Science of Spices & Culinary Herbs: Volume 5 E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Science of Spices and Culinary Herbs
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2006
Many herbs and spices, in addition to their culinary use for taste, contain chemical compounds which have medicinal uses. For this reason, herbs and spices have been used for treating various ailments since ancient times. Modern scientific methods have enabled researchers to isolate bioactive compounds from herbs and spices and perform chemical analyses, which can be used to develop medicines to treat different diseases. This book series is a compilation of current reviews on studies performed on herbs and spices. Science of Spices and Culinary Herbs is essential reading for medicinal chemists, herbalists and biomedical researchers interested in the science of natural herbs and spices that are a common part of regional diets and folk medicine.
The fifth volume of this series features research on a variety of spices some of which appear in the series for the first time.
1. Clove: The Spice of Polyvalent Merit
2. Black Cumin Seeds: From Ancient Medicine to Current Clinical Trials
3. The Evolution of Mentha arvensis (L.) As Potential Multifunctional Herbal Medicine: Traditional And Experimental Evidence
4. Zingiber officinale: The Golden Spice as Portrayed in Ayurveda
5. Effects of Cinnamon on Health and its Potential as a Functional Food Ingredient
6. Sumac: A Spice with Many Health Benefits
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PREFACE
Spices and culinary herbs have been used as food and medicine since antiquity. Their use in traditional medicines is well documented. The field of research on spices, as health promoting and disease preventing materials, received a new impetus with the scientific work on turmeric as a source of anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anticancer and antioxidant compounds. Since then tremendous studies have been conducted to decipher the science behind the therapeutic and nutritional properties of spices and culinary herbs. The world literature on phytochemistry, pharmacology, preclinical and clinical trials on health foods and spices is fast growing, creating the need for comprehensive reviews with critical analysis of the available data. The 5th volume of the book series “Science of Spices & Culinary Herbs” is a compilation of several such reviews, contributed by leading experts in the field.
The review by Shah et al is focused on the recent literature on ethnomedicinal uses, unique chemistry and a range of pharmacological properties of the versatile spice clove, Syzygium aromaticum. Clove is famous for its essential oils, and it is widely used and tested for its antifungal, nematicidal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anesthetic, pain relieving and insecticidal properties, to name a few. Age old Black Cumin (Nigella sativa) seeds have attracted major scientific interest in recent years due to its novel secondary metabolites, such as thymoquinone, nigellidine, and nigellicine, and for their therapeutic properties. Akaberi et al have reviewed the results of various clinical trials on black cumin seeds and its oil for treatment of infertility, cancer, asthma, non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as for the chemistry, and pharmacology of this important spice. Dar et al have contributed a review on pharmacological and clinical studies on Mint or Indian “Podina”, Mentha arvensis in the context of its nutritional, ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and biological properties, such as antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antifertility, TNF-alpha inhibition, and neuroprotective, etc. They have also presented results of clinical studies on the efficacy of Mentha extract preventing chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, and in the management of somatic and psychological symptoms of premenstrual syndrome. Rabinarayan Acharya has contributed a review on the use of Zingiber officinale (Ginger) as an essential constituent of Ayurvedic medicines in India. The author has provided a critical review of nutritional and phytochemical properties, as well as clinical evaluation of Ginger extract, and its phytoconstituents for the treatment of post-operative nausea and vomiting, excessive menstural bleeding and dysmenorrhea, diabetes, rheumatic disorders, etc. The article of Tosya and Bolek focuses on nutritional importance, chemical constituents and mechanisms of action of one of the most important spices, cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) bark. They have also discussed the use of cinnamon as a food ingredient, and the changes it causes in the structures of various foods. Sumac (Rhus coriar) is a common spice, also known for health benefits. Ceyda S. Kilic present a review on primary and secondary metabolites of Sumac, its reported antioxidants and its anticancer properties.
