Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles E-Book
125,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Thorough reference on technologies, designs, and strategies for electric and hybrid electric vehicles, featuring contributions from international experts
Designed for readers who need to review different types of electric and hybrid vehicle designs and strategies in a single book, Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling provides a broad overview of the field with additional resources to explore individual topics in greater depth. Abstracts, case studies, references to key data, and relevant numerical simulations are included throughout the text to aid in reader comprehension.
This book introduces the global landscape of hybrid and electric vehicles, covering the available technologies from both a mechanical and electrical engineering perspective, presenting mathematical aspects of modeling and analysis, and surveying emerging trends and economic impacts. It also explains all fundamentals, regulations, policies, perceptions, and market competition aspects of intelligent electric vehicles, as well as how smart electric and hybrid vehicles can be utilized to reduce harmful emissions and reliance on fossil fuels over the lifecycle of a vehicle.
Edited by a team of highly qualified academics, with contributions by an array of international experts, Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling includes information on:
- Electric machine and inverter designs, maximum speed considerations, component cooling, power density, and material performance
- Battery systems, fuel cells, plug-in vehicles, mechanical drives and storage systems, and the role of power electronics tools
- The impact of trends and technologies like AI, machine vision, and digital twins, as well as related cyber security considerations
- Optimization of manufacturing waste, charging stations, sensing control, road trajectory prediction, and navigation systems
- Electrical interfaces to protect against electric shock and cost effectiveness compared to gasoline-powered vehicles
Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling is an essential reference on the subject for mechanical engineers, industrial engineers, and academic researchers working in the automotive sector. It is also an ideal learning resource for post-graduate students in the automotive field.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 472
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 State Estimation and Cell Balancing for Lithium-Ion Batteries Powering Electrical Vehicles
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Battery Technologies Used in Electric Vehicles
1.3 Comparing Various Battery Technologies
1.4 Battery Management System
1.5 State Estimation
1.6 Cell Balancing
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Impacts Due to Vehicle-to-Grid and Solar Photovoltaic Integration with the Grid
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Issues Due to Photovoltaic System and Electric Vehicle Integration with Grid
2.3 V2G Power Converters Responsible for Power Quality Issues
2.4 Advanced Control Strategies of Bidirectional Converters
2.5 Wireless Battery Chargers with V2G Facility
2.6 Soft Computing Techniques to Evaluate Power Quality Issues
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
List of Abbreviations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Energy Storage Systems for EVs and HEVs
3.3 EV/HEV Electromechanical Drive System
3.4 Transmission Systems in EVs and HEVs
3.5 Differential System
3.6 Future Directions in EVs/HEVs
3.7 Summary of the Chapter
Acknowledgment
Conflict of Interest
References
4 A Systematic Review on the Integration of Electric Vehicles in Maintaining Grid Stability
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Review on EV Integration for Energy Management of Grid-Connected RESs
4.3 Review of EV Integration for Load Frequency Regulation
4.4 Review of EV Integration for Power Quality Enhancement
4.5 Challenges and Motivations for Future
References
5 Enhancing Efficiency
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Modeling of Electric Vehicle Charger
5.3 Working of Proposed Onboard EV Charger
5.4 Simulation Model of Charger: Methodology and Implementation
5.5 Analysis of Results: Insights and Findings
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 Future Scope
References
6 A State of the Art of Recent Trends in Electric Vehicles Planning
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Results and Discussions
6.3 Market Scenarios of EVs
6.4 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
7 Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicle’s Role Toward Economic and Environmental Aspects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Environmental Aspects of EVs and HEVs
7.3 Economic Aspects of EVs and HEVs
7.4 Conclusion
References
8 Modeling and Simulation Study for Power Management and Battery Degradation of Smart Electric Vehicles
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Existing Challenges in Electric Vehicle Technology
8.3 Existing Review of Electric Vehicle
8.4 Emerging Techniques of Electric Vehicles
8.5 Types of Electric Vehicles
8.6 Modeling Study of Electric Vehicle
8.7 Circuit Description
8.8 Operation of the System
8.9 Results and Discussion
8.10 Future Scope of Electric Vehicle
References
9 Design and Analysis of Bidirectional Charging Stations for Sustainability Roadmap for Smart Electric Vehicles
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Utilization of Electricity Grid
9.3 EV Charging with Grid Integration
9.4 Benefits and Impacts of Grid Integration of EV Battery
9.5 Bidirectional Converter
9.6 Mathematical Equation
9.7 Simulation Model of Bidirectional Converter
9.8 Result and Analysis
9.9 Miscellaneous
9.10 Conclusion
9.11 Future Scope
References
10 Enhancing Accessibility and Interaction in Autonomous Vehicles
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Related Works
10.3 Materials and Methods
10.4 Results and Discussion
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mining Industry
11.3 Decarbonization Strategy
11.4 Electrification of Heavy Mining Haul Trucks
11.5 Electric Vehicle Critical Components
11.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Various battery technologies.
Table 1.2 Comparison of state estimation techniques.
Table 1.3 Comparison of passive cell balancing [21, 112, 113, 115].
Table 1.4 Various passive cell balancing topologies.
Table 1.5 Active cell balancing techniques (ACB) comparison.
Table 1.6 Various ACB topologies.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Comparative table for V2G converters with control technique and ef...
Table 2.2 Vehicles with V2G technology with battery and export power capacit...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Categories of ESSs.
Table 3.2 Operating mechanism and properties of different BESSs.
Table 3.3 Comparison between different types of motors used in EVs/HEVs.
Table 3.4 Motor control strategies in EVs/HEVs.
