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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Secure your understanding of vital security and forensic strategies by purchasing Securing the Digital Frontier: Threats and Advanced Techniques in Security and Forensics, a definitive guide that empowers you to protect sensitive information and tackle cyber threats with insights from leading experts and real-world case studies.
In the field of security and forensics, it’s crucial to implement strong security measures to protect sensitive data and effectively respond to cyber incidents. Digital forensics is vital for analyzing cyber threats, where experts use advanced techniques to scrutinize digital artifacts, system logs, and network traffic. This approach helps reconstruct incidents, pinpoint vulnerabilities, and support legal actions, ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of crucial data in our rapidly evolving digital world.
This book provides an in-depth look at security and forensics, pooling knowledge from top experts across various cybersecurity domains. It focuses on real-world applications and case studies, offering valuable insights for protecting information and responding to digital crimes. Designed for cybersecurity professionals, digital forensics investigators, legal teams, and academics, this comprehensive guide is a key resource for anyone looking to deepen their understanding of modern digital forensics and cybersecurity challenges.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Pegasus—A Menace to Privacy and Security
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Working of Pegasus
1.3 Literature Review
1.4 Methodologies
1.5 Pegasus Implantation Techniques
1.6 Mitigation Measures
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Data Privacy and Compliance in Information Security
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Discussion on Risks, Consequences, and Security Measures for Data Privacy
2.3 Data Privacy and Compliance in Information Security: The Changing Nature
2.4 Continuous Learning and Adaptation: Keeping Pace with Emerging Technologies and Regulations
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Unveiling Cyber Threats and Digital Forensics
3.1 Information Security
3.2 Cyberattacks
3.3 Protection Techniques
3.4 Internet of Medical Things
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 A Customised Privacy Preservation Mechanism for Cyber-Physical Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Motivation
4.4 Proposed Mechanism
4.5 Experimental Results
4.6 Future Directions
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 Securing the Future: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures in Cryptography
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Quantum Computing and Post-Quantum Cryptography
5.3 Cryptanalysis: Cracking the Code
5.4 Side-Channel Attacks: Stealthy and Insidious
5.5 Fault Attacks: Exploiting Implementation Weaknesses
5.6 Hardware Security Modules (HSMS)
5.7 Secure Implementations: From Theory to Reality
5.8 A Holistic Approach to Cryptography
5.9 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)
5.10 Internet of Things in Cryptography
5.11 Artificial Intelligence in Cryptography
5.12 Cryptarithmetic
5.13 The Road Ahead: Future Trends and Prospects
5.14 Conclusion
Bibliography
6 Cyber Threats and Its Impact on Electronic Transactions
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Digital Transformation and Cybersecurity
6.3 Evolution of Cyber Threats
6.4 Emerging Cyber Threats
6.5 Impacts of Data Breaches in the Financial Sector
6.6 Cybersecurity Standards, Frameworks, and Benchmarks
6.7 Innovative Approaches to Cyber-Incident Management
6.8 Conclusion
References
7 A Robust Model for Enabling Insider Threat Detection and Prevention: Techniques, Tools, and Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Structure
7.3 Impact of Insider Threats on Modern Organizations
7.5 Challenges in Insider Threat Detection
7.6 Techniques for Insider Threat Detection
7.7 Robust Model
7.8 Application and Case Studies
7.9 Other Important Insider Threat Prevention Strategies
7.10 Ethical Considerations
7.11 Future Trends
7.12 Conclusion
References
Authored Book
References
8 Digital Vulnerabilities Unveiled: A Multidisciplinary Exploration of Emerging Threats to Security and Privacy in the Age of Networked Communication
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical Foundation
8.3 Methodological Framework
8.4 Emergent Themes
8.5 Interdisciplinary Insights
8.6 Pedagogical Implications
8.7 Findings and Discussion
8.8 Integration and Synthesis
8.9 Conclusion
References
Appendix A: Survey Instrument
9 Tools of Emancipation as Global Web and its Digital Ecosystem: Steering IoT Landscape, Cloud Computing Unravel Safe Spaces Lensing New Cyber Risks and Emerging Threats
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Tools of Emancipation on the World Wide Web: Conceptual Framework and Definition
9.3 IoT Landscape and Its Overview: Opportunities and Challenges
9.4 Cloud Computing: Pillar for Safe Spaces Protection
9.5 Cyber Risks and Emerging Threats—Current Landscape of Cyber Threats
9.6 Tools of Emancipation: Digital Tools for Positive Purposes and Potential for Using Technology
9.7 Assimilating Tools of Emancipation, Cloud Computing, and IoT
9.8 Embryonic Updated Technologies and Future Tendencies
9.9 New Cyber Risks and Emerging Threats
9.10 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
10 IoT and Smart Device Security: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures
10.1 Introduction to IoT and Smart Devices
10.2 Vulnerabilities in IoT Devices
10.3 Emerging Threats in IoT Security
10.4 Attack Vectors in IoT
10.5 Countermeasures for IoT Security
10.6 Case Studies in IoT Security
10.7 Future Trends and Challenges in IoT Security
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Secured IoT with LWC and Blockchain
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Applications of IoT
11.3 Different Security Attacks on IoT Layers
11.4 Solution to IoT Security Attacks
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Social Engineering Attacks: Detection and Prevention
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Life Cycle of Social Engineering
12.3 Types of Social Engineering
12.4 Social Engineering Attacks Using Advanced Techniques
12.5 Social Engineering Attack Detection Models
12.6 Detection of Social Engineering Links
12.7 Preventive Approaches
12.8 Preventive Measures Against Social Engineering Attacks
12.9 Conclusion
References
13 Multilayer Perceptron of Occlusion and Pose-Sensitive Ear Attributes for Social Engineering Attack Mitigation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Literature Review
13.3 Materials and Methods
13.4 Result and Discussion
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Study and Analysis of Cyberbullying Message Detection and Prevention Using Machine Learning Techniques
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Literature Survey
14.3 Implementation of Cyberbullying Model
14.4 Evaluation and Comparison of Machine Learning Techniques for Cyber Bullying
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Future Directions in Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity
15.1 Overview of Digital Forensics and Cyber Forensics
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Technologies and Their Impact
15.4 Impact of Emerging Technologies on Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity
15.5 Cybersecurity and Digital Forensics: Threats and Opportunities
15.6 Future of Digital Forensics
15.7 The Future of Cybersecurity
15.8 Collaboration and Interdisciplinary Approaches
15.9 Ethics and Human Factors in Future Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity
15.10 Challenges and Opportunities of Digital and Cyber-Forensics
15.11 Conclusion
References
16 Tomorrow’s Shields: Exploring Future Trends in Cyber Security and Forensics
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Recent Digital Forensic Trends
16.3 Threats Faced by Digital Forensics
16.4 Opportunities
16.5 Conclusion
References
Index
Also of InterestAlso of Interest
Other books in the series, “Advances in Cyber Security”
Other related titles
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Effect of Pegasus in android vs iOS devices.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Top 18 state-sponsored hacker groups listed in microsoft digital def...