We would like to express our thanks to all the authors of the above cited review articles for their excellent contributions in this dynamic and exciting field of biomedical and pharmaceutical research. The efforts of the efficient team of Bentham Science Publishers, particularly Mrs. Fariya Zulfiqar (Manager Publications), and Mr. Mahmood Alam (Editorial Director) for the timely production of the 5th volume deserve our appreciation.
Atta-ur-Rahman, FRS Kings College University of Cambridge Cambridge UKList of Contributors
Clove: The Spice of Polyvalent Merit
Abdul Jalil Shah1,Reyaz Hassan Mir1,*,Roohi Mohi-ud-din2,Prince Ahad Mir3,Saba Sabreen1,Rafia Jan4,Taha Umair Wani5,Shah Asma Farooq6,Mubashir Hussain Masoodi1,*Abstract
Syzygium aromaticum (Family Myrtaceae), commonly acknowledged as clove, is one of the most valuable spices in the world trade market with global distribution, though Indonesia has maintained its top position as a producer. Clove has sustained its value in the past, dating back to 1700 BC, as is evident from clove found in a ceramic vessel in Syria and modern society. It is well integrated into culinary and non-culinary practices. Apart from culinary use, its distinctive chemical style has demonstrated incredible potential for cosmetic, medicinal, nutrition, and agricultural applications. The ORAC (Oxygen Radical Absorption Capacity) of the clove is above 10 million, making it the most potent antioxidant source ever found in a natural system. Clove imparts a vast range of activities due to various chemical compounds, for example, phenolics, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other hydrocarbon compounds. The significant phytoconstituents present in clove oil are primarily eugenol (70-85%), trailed by eugenol acetate (14-15%), and β-caryophyllene (5–12%). Their derivatives result in an extensive gamut of biological activity as antifungal, herbicidal, nematicidal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antithrombotic, anaesthetic, pain-relieving, and insect repellent properties. Clove also finds its exceptional locus among various traditional medicinal practices.
Along these lines, it is wise to say that clove itself has magnanimous pride among natural products. That is why we thought of covering its phytochemistry, phytopharmacology, and traditional values in detail. This chapter aims to present a comprehensive review of traditional and ethnomedicinal uses of clove in traditional medicine. We will then discuss the pharmacological activities reported for clove.
INTRODUCTION
Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) is a dried, aromatic, and unopened flower bud obtained from a tree belonging to the Myrtaceae family, a taxon of dicotyledon plants [1]. Syzygium is the largest genus of the Myrtaceae family, comprising about 1200 to 1800 species of flowering plants. Various synonyms used for the clove are Caryophyllus aromaticus, Caryophyllus silvestris, Eugenia caryophyllus, Jambosa caryophyllus, and Myrtus caryophyllus [2]. Clove is known by different vernacular names in different languages. It is known as qaranful (Arabic), Karamfil (Bulgarian), Ding Xiang (Chinese), Jeonghyang (Korean), Kruidnagel (Danish), Garifalo (Greek), Gvosdika (Russian), Clavo (Spanish), Mikhaki (Georgian), Nelke (German), Szegfu (Hungarian), Cengkeh (Indonesian), Choji (Japanese), Krustnaglinas (Latvian), Laung (Urdu/Punjabi/Hindi) Lawang (Nepalese), Carvo de India (Portuguese), Mikhak (Persian), Carenfil (Turkish), Garn ploo (Thai), Dhing Huong (Vietnamese), and Kala (Pashto) [3]. Clove is found in tropical and subtropical areas of Asia, Africa, Madagascar, and throughout Pacific and Oceanic regions [1, 2]. Clove is the most essential and second valuable spice in world trade and is widely cultivated in North Maluku Islands in Indonesia. Major cultivator countries of clove are Pemba, Zanzibar, Indonesia, Madagascar, and some wild clove varieties found in Bacan, Ternate, Motir, Tidore, Makian, and Western parts of Irian Jaya [4].