Table 3.5 Usage matrix of various types of transmissions in EVs and HEVs.
Table 3.6 Various two-speed transmissions developed by companies for passeng...
Table 3.7 Various MSTs developed by companies for passenger and/or commercia...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Key takeaways from the literature survey.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Comparisons between theoretical and practical results values.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Parametric specification of various types of EVs.
Table 6.2 Analysis of EV scheduling.
Table 6.3 Analysis of EV scheduling.
Table 6.4 Comparative analysis of various types of batteries used in EVs.
Table 6.5 Comparative analysis of various types of energy storage technologi...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Electric car sales (BEV and PHEV) in top 20 countries and globally...
Table 7.2 Carbon dioxide emission comparison of different vehicle.
Table 7.3 Different battery technologies for EVs.
Table 7.4 Incentives for electric vehicles while in use to uptake in selecte...
Table 7.5 Jobs ecosystem in the BEV and PHEV sectors.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Comparison among different types of electric vehicles.
Table 8.2 DC motor specifications.
Table 8.3 DC motor block parameters.
Table 8.4 Synchronous machine parameters.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 HMI and the four data processing functions (where “Y” indicates t...
Table 10.2 Scenes are distributed according to their “normal” and “hazardous...
Table 10.3 Participant count per HMI.
Table 10.4 Query concerning the three stages of SA.
Table 10.5 Correlation of two values for the number of presses on button one...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Electric car sales, 2016–2023.
Figure 1.2 The number of published and reviewed articles on BMS.
Figure 1.3 Roles of BMS in EV.
Figure 1.4 Electrothermal data-driven model (Adapted from [97]).
Figure 1.5 Flow chart for predicting electric vehicle SOC using multivariate...
Figure 1.6 Categorization of cell balancing techniques.
Figure 1.7 (a) Fixed shunt resistors and (b) switched shunt resistors (Adapt...
Figure 1.8 Variable resistor PCB circuit [115]/with permission of Taylor & F...
Figure 1.9 (a) Single-switched capacitor and (b) double-tiered capacitor (Ad...
Figure 1.10 Proposed converter circuit in Singirikonda and Obulesu [133]/wit...
Figure 1.11 Double-tiered switched capacitor circuit redrawn from [134]/IEEE...
Figure 1.12 (a) Single inductor (Adapted from [137]) and (b) multi-inductor ...
Figure 1.13 (a) Multi-inductor-based balancing circuit in Vardhan et al. (Ad...
Figure 1.14 (a) Single-winding (Adapted from [141]) and (b) multiple winding...
Figure 1.15 Architecture proposed by Shang et al. (Adapted from [144]).
Figure 1.16 Active cell balancing circuit (Adapted from [146]).
Figure 1.17 The proposed cell balancing circuit for two adjacent cells [147]...
Figure 1.18 Multiwinding half-bridge converter-based balancing circuit [148]...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Bidirectional onboard charger capable of V2G and G2V power flow....
Figure 2.2 Bidirectional offboard charger capable of V2G and G2V power flow....
Figure 2.3 Single-phase single-stage isolated bidirectional DC to AC dual ac...
Figure 2.4 Bidirectional battery charger (BBC) topology [5].
Figure 2.5 Bidirectional converter with unity power factor [7].
Figure 2.6 Three-phase bidirectional
Z
-source inverter for V2G application [...
Figure 2.7 Model predictive control (MPC) technique for V2G and G2V applicat...
Figure 2.8 Equivalent circuit of wireless EV charger [20].
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Propulsion system of an EV.
Figure 3.2 The electromechanical drive system of HEV.
Figure 3.3 Mind map of different electric motors used in EV/HEV.
Figure 3.4 Ideal torque, power–speed profile of EV/HEV motor drive.
Figure 3.5 A 4WD-EV with single-speed transmission system.
Figure 3.6 A 4WD-EV with two-speed transmission system.
Figure 3.7 A 4WD-EV with CVT system.
Figure 3.8 A 4WD-EV with DCT system.
Figure 3.9 An EV with in-wheel motor drivetrain.
Figure 3.10 A distributed EV drivetrain for an RWD vehicle.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Utilizing electric vehicles for various grid stability issues.
Figure 4.2 Critical issues associated with energy management problem.
Figure 4.3 Block diagram of a typical load frequency control loop.
Figure 4.4 Factors associated with power quality issues.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Circuit diagram of proposed onboard charger.
Figure 5.2 Circuit diagram of totem-pole converter.
Figure 5.3 Circuit diagram of DC–DC converter.
Figure 5.4 Simulation models: (a) totem-pole converter-based charger and (b)...
Figure 5.5 Simulation model of average fidelity.
Figure 5.6 Simulation model of EV battery pack
Figure 5.7 Parameters for ideal switching of the totem-pole converter for av...
Figure 5.8 Parameters for practical switching of the totem-pole converter fo...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Global EVs market share of various countries in 2022.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Global primary energy sourced from fossil fuels (oil, coal, and g...
Figure 7.2 Global electricity generation by different energy sources in 2022...
Figure 7.3 Sector wise global GHG emission in 2016 [7].
Figure 7.4 GHG emissions from the different modes of transportation as perce...
Figure 7.5 Global EVs and plug-in HEVs sales during 2012–2022.
Figure 7.6 Global EV and plug-in EVs sale share in percentage during 2012–20...
Figure 7.7 Announced plans to phase-out fossil fuel vehicles and shift to e-...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Block diagram of electric vehicle [1].
Figure 8.2 Types of electric vehicles.
Figure 8.3 Modeling of electric vehicle.