Table 6.2 Summary of cybersecurity standards, frameworks, and benchmarks.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Countermeasures for IoT security.
Table 10.2 Future trends and challenges in IoT security.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Tabular representation of layer-wise possible security attacks.
Table 11.2 Tabular representation of various structures of lightweight cryptog...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Performance measurement of classifiers using TF-IDF-based feature s...
Table 14.2 Performance measurement of classifiers using CountVectorizer-based ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Pegasus impact.
Figure 1.2 Pegasus workflow.
Figure 1.3 Work-flow of normal device vs infected device.
Figure 1.4 Pegasus attacking iOS using zero-day vulnerability.
Figure 1.5 Chrysaor working.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Risks, consequences, and security measures for data privacy.
Figure 2.2 Data privacy and compliance in information security.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Three pillars of cyber security.
Figure 3.2 Threat modeling stages.
Figure 3.3 Penetration testing procedure.
Figure 3.4 Access control classification.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Comparative analysis of performance of current popular methods.
Figure 4.2 Plot showing trade-off between privacy and data utility of popular ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Post-quantum cryptography.
Figure 5.2 Cryptanalysis.
Figure 5.3 Fault attacks.
Figure 5.4 Hardware security modules.
Figure 5.5 Quantum key distribution.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Structure-mapping of the chapter.
Figure 7.2 Represents the financial implications of insider attacks and provid...
Figure 7.3 Number of vulnerabilities based on different types of organization.
Figure 7.4 Flowchart of supervised learning model.
Figure 7.5 Flowchart of complex event processing model.
Figure 7.6 Process modeling of integration model.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Data breaches over the years.
Figure 8.2 Phishing attacks by age group.
Figure 8.3 Cyber attacks by country.
Figure 8.4 Phishing success rate by industry.
Figure 8.5 Impact of misinformation by topic.
Figure 8.6 Awareness and preparedness over time.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Overview of IoT structure.
Figure 10.2 Structure of vulnerabilities in IoT devices.
Figure 10.3 Attack vectors in IoT.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Components of a secure data communication.
Figure 11.2 Three-layered IoT architecture.
Figure 11.3 Five-layered IoT architecture.
Figure 11.4 Cloud and fog/edge-based IoT architecture.
Figure 11.5 Need for IoT security.
Figure 11.6 Blockchain layers.
Figure 11.7 Blockchain-based IoT applications.
Figure 11.8 Secure data communication using cryptography.
Figure 11.9 Symmetric cryptography utilizing the same key for encryption and d...
Figure 11.10 Asymmetric cryptography utilizing different keys for encryption a...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Instances of pose and occlusion-sensitive ear signals.
Figure 13.2 Activity sequence of the research design.
Figure 13.3 The performance of MLP on the OPIB dataset.
Figure 13.4 Performance of MLP on the OPIB dataset with one-hot encoding.
Figure 13.5 Performance of MLP on the OPIB dataset with parameter optimization...
Figure 13.6 Performance of MLP on the OPIB dataset after one-hot encoding with...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Dataset sample.
Figure 14.2 Pre-processed dataset using Python.
Figure 14.3 Overall architecture of proposed approach.
Figure 14.4 Graphical representation of performance measurement of classifiers...
Figure 14.5 Graphical representation of performance measurement of classifiers...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Image of digital forensic expert witness.
Figure 15.2 AI & machine learning using NVIDIA A40 GPU and Scikit-learn
Figure 15.3 Image of crypto currency & block chain market.
Figure 15.4 Cyberwarfare.
Figure 15.5 Digital forensics and information security.
Figure 15.6 Future of digital forensics.
Figure 15.7 Challenges in digital forensics.
Figure 15.8 The interdisciplinary approach of digital forensics and cyber secu...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Use of social media forensics in criminal investigation [4].
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Advances in Cyber Security
Series Editors: Rashmi Agrawal and D. Ganesh Gopal
Scope: The purpose of this book series is to present books that are specifically designed to address the critical security challenges in today’s computing world including cloud and mobile environments and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches of cryptography, blockchain and other defense mechanisms. The book series presents some of the state-of-the-art research work in the field of blockchain, cryptography and security in computing and communications. It is a valuable source of knowledge for researchers, engineers, practitioners, graduates, and doctoral students who are working in the field of blockchain, cryptography, network security, and security and privacy issues in the Internet of Things (IoT). It will also be useful for faculty members of graduate schools and universities. The book series provides a comprehensive look at the various facets of cloud security: infrastructure, network, services, compliance and users. It will provide real-world case studies to articulate the real and perceived risks and challenges in deploying and managing services in a cloud infrastructure from a security perspective. The book series will serve as a platform for books dealing with security concerns of decentralized applications (DApps) and smart contracts that operate on an open blockchain. The book series will be a comprehensive and up-to-date reference on information security and assurance. Bringing together the knowledge, skills, techniques, and tools required of IT security professionals, it facilitates the up-to-date understanding required to stay one step ahead of evolving threats, standards, and regulations.