BOTANY, TAXONOMY & DISTRIBUTION
S. aromaticum is an evergreen tree that grows up to a height of 8-12 m; branches are semi-erect, greyish in color, and dense. Leaves are large oblong to elliptic, simple obovate opposite, glabrous, and possess plenty of oil glands on the lower surface. The tree begins flowering in about seven years and continues flowering for 80 years or more [4]. Flowers are small, crimson in color, and hermaphrodite (bisexual) borne at the terminal ends of short branches arranged in clusters. Each peduncle carries 3 to 4 stalked flowers, and inflorescence length remains between 4 to 5 cm (Fig. 1). Young flower buds are pale in color and slowly change to green and further to bright red when buds are ready for harvesting. These are 1-2 cm long with a thick cylindrical ovary consisting of four fleshy sepals. Buds are divided into an elongated stem and a globose bulbous head, which stimulates the nail. Fruit matures nine months after flowering, and the red ovary gradually turns to reddish-purple. The fruit nearly contains one or two seeds known as the mother of clove. The cultivated trees are rarely allowed to reach the fruit stage. These are harvested when they develop dark red ellipsoid berry. Harvesting should be done when buds have 1.5–2 cm length, long calyx terminating in four closed petals (forming a tiny ball in the core) and spreading sepals [3, 5, 6]. Clove growth requires well-drained, loamy, and organic matter-rich soils. Constant temperature above 10 ºC is crucial, while the optimum temperature is around 20 to 30 ºC. Clove tree requires heavy sunlight with high atmospheric temperature (25 to 35 °C), well-distributed rainfall 150 to 300 cm, and high humidity above 70% [7]. This species cannot tolerate soggy conditions [3]. S. aromaticum (L.) tree is habitually grown at 200 m altitude above sea level in coastal areas. Clove buds are collected before flowering during the maturation phase. The collection is done either manually or chemically using a natural phyto-hormone that releases ethylene in the vegetal tissue, producing precocious maturation [9].
Fig. (1))S. aromaticum aerial parts.Taxonomical classification of S. aromaticum (L.) [5]:
Kingdom: Plantae
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta
Superdivision: Spermatophyta
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Subclass: Rosidae
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus:Syzygium
Species:aromaticum (L.)
ETHNOMEDICINAL/TRADITIONAL USES
Clove has been used as a spice in food cuisines worldwide since time immemorial. It has also been used in the treatment of various infections [8, 9]. In traditional medicine, the clove buds are used as an aromatic condiment, diuretic, carminative, tonic for cardiac muscles, stomachic, and as stimulant [10]. In the Indian and Chinese traditional system of medicine, cloves have been used as a warming and stimulating agent [11]. In the traditional medicines of Australia and Asian countries, clove has been a popular remedy for headache, sore throat, dental and respiratory disorders, digestive system ailments [12]. It has also been used as an expectorant [13]. In Tropical Asia, cloves were used to treat several infections like malaria, tuberculosis, scabies, and cholera. In America, cloves were traditionally used to treat worms, candida, viruses, various protozoan and bacterial infections [13]. It has also been reported to be traditionally used as an antimicrobial agent [14, 15]. S. aromaticum has been used as a carminative to improve peristalsis and to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach [16]. Traditionally, cloves have been used to treat flatulence, nausea, and vomiting [17]. Cloves are a natural anthelmintic [18, 19]. They have also been used to promote the flow of gastric juices and saliva. Cloves were, for over the centuries, used as a drug for the treatment of most liver, stomach and bowel ailments, diarrhoea, and as a nerve stimulant [13]. S. aromaticum finds its use in Ayurvedic, Chinese, Western medicine, and dentistry [20]. Clove is an anodyne for dental emergencies [21]. Clove can be used to relieve toothache by applying to the cavity of a decayed tooth as well as can be used as an antiseptic [22]. S. aromaticum has been used for over 2,000 years, in India and China, as a spice, as well as a treatment for both tooth decay and counters lousy breath, throat and mouth inflammation [13]. In folk medicine, leaf oil of clove has also been used for the treatment of burns and cuts [23]. In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the clove has been used to treat male sexual disorders because of its aphrodisiac property [24].