Figure 8.4 Synchronous machine terminal voltage results.
Figure 8.5 Simulation results of EVs.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Circuit diagram of a bidirectional converter for EV charging.
Figure 9.2 EV battery charging and discharging by voltage reference control....
Figure 9.3 Internal components of the bidirectional converter.
Figure 9.4 SOC, current, and voltage waveform of the bidirectional converter...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 The 12 assumptions of the Lyons model about autonomous driving....
Figure 10.2 Number of accurate responses for each HMI and question.
Figure 10.3 Average number of buttons one press for each HMI.
Figure 10.4 Average number of button presses for each HMI in each driving si...
Figure 10.5 HMI ranking.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The mining roadmap to decarbonizing their industry with permissi...
Figure 11.2 Bar graph of the percentage cost saved by using different energy...
Figure 11.3 Internal view of how a hybrid car looks like [32].
Figure 11.4 Anglo-American hybrid nuGen heavy-duty mining haul truck [48].
Figure 11.5 Mining haul track connected to the ERS system for mining operati...
Figure 11.6 Reaction mechanism of the polymer membrane electrode [57].
Figure 11.7 Hydrogen classification according to color.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
Pages
iii
iv
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
xxiv
xxv
xxvii
xxviii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling
Edited by
Ajay Kumar
Editor-in-chief – Department of Mechanical Engineering, School ofEngineering and Technology, JECRC University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Parveen Kumar
Editor-in-chief – Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rawal Institute ofEngineering and Technology, Faridabad, Haryana, India
Shimi Sudha Letha
Editor-in-chief – Department of Electrical Engineering, Punjab EngineeringCollege (Deemed to be University), Chandigarh, India
Mohd Tariq
Editor – Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida, USA
Arif I. Sarwat
Editor – Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida, USA
Copyright © 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:
Hardback: 9781394225019
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Monty Rakusen/Getty Images
About the Editors
Dr. Ajay Kumar is currently serving as a professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Engineering and Technology, JECRC University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He received his Ph.D. in the field of Advanced Manufacturing from Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar, India, after B.Tech. (Hons.) and M.Tech. (Distinction) from Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India. His areas of research include artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing, incremental sheet forming, additive manufacturing, intelligent vehicles, advanced manufacturing, Industry 4.0, waste management, and optimization techniques. He has over 60 publications in international journals of repute including SCOPUS, Web of Science, and SCI indexed database and refereed international conferences. He has co-authored/co-edited several books including:
Incremental Sheet Forming Technologies: Principles, Merits, Limitations, and Applications
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9780367276744.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429298905
.
Managing Guest Editor of
Journal Proceedings
:
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Volume 1950
, 27 February 2021, Gurgaon, India.
https://iopscience.iop.org/issue/1742-6596/1950/1
.
Advancements in Additive Manufacturing: Artificial Intelligence, Nature Inspired and Bio-manufacturing
, ISBN: 9780323918343, Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/C2020-0-03877-6
.
Handbook of Sustainable Materials: Modelling, Characterization, and Optimization
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 978-1-032-28632-7.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003297772
.
Waste Recovery and Management: An Approach Towards Sustainable Development Goals
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032281933.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003359784
.
Smart Manufacturing: Forecasting the Future of Industry 4.0
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032363431.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003333760
.
Handbook of Flexible and Smart Sheet Forming Techniques: Industry 4.0 Perspectives
, ISBN: 9781119986409, Wiley.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119986454
.
Modeling, Characterization, and Processing of Smart Materials
, IGI Global, and ISBN: 9781668492246. doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9224-6.
He has organized various national and international events including an International Conference on Mechatronics and Artificial Intelligence (ICMAI-2021) as conference chair. He has more than 15 national and international patents in his credit. He has supervised more than eight M.Tech. and Ph.D. scholars and numerous undergraduate projects/thesis. He has a total of 13 years of experience in teaching and research. He is guest editor and review editor of reputed journals including Frontiers in Sustainability. He has contributed to many international conferences/symposiums as a session chair, expert speaker, and member of editorial board. He has won several proficiency awards during the course of his career, including merit awards, best teacher awards, and so on.
He has been the adviser of Association of Engineers and Technocrats (AET) and has also authored many in-house course notes, lab manuals, monographs, and invited chapters in books. He has organized a series of faculty development programs, international conferences, workshops, and seminars for researchers, Ph.D., undergraduate, and postgraduate students. He is associated with many research, academic, and professional societies in various capacities.
https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=TmZS4JIAAAAJ&hl=en
Publons Profile:
https://publons.com/researcher/1596469/ajay-kumar/
Research Gate:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ajay_Kumar349
ResearcherID: D-5813-2019
http://www.researcherid.com/rid/D-5813-2019
ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7306-1902
Parveen Kumar is currently serving as an assistant professor and head in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Rawal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Faridabad, Haryana, India. Currently, he is pursuing Ph.D. from National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. He completed his B.Tech. (Hons.) from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India, and M.Tech. (Distinction) in Manufacturing and Automation from Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India. His areas of research include intelligent manufacturing systems, materials, die-less forming, design of automotive systems, additive manufacturing, CAD/CAM and artificial intelligence, machine learning and Internet of Things in manufacturing, and multiobjective optimization techniques. He has over 20 publications in international journals of repute including SCOPUS, Web of Science, and SCI indexed database and refereed international conferences. He has eight national and international patents to his credit. He has supervised more than two M.Tech. scholars and numerous undergraduate projects/theses. He has a total of 13 years of experience in teaching and research. He has co-authored/co-edited several books including:
Waste Recovery and Management: An Approach Towards Sustainable Development Goals
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032281933.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003359784
.
