time in 1947 in the Zika forest. Symptoms are similar to those of dengue or chikungunya, which are transmitted by the same type of mosquito. There is no vaccine or specific medicine currently available for its management.
1.5.10 Swine Flu
Swine flu or H1N1 flu is caused by the influenza A virus. In 2009, the WHO declared the H1N1 flu as a pandemic. Many antiviral drugs can be used to treat influenza infections including typically oseltamivir, baloxavir, peramivir, and zanamivir. Like typical flu, swine flu can lead to more serious problems including pneumonia, lung infection, and other breathing challenges.
1.6 Conclusion
The emergence and re‐emergence of infectious diseases will continue, based on several factors. The question is how we tackle them. At a global level, we do not only need good medicines and hospital care, but rather the availability of health personnel, rapid and cost‐effective diagnostic tools, information technology (IT) infrastructure, surveillance tools and less sophisticated regulatory systems to avoid delays in drug and/or vaccine approvals. Availability of well furbished medical facilities in both rural and urban cities are required. The financial capabilities of citizens to afford such treatments need to be taken into account when designing national policies. Collaboration between grant agencies, researchers, and manufacturers is key in all these. Further, the impact of new trends like artificial intelligence (AI) or ChatGPT on predictability and containment of EIDs and REIDS remain unclear; time will tell. In any case, each country needs to be ready to tackle EIDs and REIDS in an effective way, using current available tools and keeping futuristic tools and supporting fighting tools in prospective policies.
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2Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID‐19
Ismaila Adams1, Ofosua Adi‐Dako2, Eugene Boafo1, Emmanuel K. Ofori3, and Seth K. Amponsah1
1 Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
2 Department of Pharmaceutics and Microbiology, School of Pharmacy, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
3 Department of Chemical Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana
2.1 Introduction
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) is caused by the novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). COVID‐19 has negatively affected global health, societies, and economies. COVID‐19 was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) by the World Health Organization (WHO) in January 2020, and a pandemic in March 2020 [1]. The evolving nature of the virus necessitated a comprehensive re‐evaluation beyond the emergency phase. After more than three years (May 2023), the WHO stated that COVID‐19 was no longer a PHEIC.
The global response to the pandemic has been significantly shaped by the remarkable advancements in therapeutics and vaccines, achieved through international collaboration [2]. Nonetheless, the journey toward controlling the SARS‐CoV‐2 spread was fraught with many challenges. A study on achieving herd immunity against COVID‐19 in Africa highlighted vaccine hesitancy and logistical issues as significant barriers [3]. Furthermore, a paper on the global surplus of COVID‐19 vaccines pointed to the difficulties in aligning vaccine manufacturing and delivery, suggesting the need to decelerate production, enhance community trust, and optimize logistics. Furthermore, the importance of preparedness and availability of favorable respiratory protective equipment (RPE) were highlighted during the COVID‐19 pandemic [4].
Despite the fact that WHO has declared that COVID‐19 is no longer a PHEIC, there is still a need to broaden our perspective, examine the virus's trajectory, and impact beyond the acute phase [5]. This re‐evaluation encompasses a comprehensive assessment of evolving epidemiological patterns, advancements in therapeutics and vaccines, long‐term health implications, socioeconomic and ethical considerations, and global preparedness for future pandemics [6]. Understanding recent global epidemiological trends is paramount to anticipating the potential trajectory of the pandemic. By critically assessing regional variations and disparities, key factors that shape the future course of COVID‐19 can be identified, providing insights into potential hotspots, challenges, and effective mitigation strategies [7, 8].
Beyond the acute phase, understanding the long‐term health implications of COVID‐19 is crucial. There is emerging evidence of post‐acute sequelae, commonly referred to as “Long COVID,” encompassing a range of persistent symptoms and potential organ‐specific complications [9]. Indeed, COVID‐19 disrupted healthcare systems, delayed diagnoses, and worsened the burden of non‐COVID‐19 diseases. These aforementioned negative impacts of the COVID‐19 pandemic reemphasize the need for holistic healthcare approaches and long‐term management strategies.
The COVID‐19 pandemic also unmasked socioeconomic disparities and posed ethical dilemmas; some of which included its disproportionate effects on marginalized populations, the strain on global economies, data privacy, and ethical considerations in vaccination strategies [10, 11]. As we transition to a post‐PHEIC era, it is relevant that we reflect on lessons learned from COVID‐19, highlighting the significance of robust surveillance systems, early warning mechanisms, resilient public health infrastructure, and international collaboration. By proactively strengthening these arms of public health, we can enhance our capacity to detect, respond to, and mitigate the impact of future outbreaks, fostering a more resilient global health landscape.
In conclusion, this chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of current trends and potential future trajectories of COVID‐19 by critically examining evolving epidemiological patterns, advancements in therapeutics and vaccines, long‐term health implications, socioeconomic and ethical considerations, and global preparedness for future pandemics.
2.2 Overview of COVID‐19
2.2.1 Summary of Timelines and Major Events
In late December 2019, reports emerged from Wuhan, China, of an unknown respiratory illness causing severe pneumonia. The causative agent was soon identified as a novel coronavirus, named SARS‐CoV‐2 due to its genetic similarities to the virus responsible for the 2002–2003 SARS outbreak [12]. By January 2020, the virus rapidly spread beyond China's borders, leading WHO to declare a PHEIC on 30 January 2020. This designation gave an indication of the urgency of the situation, and the need for international collaboration and coordinated efforts to reduce the spread of SARS‐CoV‐2 [13].