Methods
We searched Google Scholar, Science Direct, and PubMed, using the following terms; S. aromaticum ethnomedicinal/traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological, clove activities etc. The information was gathered from all applicable scientific literature.
PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF CLOVE
Clove has been investigated for its chemical constituents by various researchers and has been reported as the main source of phenolic molecules like flavonoids, hydroxycinamic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxyphenyl propens, and gallic acid that are found in high amounts in the fresh plant [6, 21, 25-27]. The clove buds mainly comprise 15-20% of volatile oil with eugenol, eugenol acetate and β- caryophyllene being the major compounds and making nine-tenth of the volatile oil. The other essential constituents being vanillin, crategolic acid, methyl salicylate, eugenin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, eugenetin, α and β humulene, and chavicol. The characteristic odour of cloves is attributed to methyl amyl ketones and methyl salicylate. In addition to these sesquiterpenes like α-cubebene, α-copaene, γ and δ cardinene have also been reported in clove essential oil [28]. Indian clove bud oil comprises approximately 13-19% of volatile oil, with half of it being eugenol [3]. On categorizing, the researchers have observed that as phenolics, the constituents are eugenol, hydroxybenzoic acid, flavonoids, hydroxyphenyl propens, hydroxylcinnamic acids, ferulic acids, ellagic acids, caffeic acids, salicylic acids and hydrolyzable tannins. Also, kaempferol and quercetin present in clove essential oil belong to flavonoid class [6, 29]. In addition to normally reported compounds, Alma et al. have reported the presence of chavibetal, trisiloxanel, 1, 1, 5, 5, 5-hexamethyl-3, 3-bis [(trimethylsilyl) oxy], etc. in the clove essential oil [4, 30]. Also, another study reported the existence of novel constituents like caryophyllene oxide, α-selinene, and 2-pinene by GC-MS analysis of clove oil [31]. 3-Phenyl prop-2-enal was reported as another constituent in addition to normally present compounds in a study [32]. The compounds are enlisted in Fig. (2).
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
Natural products are receiving tremendous attention worldwide in the management of different health issues [33-39]. Natural products from various sources, including plants, animals, marine, and minerals, are a repository of potential leads and are explored by researchers to treat different diseases [40-43]. S. aromaticum has been considered worldwide as an essential medicinal herb and exhibits therapeutic activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anaesthetic analgesic, and anticancer effects and is found to be comparatively safe (Table 1).
Fig. (2)) Chemical constituent of S. aromaticum. (1) Eugenol (2) Eugenol acetate (3) β-Caryophyllene (4) Vanillin (5) Crategolic acid (6) Methyl salicylate (7) Eugenin (8) Kaempferol (9) Rhamnetin (10) Eugenetin (11) α-Humulene (12) β-Humulene (13) Chavicol (14) Methyl amyl ketone (15) α-Cubebene (16) α-Copaene (17) γ-Cardinene (18) Hydroxybenzoic acid (19) Hydroxyphenyl propen (20) Hydroxycinnamic acid (21) Ferulic acid (22) Ellagic acid (23) Caffeic acid (24) Salicylic acid (25) Chavibetal (26) Caryophyllene oxide (27) α-Selinene (28) 2-Pinene (29) 3-Phenylprop-2-enal.Antioxidant Activity
The research was conducted to assess the antioxidant potential of clove oil. The study results revealed that the essential oil possesses prominent DPPH scavenging potency with little effect on hydroxyl radicals. The hexane extract was evaluated for antioxidant activity of isolated volatile compounds from Syzygium aromaticum and demonstrated that 16 volatile compounds were isolated from various clove extracts, among which eugenol (71.56%) and eugenol acetate (8.99%) were major compounds. All the extracts and isolated compounds showed prominent DPPH scavenging activity. Alcoholic extract of Syzygium aromaticum possesses prominent radical scavenging activity in DPPH, superoxide hydroxyl, H2O2, metal chelating and nitric oxide models with IC50 values 95, 101, 250, 225, 78, and 215 μg/mL, respectively. The extract prominently blocks lipid peroxidation by 88% at 1mg/ml concentration [44]. In a study, to authenticate the scavenging potency of essential oil and various extracts viz. hexane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous obtained from clove buds. The results revealed that the essential oil possesses prominent scavenging properties followed by ethanol and hexane extract. The scavenging property of essential oil was found due to its active constituents like eugenol, β-Caryophyllene, eugenol acetate, and α-Humulen [45].