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Securing the Digital Frontier
Threats and Advanced Techniques in Security and Forensics
Edited by
Kavita Sharma
Vishnu Sharma
Parma Nand
Anil Kumar Sagar
and
Gulshan Shrivastava
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-26888-7
Front cover images supplied by Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Welcome to Securing the Digital Frontier: Threats and Advanced Techniques in Security and Forensics. In today’s interconnected world, where our lives are increasingly intertwined with technology, safeguarding our digital information cannot be overstated. This book is a comprehensive exploration of the evolving landscape of cybersecurity, offering insights into the latest threats, innovative techniques, and proactive measures employed to protect our digital assets.
Chapter 1, “Pegasus - A Menace to Privacy and Security,” sheds light on the Pegasus spyware developed by the Israeli-based cyber group NSO. Authors Raunaq Khurana and Shilpa Mahajan examine the workings of this advanced spyware, which exploits zero-day vulnerabilities to access and collect data from target systems without user consent. Through detailed analysis and case studies, the chapter highlights Pegasus’s challenges. It encourages using advanced technologies such as AI and ML/DL to develop effective countermeasures.
In Chapter 2, “Data Privacy and Compliance in Information Security,” authors Rakesh Nayak, Umashankar Ghugar, Praveen Gupta, Satyabrata Dash, and Nishu Gupta explore the sophisticated relationship between data privacy and compliance in information security. They discuss the challenges, regulations, and best practices in protecting sensitive data in today’s digital age, emphasizing the importance of implementing robust security measures and fostering privacy awareness within organizations.
Chapter 3, “Unveiling Cyber Threats: Exploring Crime, Security Techniques, and Digital Forensics,” authored by Nidhi Gupta, Arpita Trivedi, Parveen P Terang, and Hasmat Malik, delves into the escalating landscape of cybercrimes and the various advanced techniques used to protect devices from cyberattacks. The chapter also highlights the importance of digital forensics in investigating cybercrimes and identifying perpetrators.
In Chapter 4, “A Customised Privacy Preservation Mechanism for Cyber-Physical Systems,” authors Manas Kumar Yogi and A.S.N. Chakravarthy advocate for a novel privacy approach for cyber-physical systems, allowing users to customize their privacy settings based on their usage. The chapter explores the trade-off between privacy and utility in CPS entities and presents a provisional privacy-preserving method designed to enhance data utility while maintaining user privacy.
Chapter 5, “Securing the Future: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures in Cryptography,” authored by Debosree Ghosh, Kishore Ghosh, Chandrima Chakraborty, Atanu Datta, and Somsubhra Gupta, focuses on emerging threats to cryptographic systems and innovative countermeasures. The chapter highlights the importance of post-quantum cryptography and secure implementation practices in safeguarding data security in an evolving digital landscape.
In Chapter 6, “Cyber Threats and its Impact on Electronic Transactions,” authors Ramalingam Dharmalingam and Vaishnavi Dharmalingam explore the impact of cyber threats on electronic transactions, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter discusses the growth of digital transformation, current cyberattacks, and frameworks for combating cyber threats, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts to secure future transactions.
Chapter 7, “A Robust Model for Enabling Insider Threat Detection and Prevention: Techniques, Tools, and Applications,” authored by A Sheik Abdullah, Shivansh Dhiman, and Arif Ansari, addresses the growing threat of insider threats in organizations. The chapter explores techniques and tools for accurately detecting and mitigating insider threats, leveraging machine learning, artificial intelligence, and behavioral analytics.
In Chapter 8, “Digital Vulnerabilities Unveiled: A Multidisciplinary Exploration of Emerging Threats to Security and Privacy in the Age of Networked Communication,” authors Priya Sachdeva and Archan Mitra offer a multidisciplinary analysis of digital vulnerabilities, highlighting the interplay between socio-technical factors underlying security issues. The chapter emphasizes the value of interdisciplinary approaches in comprehending and solving complex security challenges.
Chapter 9, “Tools of Emancipation as Global Web and its Digital Ecosystem: Steering IoT Landscape, Cloud Computing Unravel Safe Spaces Lensing New Cyber Risks and Emerging Threats,” authored by Bhupinder Singh and Christian Kaunert, explores the symbiosis of tools of emancipation, the global web, and the digital ecosystem in navigating cybersecurity challenges. The chapter discusses the role of IoT and cloud computing in mitigating cyber risks and proposes strategies for fortifying safe spaces in the digital realm.
Chapter 10, “IoT and Smart Device Security: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures,” authored by Geo Francis E, S. Sheeja, Anotony Johen E.F., and Jismy Joseph, delves into the security challenges posed by IoT devices and explores emerging threats and countermeasures. The chapter emphasizes the importance of addressing IoT vulnerabilities and implementing robust security measures to safeguard data privacy and integrity.
In Chapter 11, “Secured IoT with LWC and Blockchain,” authors Srishti Priya Chaturvedi, Ajay Yadav, Santosh Kumar, and Rahul Mukherjee discuss lightweight encryption and blockchain solutions for securing the Internet of Things. The chapter explores using lightweight cryptographic algorithms and decentralized blockchain structures to protect IoT ecosystems from cyber threats.