Handbook of Sustainable Materials: Introduction, Modelling, Characterization and Optimization
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032295874.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003297772
.
Handbook of Smart Manufacturing: Forecasting the Future of Industry 4.0
, CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, ISBN: 9781032363431.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003333760
.
Handbook of Flexible and Smart Sheet Forming Techniques: Industry 4.0 Perspectives
, ISBN: 9781119986409, Wiley.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119986454
.
Modeling, Characterization, and Processing of Smart Materials
, IGI Global, ISBN: 9781668492246. doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-9224-6.
He is also book series editor of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems and Technologies: Sustainable and Intelligent Perspectives in CRC Press, Taylor and Francis. He has organized a series of faculty development programs, workshops, and seminars for researchers and undergraduate students.
https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&authuser=1&user=ESQ-RnYAAAAJ
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2922-6228
Shimi Sudha Letha is an associate professor, Electrical Engineering Department, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University), Chandigarh, since February 2023. Before joining PEC, she worked as an assistant professor, Electrical Engineering Department, NITTTR, Chandigarh, under the Ministry of Education, GoI since August 2011. She completed her post-doctoral research at Luleå Technical University, Skellefteå, Sweden, for a period of two years from August 2019 to August 2021 in the area of electromobility under Prof. Math Bollen (IEEE, Fellow). She has 19 years of experience out of which 18 years are of teaching and research and 1 year is of industrial. She earned her Ph.D. degree from PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, and her Master of Power Electronics and Drives from an institute under Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her Indian Patent with Application No. 202011003964 titled “Multilevel Inverter” is published and is under second examination. She has guided more than 100 students for master’s degree and supervised 2 Ph.D. students. She has more than 175 research articles to her credit in reputed journals. She successfully co-investigated a DST Chandigarh funded project on “Emergency Vehicle Preemption.” She was instrumental in setting up the Centre of Excellence in HIL (Hardware in Loop Simulation) in collaboration with Typhoon HIL, Switzerland. She has worked on many real-time projects such as “solar-powered smart class room” with bidirectional energy meter implemented using Wago PLC, IoT-based smart laboratory, and solar-based charging station for electric vehicles. She has developed Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) under Swayam platform on Real Time Power System Analysis and Smart Grid in 2018–2019. She has organized a series of faculty development programs, international conferences, workshops, and seminars for faculty, researchers, and professionals. She is associated with many research, academic, and professional societies in various capacities. She is a member of IEEE (USA), ASME (USA), and IE (India).
She has authored many books and technical reports including:
Shimi Sudha Letha, “Solar Powered Cascaded Multilevel Inverter,” subtitle: Using MATLAB and FPGA based spartan 3A DSP board, publisher: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, ISBN: 9786139995400, 2019.
Shimi Sudha Letha, Math Bollen, “Impact of Electric Vehicle Charging on the Power Grid,” Luleå University of Technology, Sweden, ISBN: 978-91-7790-763-3, 2021.
Shimi Sudha Letha, Tatiano Busatto, and Math Bollen: “Interaction between charging infrastructure and the electricity grid: The situation and challenges regarding the influence of electromobility on mainly low voltage networks,” ISBN: 978-91-7790-807-4 (electronic). oai:
DiVA.org
: ltu-83583DiVA, id: diva2:1543400.
Her areas of specialization are power electronics and drives, electromobility, power quality, advance control theory, soft computing techniques, and its hardware implementation. She has made technical visits in many countries such as Montreal, Canada; Texas, USA; Singapore; Carins, Australia; and Skelleftea, Sweden.
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=fCkDp28AAAAJ
LinkedIn: https://se.linkedin.com/in/shimi-sudha-letha-70b301120
Mohd Tariq is a faculty/postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, United States. He is also an assistant professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering, ZHCET, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He received bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh; master’s degree in machine drives and power electronics from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)-Kharagpur; and Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering with a focus on power electronics and control from Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore.
He has directed various international and national sponsored research projects and led a team of multiple researchers in the domain of power converters, energy storage devices, and their optimal control for electrified transportation and renewable energy application. Previously, he has worked as a researcher at the Rolls-Royce-NTU Corporate Laboratory, Singapore, where he has worked on the design and development of power converters for more electric aircraft. Before working on his Ph.D. degree, he has worked as a scientist with the National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, where he has worked on the design and development of Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors for the underwater remotely operated vehicle application. He also served as an assistant professor at the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT), Bhopal, India. He has secured several fundings worth approximately 18 million INR for AMU. He is also the inventor of approximately 25 patents granted/published by the patent offices of United States, Australia, United Kingdom, Europe, India, and China. He has authored more than 200 research papers in international journals/conferences including many articles in IEEE Transactions/Journals. Dr. Tariq was a recipient of the 2019 Premium Award for Best Paper in IET Electrical Systems in Transportation journal for his work on more electric aircraft and the Best Paper Award from the IEEE Industry Applications Society’s (IAS) and the Industrial Electronic Society (IES), Malaysia Section-Annual Symposium (ISCAIE-2016), Penang, Malaysia, and many other best paper awards in different international conferences. He is the Young Scientist Scheme Awardee supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, in 2019; the Young Engineer Awardee by the institution of engineers, India, in 2020; and the Young Researchers Awardee by the Innovation Council, AMU, in 2021. He is also the founder chair of IEEE AMU Student Branch and IEEE SIGHT AMU. He is an associate editor of IEEE Access journal and the editorial board member of Scientific Report (Nature) journal.