Anesthetic Activity
The research was conducted to authenticate the local anesthetic potency of β-caryophyllene, an essential constituent of the oil isolated from S. aromaticum, using in-vivo and in-vitro models. β-Caryophyllene (10-41 μg/mL) was capable of decreasing the shrinking of rat phrenic nerve compared to caryophyllene oxide. In rabbit, conjunctival reflex test, β-caryophyllene prominently elevates stimuli number, which is essential to provoke reflex [46]. Anesthetic and analgesic potency of water extract of S. aromaticum was evaluated on human α1β2-GABAA receptor using a di-electrode voltage-clamp procedure. The extract prominently and precisely enhances GABA-produced currents by allosteric regulation (0.5–5 µg/mL up to 426 ± 23%). Activity-guided, HPLC bifurcation showed eugenol the element for GABAergic potency. Thus, it was found that eugenol is responsible for the analgesic potency of clove, which modulates the GABAA receptor partially [47]. The research was conducted to authenticate anaesthetic, recovery, and muscle relaxant potency of clove oil on banded cichlid, cardinal tetra, Amazon freshwater fish species, and angelfish. The results demonstrate that clove essential oil encourages deep anaesthesia (<3 min) in cardinal tetra and angelfish at a concentration of 90 μL/L, whereas in banded cichlid anaesthesia was produced at a concentration of 60 μL/L [48]. The study was carried to evaluate silkworm's muscle contraction (Bombyx mori) in the presence of S. aromaticum oil and eugenol individually. Results revealed that both S. aromaticum oil and eugenol at 60 ppm produce anaesthesia in fishes at stage 4 compared to D-glutamic acid, which showed total equilibrium loss and muscle tone in fish stage 4 [49]. Eugenol obtained from S. aromaticum oil was evaluated for anesthetic potency on larva and juvenile of Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia). The results revealed that eugenol possesses a prominent analgesic effect at a concentration of 150 and 175 mg/L on larva weighing (11.64 g) [50].