Chapter 12, “Social Engineering Attacks: Detection and Prevention,” authored by Rajat Singh, Priyanka Soni, and Animaw Kerie, focuses on social engineering attacks and proposes detection and prevention techniques. The chapter discusses various social engineering attack models and preventive measures, including security information and event management (SIEM) systems and human-as-a-security-sensor frameworks.
In Chapter 13, “Multilayer Perceptron of Occlusion and Pose-Sensitive Ear Attributes for Social Engineering Attack Mitigation,” authors O. Taiwo Olaleye, Oluwasefunmi Arogundade, Adebayo Abayomi-Alli, Wilson Ahiara, Temitope Ogunbiyi, Segun Akintunde, Segun Dada, and Olalekan Okewale explore the use of multilayer perceptron for detecting social engineering attacks. The chapter investigates the effectiveness of MLP in handling occlusion and pose variations, offering insights into its potential applications in digital forensics.
Chapter 14, “Study and Analysis of Cyberbullying Message Detection and Prevention Using Machine Learning Techniques,” authored by Dr. S. Gunasekaran, Dr. S. Shanmugam, and Dr. N. Anusha, focuses on detecting and preventing cyberbullying using machine learning techniques. The chapter compares different machine-learning approaches for cyberbullying detection and proposes future research directions for improving detection accuracy.
Chapter 15, “Future Directions in Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity,” authored by Elipe Arjun and Priyanka Singh, offers insights into the future trends and challenges in digital forensics and cybersecurity. The chapter explores the potential impact of emerging technologies like quantum computing and AI on cybersecurity practices, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary collaboration and ethical considerations.
In Chapter 16, “Tomorrow’s Shields: Exploring Future Trends in Cyber Security and Forensics,” authors M. Sharma, R.K. Kohli, and K. Sharma provide a holistic perspective on future trends in security and forensics. The chapter discusses emerging technologies, regulatory frameworks, and industry trends shaping the future of cybersecurity, highlighting the importance of proactive measures and continuous learning in combating evolving threats.
We extend our sincere gratitude to all the authors who contributed their expertise & insights to this book. Their dedication and passion for advancing cybersecurity knowledge have made this book a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and students alike.
We hope that Securing the Digital Frontier: Threats and Advanced Techniques in Security and Forensics catalyzes ongoing discussions & collaborative efforts to fortify our digital defenses and navigate the ever-changing cybersecurity landscape.
Dr. Kavita SharmaGalgotias College of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida, India
Dr. Vishnu Sharma
ITS Engineering College, Greater Noida, India
Dr. Parma Nand
Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
Dr. Anil Kumar Sagar
Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
Dr. Gulshan Shrivastava
Bennett University, Greater Noida, India
1Pegasus—A Menace to Privacy and Security
Raunaq Khurana* and Shilpa Mahajan
Department of Computer Science, The NorthCap University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
Abstract
The Israeli-based cyber group NSO developed Pegasus, a spyware that can access and collect data from a target system without the user’s consent. Pegasus commonly exploits zero-day vulnerabilities, which are system weaknesses that the manufacturer has not addressed or is unaware of. This chapter thoroughly examines the Pegasus spyware, highlighting its unique features that pose significant challenges in its detection as compared to other malicious software. It presents an extensive analysis of Pegasus on both iOS and Android operating systems, with the intention of educating readers about its capabilities and advocating for the use of advanced technologies such as AI, ML/DL to develop effective countermeasures against spyware, malware, and adware. The chapter also includes various case studies that illustrate the transformation of Pegasus over time and the measures taken to prevent its infiltration into user devices. To facilitate reader’s understanding, the chapter provides essential security checklists that help identify Pegasus’s monitoring mechanisms.
Keywords: Malware/spyware, encryption, vulnerability, vishing
1.1 Introduction
Spyware is harmful software made with the intention of stealing data from a system and sharing it with unidentified outside third parties. Pegasus is a sophisticated programme that can break into mobile devices like smartphones and tablets and eventually go over security precautions like internal encryption and two-factor authentication to allow hackers complete access to the targeted device once it is plugged in. If that is the case, Pegasus can control all communication between devices, including calls, messages, emails, microphone and camera providers, location data, contacts and calendars [1]. The memory consumption can be discovered using covert methods, CPU cycles, and network traffic monitoring, despite the fact that the Pegasus file store was initially intended to target officials, politicians, journalists, and influencers.
Pegasus tool is produced by the Israeli company NSO Group. This surveillance tool is designed purposely to monitor specific individuals for national security. Although this tool is developed to be used by the government agencies but it has been a subject of significant controversies. These controversies arises as they are considered to be threat to human privacy, an abuse to human rights and potential misuse of surveillance technologies.
The allegation involves that government is spying on its officials and political opponents and even individuals or not even legitimate targets for surveillance. NSO group gave his assurance that their tool is used for legitimate purposes like for frightening crimes and terrorism. However, number of evidences and investigations have suggested that Pegasus has been used for questionable purposes by some people.
The way that this tool operates is by taking advantage of flaws in mobile devices, especially smartphones, to access personal data, including calls, texts, emails, and other communications. It may also be used to activate the camera and microphone, monitor the device’s position, and do a variety of other things, thereby transforming it into a robust surveillance tool.
The properties of Pegasus are thoroughly covered in this chapter, with special emphasis placed on those aspects that set it isolated from different spyware and malware in terms of difficulty in detection [2]. It also explains how Pegasus operates on both iOS and Android operating systems and suggests using advanced technologies like machine learning and AI to develop systems that can identify and prevent Pegasus, safeguarding devices from adware, malware, or spyware. Additionally, the chapter presents case studies demonstrating Pegasus’s evolution over time and proposes methods to prevent spyware from infiltrating and spreading on user devices. By following the practical safety guidelines outlined in this chapter, readers can learn how to protect themselves from Pegasus’s surveillance tool.