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kx2PqMUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5162-7626
SCOPUS: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=57220656842
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/mohd-tariq-phd-6163b1a8/
Arif I. Sarwat is currently an eminent scholar chaired professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the director of the FPL-FIU Solar Research Facility, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States. He has been in the industry (Siemens) and academia for more than 20 years. He is also the principal investigator of the state-of-the-art grid-connected 3 MW/9 MWh AI-based renewable microgrid project funded by FPL. He has multiple funded projects; funded by the National Science Foundation including NSF CAREER award, industry, and the Department of Energy and industry. He is the co-lead on the Masters in Energy & Cybersecurity education program. Previously, Dr. Sarwat worked at Siemens for more than nine years, winning three recognition awards. His research interests include smart grids, electric vehicles, high penetration renewable systems, storage, and battery management systems, grid resiliency, large-scale data analysis, artificial intelligence, advanced metering infrastructure, smart city infrastructure, and cybersecurity. His contributions are groundbreaking and bringing communities of different measures together to partner and establish culture of green revolution for the next generation. He has authored or co-authored more than 275 peer-reviewed articles and multiple patents. He is the author or co-author of a publication that won the Best Paper Award at the Resilience Week in 2017 and a technical article that won both the Best Paper Award in 2016 and the Most Cited Paper Award in 2018 from Springer’s Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy. He was a recipient of the Faculty Award for Excellence in Research, Creative Activities in 2016, the College of Engineering and Computing Worlds Ahead Performance in 2016, and the FIU TOP Scholar Award in 2015, 2019, and 2023. Since 2012, he has been the chair/vice-chair of the IEEE Miami Section VT and Communication. He is an Associate Editor of the ACM Computing Surveys and IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TJxTBSIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1179-438X
https://www.linkedin.com/in/arifi/
https://eps.fiu.edu
List of Contributors
Sarasij Adhikary
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Aizawl
Mizoram
India
Pabitra Kumar Biswas
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Aizawl
Mizoram
India
Pankaj Kumar Dubey
Department of Electrical Engineering
Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology
Sultanpur
Uttar Pradesh
India
Abhinav K. Gautam
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
S.R. Institute of Management & Technology
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Mahmoud Ibrahim
Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn
Estonia
Krishnasamy Karthik
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology
Avadi
Tamil Nadu
India
Rintu Khanna
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science
Madanapalle
Andhra Pradesh
India
Ajay Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering and Technology
JECRC University
Jaipur
Rajasthan
India
Parveen Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rawal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Faridabad
Haryana
India
Vineet Kumar
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science
Madanapalle
Andhra Pradesh
India
Shimi Sudha Letha
Department of Electrical Engineering
Punjab Engineering College
Chandigarh
India
Getrude Marape
Physical Separation Group
Minerals Processing
Mintek
Randburg
South Africa
Sampath Muthukumarasamy
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology
Avadi
Tamil Nadu
India
Athule Ngqalakwezi
Physical Separation Group
Minerals Processing
Mintek
Randburg
South Africa
Akhil Nigam
Department of Electrical Engineering
Chandigarh University
Mohali
Punjab
India
Roger Alves de Oliveira
Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics
Electric Power Engineering Group
Luleå Technical University
Skellefteå
Sweden
Janjhyam Venkata Naga Ramesh
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation
Guntur
Andhra Pradesh
India
Velumayil Ramesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology
Avadi
Tamil Nadu
India
Anton Rassõlkin
Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn
Estonia
Sarita Rathee
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
School of Engineering & Technology
JECRC University
Jaipur
Rajasthan
India
B. Reji
Directorate of Census Operations
Govt of India
New Delhi
Delhi
India
Even Sekhri
Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn
Estonia
G. Shanmugasundar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Sairam Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Ankit Kumar Sharma
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research
Chandigarh
India
Hemant Sharma
Department of Electrical Engineering
Chandigarh University
Mohali
Punjab
India
S.L. Shimi
Department of Electrical Engineering
Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University)
Chandigarh
India
Khadim Moin Siddiqui
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
S.R. Institute of Management & Technology
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Ashma Singh
Physical Separation Group
Minerals Processing
Mintek
Randburg
South Africa
Beer Singh
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
S.R. Institute of Management & Technology
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Bindeshwar Singh
Department of Electrical Engineering
Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology
Sultanpur
Uttar Pradesh
India
Deependra Singh
Rajkiya Engineering College
Mainpuri
Uttar Pradesh
India
Anu Singla
Electrical Engineering Department
Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University)
Chandigarh
India
Poonam Syal
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research
Chandigarh
India
Marut Nandan Tripathi
Institute of Engineering and Technology
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Rolando Gilbert Zequera
Department of Electrical Power Engineering and Mechatronics
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn
Estonia
Preface
An emphasis on green technology is greatly demanded of modern cities. The significant growth of today’s cities has led to an increased use of transportation, resulting in increased pollution and other serious environmental problems. Gases produced by vehicles should be controlled, and proactive measures should be taken to minimize these emissions. The automobile industry has introduced hybrid cars, such as the Honda Insight and the Toyota Prius, that minimize the use of combustion engines by integrating them with electric motors. Such technology has a positive effect on the environment by reducing gas emissions. The greatest challenge in research activities today is developing near-zero emission-powered vehicles. Electric vehicles (EVs) powered by renewable energy offer a possible solution because they only emit natural byproducts and not exhaust fumes, which improve the air quality in cities and thus the health of their populations. This book discusses electric drive technology trends for passenger electric and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with commercially available solutions in terms of materials, electric machine and inverter designs, maximum speed, component cooling, power density, and performance. The emerging materials and technologies for power electronics and electric motors are discussed, identifying the challenges and opportunities for more aggressive designs to meet the need for next-generation EVs.