Anti-bacterial Activity
The research was carried to authenticate the anti-bacterial potency of ethanolic and methanolic extracts of clove towards foodborne pathogens. The data obtained revealed that methanol extract possesses prominent anti-bacterial activity in both gram-negative and gram-positive cultures in comparison to ethanolic extract, research was conducted [51]. Water extract of S. aromaticum seeds was evaluated for bactericidal potency towards E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. GC was used to determine the content of various Phytoconstituents available in the extract. The extract revealed prominent antimicrobial activity with 0.06 mg/mL MIC and 0.10 mg/mL MBC respectively. Extract prominently reduces density and colony formation potency of E coli, P aeruginosa and S. aureus. Superoxide anion radical, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, glutathione, and malondialdehyde in bacterial cells were prominently elevated following extract exposure. From these results, it was concluded that water extract of clove prominently increases membrane permeability and oxidative stress in tested strains [52]. Anti-bacterial potency of eugenol isolated from S. aromaticum leaf essential oil and its mechanism were evaluated against oral anaerobe Porphyromonas gingivalis. Electron scanning microscope was used to determine cell shrinking and cell lysis due to eugenol. The data obtained showed that eugenol content (90.84%) in leaf essential oil possesses prominent bactericidal potency towards P. gingivalis at a dose of 31.25 μg. Macromolecules discharge and fluorescent dye uptake revealed that antibacterial potency was due to increased cell permeability and irreversible plasmatic membrane destruction [53]. The research was conducted to authenticate the antibacterial potency of water and alcoholic extract of Syzygium aromaticum whole bud using the disc diffusion method. The results revealed that the alcoholic extract prominently inhibits microbial load as compared to water extract. The alcoholic extract showed 17 to 23 mm of minimum inhibitory concentration compared to water extract, i.e., 12 to 16 mm [54]. Syzygium aromaticum oil showed prominent bactericidal potency towards tested microorganisms with 30 to 50 μl/L for MIC and 60 to 120 μl/L for MBC, respectively [55]. The research was proposed to authenticate antibacterial and leishmanicidal potency of oil and eugenol isolated from Syzygium aromaticum. The results revealed that essential oil (EO) extracted from clove possesses non-significant antimicrobial potency towards S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and K. pneumoniae, as compared with eugenol. Both EO and eugenol possess pronounced leishmanicidal effects against Leishmania tropica and Leishmania major. It was concluded that both essential oil and eugenol possess main antibacterial and leishmanicidal activities. However, EO is preferable to eugenol due to its lower cost [56].
Antifungal Activity
The research was conducted to authenticate the antifungal property of S. aromaticum oil towards Aspergillus sp., Microsporum gypseum, Fusarium oxysporum MTCC 284, Mucor sp., Fusarium moniliforme NCIM 1100, and Trichophyton rubrum using agar well diffusion technique. The data obtained demonstrated that the oil prominently inhibits all tested fungal strains. Microscopic analysis of Mucor sp. and M. gypseum spores revealed shrinking and distortion [57]. Oil isolated from S. aromaticum was claimed to possess mild to potent antifungal potency against infective fungus. Clove oil at the concentration of 1 µL/mL totally blocks the growth of F. oxysporum f.sp radicis lycopercisi and F. redolens while at 0.5 µL/mL, showed potent activity against F. commune [58]. The research was conducted to authenticate the antibacterial potency of alcoholic extracts of S. aromaticum and A. sativum towards Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms using agar well diffusion technique and poisoned food method, respectively. The results demonstrated that clove oil possesses prominent antimicrobial potency with inhibition zone ranges between 25 to 32 mm compared to garlic extract 20 mm to 31 mm [59]. Antifungal potency of various oils viz., S. aromaticum, C. citratus, M. piperita and E. globulus were authenticated against F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici 1322. The results suggested that all essential oils demonstrated antifungal activity in a dose-dependent manner. Among various oils, clove oil showed superior potency and entirely block mycelial development and spore germination, followed by lemongrass, mint, and eucalyptus [60]. The research was conducted to authenticate the fungicidal potency of the oil isolated from leaf and buds of clove against Paecilomyces variotii, and the results suggested that at 400 ppm concentration, clove oil prominently decrease Paecilomyces variotii growth rate [61].
Herbicidal Activity
The research was conducted to evaluate eugenol's herbicidal activity, an important constituent of clove essential oil, against four grassy weeds viz. Phalaris minor Retz; Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv; Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees and Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. The results demonstrated that eugenol prominently reduces seed sprouting by 55-70% in grassy weed and 42-90% in broad-leveled weeds. Shoot length was reduced by 50-83% in grassy weed and 36-73% in broad-leaved weeds. These results support the herbicide potency of eugenol [62]. Eugenol also showed potent herbicidal activity by blocking both seed germination and seedling development in both treated weeds [63]. Clove oil prominently elevates malondialdehyde concentration under dark and light conditions, encourages superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and reduces catalase potency compared to paraquat treatment. These results support the herbicidal property of clove oil [64].