Investigating the market origins and distribution of Pegasus.
Examining how Pegasus operates and its ability to turn smartphones into listening devices by exploiting multiple vulnerabilities.
Proposing various techniques to detect potential Pegasus attacks.
Sharing advice on how to recognize the presence of Pegasus spyware on a device.
Suggesting the utilization of command-line or terminal utilities to lower the likelihood of being affected by the Pegasus spyware.
Providing practical recommendations to enhance awareness and protect devices from Pegasus spyware.
Spyware attacks have become increasingly sophisticated in recent years. In the past, malicious software could be installed by opening a suspicious email as early as a decade ago [3]. However, Pegasus spyware has now adopted a “mobile first” strategy, whereby it impersonates its users by sending links in text messages that appear to be from trusted sources. Clicking on these links gives Pegasus access to sensitive information, such as location data and financial information. From 2016 to 2021, Pegasus has become even more advanced and now uses “zero-click” technology, which relies on zero-day threats that are unknown to the user and remain unpatched [4]. To limit the success of Pegasus on user devices, the research paper titled “Pegasus: A Privacy Killer” recommends adopting basic precautions, like avoid unknown links, categorization of devices, and using reliable VPNs for all devices [5, 6]. Pegasus uses complex zero-day infection vectors to infiltrate devices. Once installed, try different ways to get access to victim’s data and transmits it to the server [7]. The way how Pegasus can attack and exploit your phone can be seen in Figure 1.1.
It uses GPS information to identify and differentiate targets and obtain precise information
The Pegasus spyware does not require coordination with local Mobile Network Operators (MNOs), making it independent of service providers.
It control both the content and devices it infects by utilizing proprietary protocols and SSL, commonly used in complex communications, which allows it to surpass encrypted information.
The surveillance includes monitoring various applications, such as Instagram, Twitter, WhatsApp, Skype, Viber etc.
Monitor VoIP and voice calls in real time (call interception).
Pegasus can recognize operational identities without the need for regularly switching virtual identities or while continuously surveilling/observing the device.
Figure 1.1 Pegasus impact.
1.2 Working of Pegasus
This spyware name Pegasus is a highly advance and dangerous tool that exploits “Zero-day Vulnerability,” a security weakness for which no patch or update is available or known by the manufacturer. Pegasus can silently infiltrate various Android and iOS devices and covertly monitor all device activities. By exploiting vulnerabilities in third-party spyware, Pegasus can take complete control of the device, allowing the attacker to perform various actions. To protect against such attacks, users must take proactive measures, such as installing antivirus software, regularly updating device firmware, and being vigilant when clicking on links from unknown sources.
Pegasus can access data like access your messages, location tracking, content surfing, can make calls from compromised phones, call logs can be accessed, access to photo, camera and Microphone can be accessed and an delete data and even retrieve the deleted files from the mobiles. Pegasus spyware directly transmit the data obtained from target’s phone straight to the data server of NSO group [8].
Pegasus spyware is a highly advanced malware that can be installed easily through physical contact, text or email and through calls and messages. It exploits vulnerabilities that have not been updated with a patch or are not known to the relevant parties. It can infiltrate a device through a missed call on WhatsApp or an iMessage on iPhones [9]. The Pegasus spyware utilizes a zero-click method that does not require any user interaction, making it challenging to detect. Even if a user tries to delete a suspicious message, the spyware can persist on the device and infect it [10].
Pegasus spyware is a highly sophisticated tool that can decrypt end-to-end encrypted messages and files, making it a potent weapon in espionage [11, 12]. Recent findings indicate that the latest versions of Pegasus can infiltrate devices through missed calls and delete the call logs to cover up the attack, making it harder to detect and track its actions. This poses a significant challenge for users who may not even be aware that their devices have been compromised [13].
A diagram depicting the general workflow of Pegasus can be seen in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Pegasus workflow.
The workflow of Pegasus on a normal device vs. an infected device can be seen in Figure 1.3. It is interesting to find how an infected device behave differently from the normal device. In normal device, the common phasis include
Device Setup
The user purchases a new mobile device and goes through the initial setup process, which typically includes connecting to Wi-Fi, signing in with their Apple ID or Google Account, and configuring settings.
App Installation
Users can install applications from authorized application marketplaces such as the Apple App Store or Google Play Store. These apps undergo a vetting process to ensure they do not contain malicious code.
Regular Usage
The individual utilizes the device for a multitude of functions, including placing calls, sending messages, surfing the web, and accessing applications. The device operates normally without any unexpected behavior.
Figure 1.3 Work-flow of normal device vs infected device.
For a device infected with Pegasus, the phasis includes
Initial Infection
Pegasus spyware typically infects a device through a variety of means, such as a malicious link in a text message, a spear-phishing email, or exploiting vulnerabilities in the device’s operating system or apps.
Silent Installation
Once the device is infected, Pegasus silently installs itself without the user’s consciousness or approval. It often hides its presence to avoid detection.
Monitoring and Surveillance
Pegasus begins its surveillance activities, collecting various forms of data from the infected device. This can include call records, messages, emails, photos, videos, GPS location, and more.
Communication with Command and Control Server
Pegasus communicates through a command and control (C&C) server operated by the attacker. It sends collected data to the server and receives instructions or updates from the server.
Persistent Operation
Pegasus is designed to be persistent, meaning it survives device reboots and software updates. It continues to operate in the background, constantly monitoring and exfiltrating data.
Remote Control
Attackers can remotely control Pegasus-infected devices, enabling them to execute commands, steal data, or even activate the device’s microphone and camera for real-time monitoring.
Exploiting Vulnerabilitie
Pegasus may use undisclosed or zero-day vulnerabilities in the device’s operating system or apps to gain access and evade security measures.