This book focuses on the latest emerging technologies in smart electric and hybrid vehicles and their economic and environmental impact, and the topics covered include different types of smart electric and hybrid vehicles, their components, design of charging stations, on-board charging and off-board charging techniques, effect of voltage on charging capacity, government regulations and framework, cybersecurity role, role of power electronics, design, modeling and optimization by artificial intelligence, and internet of things; Industry 4.0 as enabling approach of smart EVs; theoretical background and practical examples of conventional and advanced drive systems; and battery energy sources. This book is for researchers, academicians, postgraduate students, and Ph.D. scholars in automobile, electrical engineering, electronics and communication engineering, and mechanical engineering.
The book consists of 11 chapters that describe Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling in different aspects. Chapter “State Estimation and Cell Balancing for Lithium-Ion Batteries Powering Electrical Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review” delves into the battery management system (BMS), crucial for ensuring the protection and stability of battery packs in EVs and discusses core principles of cell balancing strategies, such as passive, active, and hybrid methods. Chapter “Impacts Due to Vehicle-to-Grid and Solar Photovoltaic Integration with the Grid – A Review” conducts a thorough review of the multifaceted impacts arising from the confluence of EVs and photovoltaic (PV) systems with the grid, with a primary focus on voltage stability, power quality, and the associated challenges. Chapter “Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: From Smart Energy Storage Systems to Mechanical Transmission” serves as a critical review of state-of-the-art technologies, highlighting innovative developments in materials, design, and functionality that enhance the performance, efficiency, and sustainability of EVs and HEVs. Chapter “A Systematic Review on the Integration of Electric Vehicles in Maintaining Grid Stability” delves into the utilization of EVs for frequency control, emphasizing the pivotal role of V2G systems in grid stabilization through two-way energy movement between car batteries and the grid. Chapter “Enhancing Efficiency: Optimal and Practical Switching Analysis of Totem-Pole Converters for EV Chargers with Average Fidelity-Based Charger” investigates the performance of a totem-pole converter, specifically focusing on both ideal and practical switching scenarios in the context of EV fast charging. Chapter “A State of the Art of Recent Trends in Electric Vehicles Planning” presents an analysis of many electric car variants, recent trends of electrified automobiles, and the current marketplace scenario of electrified automobiles in the world. Chapter “Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicle’s Role Towards Economic and Environmental Aspects” discusses the global environmental concerns in context to the transportation and role of electric and hybrid vehicles in achieving a sustainable and economic environment. Chapter “Modeling and Simulation Study for Power Management and Battery Degradation of Smart Electric Vehicles” deals with review of emerging technique used in EVs and simulation study of EV technology for power management and degradation of smart EVs under MATLAB environment. Chapter “Design and Analysis of Bidirectional Charging Stations for Sustainability Roadmap for Smart Electric Vehicles” describes the utilization of the grid connected with the EV charging system and the load impact due to vehicle charging. Chapter “Enhancing Accessibility and Interaction in Autonomous Vehicles: An Innovative Augmented Reality-Based Human–Machine Interface” discusses how augmented reality-centric human–machine interaction (HMI) offers a promising avenue to bolster accessibility in autonomous vehicles (AVs), potentially enhancing the user experience, especially for those with disabilities or mobility challenges. Chapter “Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: A Decarbonization Strategy for the Mining Industry” discusses the use of electric and hybrid vehicles as a decarbonization strategy for the mining industry.
This book is intended for both the academia and the industry. The postgraduate students, Ph.D. students, and researchers in universities and institutions, who are involved in the areas of smart electric and hybrid vehicles, will find this compilation useful.
The editors acknowledge the professional support received from Wiley and express their gratitude for this opportunity.
Reader’s observations, suggestions, and queries are welcome.
Ajay Kumar
Parveen Kumar
Shimi Sudha Letha
Mohd Tariq
Arif I. Sarwat
Acknowledgments
The editors are grateful to Wiley for showing their interest in publishing this book in the buzz area of Smart Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Advancements in Materials, Design, Technologies, and Modeling. The editors express their personal adulation and gratitude to Lauren Poplawski (Acquisitions Editor – Wiley) for giving consent to publish their work. She undoubtedly imparted great and adept experience in terms of systematic and methodical staff who has helped the editors to compile and finalize the manuscript. The editors also extend their gratitude to Mrs. Nandhini Karuppiah (Managing Editor – Wiley) for her support during her tenure.
The editors wish to thank all the chapter authors who contributed their valuable research and experience to compile this volume. The chapter authors, corresponding author in particular, deserve special acknowledgment for bearing with the editors, who persistently kept bothering them for deadlines and with their remarks.
Dr. Ajay Kumar wishes to express his gratitude to his parents, Shri Jagdish and Smt. Kamla, and his loving brother Shri Parveen for their true and endless support. They have made him able to walk tall before the world regardless of sacrificing their happiness and living in a small village. He cannot close these prefatory remarks without expressing his deep sense of gratitude and reverence to his life partner, Mrs. Sarita Rathee, for her understanding, care, support, and encouragement to keep his moral high all the time. No magnitude of words can ever quantify the love and gratitude the he feels in thanking his daughters, Sejal Rathee and Mahi Rathee, and son, Kushal Rathee, who are the world’s best children.
Finally, the editors obligate this work to the divine creator and express their indebtedness to the “Almighty” for gifting them power to yield their ideas and concepts into substantial manifestation. The editors believe that this book would enlighten the readers about each feature and characteristics of smart electric and hybrid vehicles.