Insecticidal Activity
Research was conducted to authenticate the insecticidal potency of Syzygium aromaticum oil and its main constituents against Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum, and Rhyzopertha dominica. The results revealed prominent mortality by clove oil. This result proved that the insecticidal efficacy shown by oil is mainly due to its active constituent. The data obtained also declared that trans-caryophyllene was minimum toxic with minimum repellent property compared to clove oil and its active component [65]. Clove powder showed 100% mortality in Solenopsis invicta within 6 hours and 99% repelling property with 3 h when applied at 3 and 12 mg/cm2 [66]. The research was proposed to demonstrate the larvicidal potency of S. aromaticum oil and C. sinensis oil, either pure or in mixture form. Results revealed that oil possesses prominent larvicidal potency in both susceptible and resistant populations [67]. Pediculicidal potency of S. aromaticum hexane extract was demonstrated towards P. humanus capitis observed by open and sealed vessel techniques. Results revealed 100% mortality after 20 min. Prominent variation was observed in the pediculicidal potency of clove extract towards P. humanus capitis among open and sealed vessel procedures. A potent pediculicidal effect was observed in a sealed vessel compared to an open vessel representing fumigant toxicity [68]. The research was conducted to authenticate the larvicidal potency of different phytoconstituents isolated from the alcoholic extract of clove towards third-instar larvae and B. procera eggs. The results revealed that methyl salicylate isolated from clove possesses a potent larvicidal effect tailed by 2-nonanone and eugenol. It also inhibit egg-hatching by 90-94% at 0.09 μg/cm2 [69]. Insecticidal potency of S. aromaticum and C. cassia volatile oil was authenticated against Callosobruchus maculatus, coleoptera pest, and the pulse beetle. The results concluded that the volatile oil isolated from S. aromaticum produces significant mortality of 97.8% after 72 h of exposure compared to C. cassia, which produces 96.4% [70].
Antiviral Activity
Antiviral potency of essential oil from clove buds was investigated against hepatitis C virus and Herpes simplex virus. It concluded that clove oil at a dose of 10 µg/ml possesses prominent inhibitory potency against herpes simplex virus and hepatitis C virus [26]. Water extract of clove buds, garlic, fenugreek seed, ginger, onion, and jalapeno peppers were evaluated for antiviral potency towards feline calicivirus (FCV). Results obtained suggested that both clove and ginger's water extract possess prominent antiviral potency and inhibit foodborne viral contamination in a dose-dependent manner [71]. Nanoemulsion containing clove essential oil was studied for its inhibitory potency against Potato virus -Y (PVY) using in- vitro and in-vivo models against Chenopodium quinoa (local lesion host) and Lycopersicon esculentum (systemic host). In in-vitro procedure, inoculum and inhibitor were previously mixed before plant inoculation, while in-vivo methods, plants were sprayed with inhibitor either before or after inoculation. The results demonstrated that the nanoemuslion containing clove oil prominently block Potato virus -Y using in vivo and ex-vivo models. The maximum inhibitory potency was achieved in vitro, where inoculum and inhibitor were previously mixed [72]. The research was proposed to authenticate the antiviral potency of S. aromaticum and bitter almond oils against yellow mosaic virus infecting faba bean plants using DAS-ELISA technique and claimed that clove oil prominently reduces virus amount on faba bean plants as compared to bitter almond oil [73].
Nematicidal Activity
A study was carried to investigate the nematicidal and Phytotoxicity potency of clove oil against Meloidogyne incognita a southern root-knot nematode, and vegetable crops like cucumber, muskmelon, pepper, and tomato seedlings. The results revealed that clove oil prominently decreases the nematode population, however, no phytotoxic activity on tested vegetable crops [74]. The nematicidal potency of clove oil was investigated against Meloidogyne incognita using greenhouse technique. The results revealed that clove oil was mildly active in killing nematodes compared to artificial pesticide carbosulfan, deltamethrin, and chlorpyrifos [75