Advanced Evasion Techniques
Pegasus employs advanced evasion techniques to avoid detection by antivirus software and security scans.
Regular Device Usage
From the user’s perspective, the device may appear to function normally, but their activities and data are being monitored and recorded by the spyware.
1.2.1 Pegasus Attacking iOS
Pegasus took advantage of a vulnerability (zero-day) in the Safari browser on iOS devices. It downloaded a zipped file and performed the following steps [14].
Installed a program called daemon to share files with an attacker who could remotely monitor the device.
Turned off the device’s deep sleep mechanism.
Injected its code into running processes to remain hidden in the memory used by other applications and software.
Removed any other jailbreak programs and installed a suicide feature to erase all evidences of Pegasus.
Installed a root TLS certificate to create a fake CA that allowed the attacker to encrypt data that the device would trust.
Installed an unsigned JavaScript (JS) file that executed a script at reboot time to jailbreak the device, as iOS typically only allows signed code verified by third parties.
Installed a sniffer tool to listen and record the device’s running program traffic.
CVE’s used in Pegasus CVE-2016-4657, CVE-2016-4655, CVE-2016-4656 etc.
An iOS device running an earlier version of the operating system than 9.3.5 was vulnerable to the CVE-2016-4657 security issue. The flaw allows attackers to use a modified picture file to run any arbitrary code on the targeted device. Without needing user involvement, Pegasus, a spyware programme, used this flaw to access the victim’s device. Since neither Apple nor the cybersecurity community were aware of this security hole until it was discovered and revealed by researchers, it was referred to as a zero-day vulnerability. In order to protect customers against future threats, Apple advised consumers to update their iOS devices to the most recent version in August 2016.
CVE-2016-4655 security vulnerability affected iOS devices before version 9.3.3. By exploiting this flaw, attackers were able to intercept and decode encrypted traffic sent over SSL/TLS protocols to obtain sensitive data such as login credentials, financial information, personal data, and etc. Pegasus spyware exploited this vulnerability to secretly extract data from the device without the owner’s knowledge or consent. In July 2016, Apple released CVE-2016-4655, a patch to address a zero-day vulnerability previously unknown to the company and the cybersecurity community. When researchers made their discovery and dream followed, Apple recommended that users update their iOS devices to the latest version to reduce the risk of possible attacks.
Figure 1.4 Pegasus attacking iOS using zero-day vulnerability.
CVE-2016-4656 is a security vulnerability that affected IOS devices before version 9.3.3. The vulnerability allowed attackers to exploit a flaw in the handling of IOKit calls in the iOS kernel to gain control of the target machine. Pegasus spyware exploited this vulnerability to monitor device activities without the user’s consent or knowledge as shown in Figure 1.4. CVE-2016-4656 was classified as a zero-day vulnerability because it was unknown to Apple and the cybersecurity community until it was discovered by researchers To protect against potential attacks, Apple issued a patch on the vulnerability in July 2016, advising all users to do so update their iOS devices to the latest version.
1.2.2 Pegasus Impacting Android
Chrysaor, a variant of Pegasus spyware, was tailored for Android devices and had comparable capabilities. However, it differed from Pegasus as it utilized the widely known Android rooting method, frame root, to infect devices instead of exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities in iOS [15]. If this method failed, Chrysaor would deceive users by pretending to be legitimate software and ask for their permission, enabling the spyware to acquire and transmit data from the device [16]. Once installed, Chrysaor would disable system updates by deleting the app responsible for system update and also deactivates auto-update functions. Moreover, it would eliminate WAP push messages and modify WAP message settings to complicate forensic analysis [17]. The general workflow of the Chrysaor spyware on Android devices is depicted in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Chrysaor working.
1.2.3 Differentiating Android and iOS Pegasus
Lookout lab, a cybersecurity company conducted a study on the samples provided by Google and identified significant findings about the spyware, revealing similarities between Pegasus’s capabilities on both iOS and Android. Lookout lab researchers analysed exploit samples and created a table comparing the similarities and differences between the Pegasus spyware on iOS and Android platforms [18]. They found that Pegasus targeted Android devices using known exploits, including the Framaroot root strategy [19]. While other Android attacks may use zero-day exploits, in the samples examined by the researchers, the exploits were already known to them [20].
Table 1.1 represents Different features of Pegasus in android and iOS devices.
1.3 Literature Review
According to Timberg Pegasus [9], which was once seen as the state-of-the-art mobile spyware in the world, is capable of infecting both iOS and Android devices. Since its disclosure, Pegasus has consistently transformed and become more sophisticated in terms of the level of control it gives to malicious actors over their victims’ devices, the information it can pull out, and its ability to perform zero-click attack. Pegasus can pull out a variety of data types, including extremely precise geolocation coordinates, pictures, mail attachments, and encoded messages from popular applications like WhatsApp and Snapchat. Additionally, Pegasus can activate the microphone to listen in on personal conversations or phone calls and turn on the camera to capture videos.
Table 1.1 Effect of Pegasus in android vs iOS devices.
iOS
Android
Zero-Day Exploits
✓
×
Process Hooking
✓
✓
SMS Command and Control
✓
✓
Code Obfuscation
✓
✓
Screenshot Capture
×
✓
Disabling System Updates
✓
✓
Suicide Functionality
✓
✓
Extracting Personal Data
✓
✓
Compromising Functionality
×
✓
Audio Surveillance
✓
✓
Messaging Protocol MQTT
✓
✓
Standalone App
×
✓
Method Of Infection
Phishing
Unknown*
Zero-click vulnerabilities are particularly challenging to defend against since they do not require user interaction. While there are standard operational security steps that users can follow to secure their devices, even following all security best practices does not provide a complete guarantee of protection against new attacks. To reinforce device security, two fundamental security principles can be employed attack surface reduction and device compartmentalization. These principles can significantly reduce the probability of a security breach occurring on a device.