Ajay Kumar
Parveen Kumar
Shimi Sudha Letha
Mohd Tariq
Arif I. Sarwat
1State Estimation and Cell Balancing for Lithium-Ion Batteries Powering Electrical Vehicles:A Comprehensive Review
Ankit Kumar Sharma1, Shimi Sudha Letha2, Poonam Syal1, Sarita Rathee3, and Ajay Kumar4
1Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Chandigarh, India
2Department of Electrical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, India
3Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, School of Engineering & Technology, JECRC University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
4Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, JECRC University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
1.1 Introduction
The worsening state of the environment, poor quality of air, and swift depletion of natural resources have prompted interest in environmentally sustainable energy sources (including photovoltaic [PV] solar energy, geothermal, wind, and biomass) around the world. These sources are regarded as an alternate, more affordable answer to environmental problems [1, 2]. Energy storage, however, is a crucial issue because of the intermittent or irregular character of these supplies, which results in a disproportionate intensity of energy [3].
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 99% of the global population lives in places where pollution levels surpass WHO guidelines. Every year, around 6.7 million people worldwide die as a result of outdoor air pollution [4]. Automobile sector emits an extensively large amount of pollution mainly through internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles, accounting for around 24% of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (International Energy Agency [IEA] [5]). An IC engine vehicle on the other hand has an overall efficiency of 11–37% [6]. Every year, there is an increase in passenger vehicle sales. Additionally, IEA, 2022 report describes that since 2005, worldwide auto sales have been rising and will reach 64 million in 2020. According to the Statista, 2022 report, the Statista Research Department estimates that by 2022, there will be around 67.2 million cars sold worldwide. The issues will only get worse due to the large addition of vehicles.
Figure 1.1 Electric car sales, 2016–2023.
Electric propulsion will inevitably be included in road transportation due to climate change and energy security issues. Electric vehicles (EVs) are one of the prospective technologies, and despite some obstacles that remain to be addressed, they have great potential as seen by their significant part in the IEA roadmap [7]. Figure 1.1 shows overall year-on-year growth of electric cars worldwide [8]. EV sales surged in recent years, jumping from a mere 4% of the market in 2020 to a significant 14% in 2022, reflecting a staggering growth of over 250% in just three years according to IEA Global Electric Vehicle Outlook 2023. In 2023, sales of all types of vehicles could include EVs to the extent of 18% of overall vehicle sales. By 2030, the introduction of EVs is expected to eliminate the requirement for 5 million barrels of oil per day, based on current trends.
EVs are often divided into four groups, which include battery electric vehicles (BEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). BEVs rely on batteries to power the entire electric drivetrain, which then propels the motors. HEVs integrate both an electric motor and an engine [9], where the engine operates on fuel and the motor on battery power. The engine and electric motor collaborate to drive the transmission simultaneously. PHEVs are equipped with both an engine and a motor [10], and the battery is capable of receiving external charging. FCEVs utilize fuel cell technology to generate electricity for vehicle operation, swiftly converting the chemical energy of fuel into electric energy [11].
In an EV, there are three crucial parts: motor, motor controller, and battery. The motor propels the wheels of the car using the battery pack’s energy. The current and voltage fed to the motor in reference to the speed of the vehicle needs to be controlled by a motor controller [12]. A battery is an essential part of an EV. It demands the utmost care and attention. When choosing a battery, it is important to consider factors including its lifetime, capacity, energy density, power density, and state of charge (SOC) [13]. Depending on these factors, the selection of various battery technologies is discussed in this paper including lead–acid (LA) batteries, nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, and zinc–air batteries, etc. Due to the longer life cycle, higher energy density, and lesser weight, Li-ion battery promises to be an ideal energy storage choice for EVs [14].
The battery is more efficiently managed by a sophisticated electronic circuit termed battery BMS, which is also discussed in a later section. The BMS is a crucial component in the advancement of the automobile since it serves as a link between batteries and vehicles and monitors various factors such as SOC, state of health (SOH), charging, discharging, cell balancing, etc., linked with the battery. It requires to be thoroughly studied for developing new EVs and to support emission-reduction initiatives and energy-saving. Therefore, it is crucial to utilize a more developed and complete BMS [15, 16]. This paper is particularly aimed toward the study of SOC, SOH, and cell balancing for Li-ion batteries [17].
The range of vehicles is mainly dependent on the size of pack and the chemistry of battery, and without proper state estimation, the driving range can be affected adversely which adds to the driving expenses. Proper prediction of SOC and SOH enhances the battery life by limiting the over-charge and discharge, life of the battery lowers instead [18]. SOC estimation provides an indication of the remaining charge level within the battery pack. BMS utilizes the SOC information for providing charging/discharging control signals and also calculating the achievable driving range [19]. Deficiency of this feature can get people stuck midway, as one cannot know how far the vehicle can go or when to charge it without SOC-level information. SOH is regularly used to monitor the factors affecting the battery’s performance. Neglecting it may compromise the vehicle’s performance [20]. Variations in the production, internal resistance (IR), temperature, and aging of different cells cause SOC/voltage differences within the battery cells, due to which the battery cannot be charged to its full capacity. Equalizing the cell SOC/voltage is referred to as cell balancing [21]. An unbalanced pack may get fully charged or discharged at a very fast rate, representing the importance of cell balancing. Some of the cells within an unbalanced pack may get overcharged causing overheating or explosion. All these issues add to the reduced battery life, performance, and efficiency, hence, need to be corrected efficiently.