The forensic examination of the phones belonging to Pegasus victims indicates that NSO’s hunt for loopholes may have expanded to other commonly used applications. In some of the instances analysed by Guarnieri and his team, unusual network traffic related to Apple’s Music and Photos apps was detected in different patterns of infections, suggesting that NSO may have begun utilizing new loopholes. Pegasus can alternatively be deployed through a wireless transceiver proximate to the target in instances where neither social engineering nor zero-click attacks yield success. Furthermore, an NSO catalogue mentions that the spyware can be manually installed if an agent steals the target’s phone.
This Spyware, which is considered a Potentially Unwanted Program (PUP), can monitor users’ online activities and cause significant privacy concerns and security risks to computer systems. Although various measures have been implemented to counteract spyware, anti-spyware software is still the main defence against it. However, current spyware tools are stateless, meaning that new systems added to a network must have their own anti-spyware software to protect themselves. To address this issue, Dwoskin proposes a new technique that uses the basics of the network and application layers instead of anti-spyware software to eliminate spyware. By scanning outgoing HTTP requests at the browser and introducing a new add ons both the Domain Name Server and network layer, this method can identify spyware and filter out certain unused programs.
1.4 Methodologies
In 2016, earlier version of Pegasus relied on spear phishing attack make users to click on a malicious link. As per NSO employees, the USA varient of Pegasus had a single click capability for all mobiles except blackberry devices which could pervade zero click exploits.
In 2019, Whatsapp discovered a flaw that allows Pegasus to attack cellphones via adware. This adware may be loaded into a goal’s target smartphone by phoning the goal’s target phone; the adware can be mounted even if the call is no longer returned.
In the year 2020, Pegasus began to focus more on network-based assaults and zero-click vulnerabilities. These methods allowed users to call target phones without having to interact with anyone and without leaving any traces that might be traced.
1.5 Pegasus Implantation Techniques
Spyware can enter any system without the owner’s consciuosness through an application installation , a file attachment, or a malicious website. Spyware may be a script that executes when the system boot up and operates consistently in the background, which is how it manifests itself in its least harmful form. The web browser will practically become useless due to the intrusion’s ability to consume random access memory, processing resources, and produce endless pop-up advertising.
Modular malware makes up Pegasus. Following a device scan, it downloads the required scrips/modules to read the user’s personel information(messages and mails), record calls, take screenshots, record keystrokes, exfiltrate browsing history, contacts, and so on and so forth. In essence, it is able to monitor all aspects of target system.
Without the user’s consciousness or consent, the malware is capable of turning on cameras and microphones to record brand-new photos and audio. It can gather location information from the past and present, including whether he’s stationary or moving, and listen to calls and voicemails. Since Pegasus grabs the data even before it is encrypted, it can read encrypted messages from WhatsApp and Signal as well as listen to encrypted audio streams.
To install malware on phones, the original iteration of Pegasus employed a spear-phishing assault. A user must first get a website URL by SMS, email, social media, etc. The surveillance software packages are installed after remotely jailbreaking the smartphone with a single click on the link. A certain amount of knowledge can aid in the prevention of such attacks, but since NSO’s attack capabilities have evolved through time, they are now more effective and nearly difficult to detect or stop.
Pegasus malware can also infect devices through so-called zero-click attacks, which do not need the device’s owner to do anything. It implies that even if you take care not to click on those malicious links, your phone might still be compromised. The majority of these assaults take use of operating system flaws that the phone’s maker may not yet be aware of and hence has not been able to address.
Despite Apple iPhones’ claims to provide greater privacy and security than competitors, “zero-click” assaults are still possible, according to a research by Amnesty International. As Apple repaired each security flaw, the Israeli company NSO Group infected several iPhone models over time, according to the research. The gang used an iMessage zero-click in 2019, an Apple Photos vulnerability in 2020, and finally an Apple Music vulnerability in 2021.
1.6 Mitigation Measures
There are number of ways to minimize the outspread of Pegasus spyware include the following measures [21, 22].
Avoid clicking on links from untrusted sources, as Pegasus was able to exploit an iMessage link to infect iPhones. Fraudsters commonly use this technique to compromise devices.
Ensure that your device is regularly updated with official patches from trusted organizations, as vulnerable devices are often targeted by attackers.
If you use an Android device, do not solely rely on the manufacturer for OS updates. Regularly check for updates yourself, as some smaller manufacturers may not notify you about them.
Mostly try to avoid providing physical access of your device and enhance your device security by using Biometric lock, PIN lock, etc.
Avoid accessing public or unencrypted networks that make your data available over the internet. It is advisable to use Virtual Private Networks or proxy servers when someone uses these kinds of Access Points
[23]
.
Encrypt the data saved/stored on your devices to protect your information leakage in the event of loss or theft.
1.7 Conclusion
This chapter provides an in-depth examination of how Pegasus spyware operates by exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities in order to gain unauthorized access to devices. While malware and spyware often rely on system vulnerabilities to remotely monitor devices, Pegasus can infect devices through its zero-click feature, which does not require any user interaction. Amnesty International’s Mobile Verification Tool is currently the most effective means of detecting whether a device has been compromised by Pegasus. The chapter provides a comprehensive comparison of Pegasus on iOS and Android operating systems, as well as suggesting several preventative measures that can be implemented to safeguard against Pegasus and other forms of malicious code.
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Note
*
Corresponding author
:
2Data Privacy and Compliance in Information Security
Rakesh Nayak1*, Umashankar Ghugar1, Praveen Gupta2, Satyabrata Dash2 and Nishu Gupta3
1Department of CSE, OP Jindal University, Raigarh, India
2Department of CSE, GITAM School of Technology (Deemed to be University), Visakhapatnam, India
3Future Communication Networks, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Kaitoväylä 1, Oulu, Finland
Abstract
In today’s digital age, protecting sensitive data is a paramount concern. This chapter explores the intricate relationship between data privacy and compliance in information security, discussing the challenges, regulations, and best practices involved. Data privacy is crucial in a world where personal information is constantly collected, stored, and shared. The chapter highlights the potential risks and consequences of data breaches and unauthorized access, emphasizing the importance of implementing robust security measures. Compliance in information security is a complex landscape. The chapter examines legal frameworks like the GDPR and CCPA, which aim to safeguard privacy rights. It discusses the challenges that organizations face in achieving compliance and the potential repercussions of non-compliance. To ensure data privacy and compliance, the chapter outlines best practices. It emphasizes a comprehensive approach, including encryption techniques, access controls, security audits, and fostering privacy awareness within organizations. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the evolving nature of data privacy and compliance. It highlights the need for continuous learning and adaptation to keep pace with emerging technologies, changing regulations, and ever-changing threats. Overall, this chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the critical issues surrounding data privacy and compliance in information security. It serves as a valuable resource for individuals, organizations, and policymakers navigating the complex landscape of data protection and ensuring the privacy and security of sensitive information.
Keywords: Data privacy, information security, GDPR, CCPA
2.1 Introduction
Data are becoming the new money in the digital era. Every click and contact creates massive data, ranging from transactional records to personal information. Although there are benefits to having a lot of data, privacy issues and compliance requirements are also discussed. This chapter will examine data privacy and compliance’s rising significance, causes, and effects on people and businesses [2].
The Evolution of Data Privacy: Although the idea of data privacy is not new, its importance has increased dramatically due to the quick development of technology. Digital technology has revolutionized our lifestyle, employment, and social interactions, resulting in private data being continuously vulnerable to theft or unauthorized use. Strong data protection measures are therefore becoming more and more necessary.
The Rise of Data Breaches: A concern in recent years has been the disturbing frequency of data breaches that impact both people and corporations. Cybercriminals persistently target databases holding private data, including social security numbers, bank account information, and medical records. In addition to jeopardizing individual privacy, these breaches may result in identity theft, monetary losses, and harm to one’s reputation. Consequently, governments, corporations, and people worldwide have begun to pay close attention to data privacy.
Frameworks for Regulations: Acknowledging the pressing necessity of data privacy and compliance, governments have implemented strict restrictions. Two prominent examples are the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)
[4]
and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) [
1
,
3
] of the European Union. The purpose of these laws is to uphold the rights of individuals and make companies responsible for how they handle personal information. Adherence to these principles has become a prerequisite for businesses functioning inside the digital realm.
Trust and Customer Expectations: Data privacy directly impacts customer trust
[13]
. People expect companies to manage their data properly as they grow more conscious of the dangers of disclosing personal information. Businesses that put a high priority on data privacy gain the trust of their clients, which promotes enduring partnerships and brand loyalty. On the other hand, companies that disregard data privacy run the danger of losing clients and tarnishing their brand.
The Role of Technology: Technology has two roles in data privacy. Technology advancements have, on the one hand, made data breaches and privacy violations easier. However, technological advancements have also offered ways to improve data privacy and compliance. A few examples of how technology can protect personal information include encryption, anonymization methods, and secure data storage.
This chapter contains five sections. In the first section, we describe the introduction. The second section describes the discussion on risks, consequences, and security measures for data privacy. The third section describes data privacy and compliance in information security: the changing nature. The four sections describe the emerging technology and its regulations. Finally, the last section describes the concluding remarks and future scope.
2.2 Discussion on Risks, Consequences, and Security Measures for Data Privacy
Data privacy has become crucial for individuals and organizations in our increasingly connected world. The widespread use of the internet and the quick pace of technological advancement have made personal data more vulnerable than ever. This chapter aims to clarify the dangers and repercussions of data privacy breaches and offer crucial security precautions to protect sensitive data as shown in Figure 2.1[4].
Figure 2.1 Risks, consequences, and security measures for data privacy.
Risks of Data Privacy Breaches:
Identity Theft: Identity theft is one of the most severe risks associated with data privacy violations. Cybercriminals can assume someone’s identity for fraudulent activities when personal information like social security numbers, addresses, or financial details end up in the wrong hands, causing the victims great financial and emotional distress.
Financial Loss: Both individuals and organizations may suffer financial losses due to data breaches. Unauthorized transactions can be made using stolen bank accounts or credit card information, resulting in economic losses and harm to a person’s credit score. The financial consequences for businesses, including legal liabilities, a loss of client confidence, and reputational damage, can be severe.
Privacy Invasion: Breach of data privacy can lead to a severe invasion of privacy. Personal emails, messages, or images could be made public, resulting in humiliation, harassment, or even blackmail. Individuals may experience emotional distress and lose faith in online platforms as a result of this invasion of privacy, which can have long-lasting effects.
Consequences of Data Privacy Breaches:
Legal Repercussions: Organizations may face serious legal repercussions due to data privacy violations. Numerous nations have put data protection laws into effect, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union, which calls for businesses to adopt stringent security measures and alert individuals during a data breach. Heavy fines and other legal repercussions may result from breaking these regulations.
Reputational Damage: Data privacy violations can harm a company’s standing. Customers lose faith and confidence in a company’s ability to protect sensitive data when their personal information is compromised. It may take years to recover from this breach of trust, leading to a decline in customer loyalty, lower sales, and unfavorable publicity.
Security Measures to Protect Data Privacy:
Strong Passwords: Each online account should have a different, complex password, which should be updated regularly. Combining uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and special characters can significantly increase password security.