Understanding the significance of battery health management, investigating various cell balancing approaches, and assessing their effects on EV performance are the main goals of this study. The paper will cover future directions for boosting battery health and cell balancing techniques and review recent research. In this review, the focus is on the crucial elements of battery health and cell balancing with the goal of helping to improve the technology of Li-ion batteries for EVs. By doing so, the investigators seek to promote greater acceptance of sustainable transportation while addressing the problems related to battery imbalance and degradation.
1.2 Battery Technologies Used in Electric Vehicles
Electric motors in EVs are powered by cutting-edge battery technology. Numerous battery types, each with unique advantages and constraints, are frequently utilized in EVs [22]. Listed below are some of the most common kinds of EV batteries.
1.2.1 Lead–Acid Battery
A LA battery’s lifespan varies based on the battery’s type and extent of use. A standard LA battery, however, will last anywhere from three to five years. LA batteries are recyclable and can be recycled up to the extent of 99%. Recycling LA batteries aids in conserving lead resources and lowering pollutants in the environment [23]. As dealing with high depth of discharge (DoD) cycles, LA batteries are heavier and less durable than nickel (Ni) and Lithium (Li) based systems (utilizing a significant portion of their capacities) [24].
1.2.2 Nickel-Based Batteries
1.2.2.1 Nickel Cadmium
In order to construct nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery, active material is deposited inside a porous nickel-plated electrode. Ni-Cd absorbs the gases emitted during discharge which provides various benefits compared to an LA battery. Ni-Cd battery has an excellent battery cycle life and a high IR. Today, Ni-Cd batteries are the best for use with portable electronics [25–27].
1.2.2.2 Nickel–Metal Hydride
Due to the use of hydrogen added to metallic alloys rather than cadmium at the negative electrode, the nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery is regarded as an enhanced version of the Ni-Cd battery. To avoid the hydrogen from leakage, the Ni-MH battery is continuously kept sealed [28]. In the solid hydride phase of alloys, this battery stores electrical energy. This battery has a 70–90% energy efficiency [29]. After 200–300 cycles, the performance of a Ni-MH battery starts to decline. Furthermore, it is less susceptible to the “memory effect” than Ni-Cd. Ni-MH batteries are more prone to overcharging than Ni-Cd batteries because of their higher heat-generating capacity. The battery cannot tolerate overcharging, thereby trickle charge settings are preferable [30].
1.2.3 Lithium-Ion Batteries
It is currently one of the most popular and extensively used batteries in EVs. Their widespread use in top-selling EVs like the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model S can be used for the justification of their popularity [22]. These batteries employ a lithium salt as an electrolyte, which supplies the necessary ions for the cathode and anode to engage in a reversible electrochemical reaction. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) batteries have the benefits of frequent loading and unloading cycles, higher loading capacity, and low IR. Furthermore, a diminished memory effect is demonstrated [31]. Lithium, possessing high electrochemical potential and the least equivalent mass, enables rapid charging and high energy density. Li-ion batteries, which can be produced affordably and are widely available, have a finite lifespan. Operation within a defined range of temperature and voltage windows is required to ensure safety and reliability. As electrolytes begin to deteriorate at 150 °C, going over these windows could cause a sharp decline in the performance of the battery and may pose a threat to safety. All Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft were grounded in 2013 due to a massive number of fatalities caused by the failure of Li-ion battery packs. A deadly calamity was caused by a thermal runway in one cell that spread to the other half of the battery [32]. A 7-year-old kid lost his life in Palghar, India, after an electric scooter battery burst, as reported in the Economics Times on October 22. Numerous similar occurrences are being persistently reported from all over the world. Such issues require a resolution.
1.2.4 Sodium-Based Batteries
Researchers have successfully developed two types of sodium-beta batteries namely sulfur (S) and sodium metal chloride (NCl2) batteries. These batteries are capable of operating in very hot conditions, from 230 to 350 °C [2]. The batteries feature a solid ceramic electrolyte and molten liquid electrodes, which are key characteristics enhancing their functionality. The Na/S battery and the sodium metal chloride are alike in a lot of ways [33]. The majority of safety issues surrounding the Na/S battery have been addressed, if not eliminated entirely, owing to this technology. Nickel and iron chloride are separately employed in the production of sodium/nickel chloride batteries and sodium/iron chloride batteries [34].
1.2.5 Metal–Air Batteries
Air serves as the cathode in metal–air batteries, while metallic material serves as the anode in these batteries. Metals such as Zn, Al, Fe, Mg, and Ca are utilized as anode materials [35]. In aluminum air (Al-air) batteries Al reacts with H2O and O2 from the atmosphere to make aluminum hydroxide, which releases electrical energy [36]. Zinc–air batteries, which have a porous positive electrode that reacts with the electrolyte, have a construction similar to this. An alkaline liquid is an electrolyte. The negative electrode is composed entirely of solid zinc. Considering their higher conceptual energy density (1353 Wh/kg apart from oxygen), cheap cost ($100/KWh), and inherent safety, Zn-air batteries are particularly fascinating [37, 38].
1.2.6 Solid-State Batteries
Solid-state batteries (SSBs) use solid electrolytes (comprising solid polymer electrolyte, inorganic solid electrolyte, or their amalgams) [39]. For higher energy density and stability, lithium is used as an anodic metal in SSBs. Solid electrolyte acts as an ionic transfer medium [40]. However, it presents a practical challenge for EVs because of their low columbic proficiency and shorter life cycles (1000 cycles) [41]. The key obstacles here are keeping the solid electrolyte and electrode in close proximity to one another, as well as permitting and maintaining adequate ionic conductivity in the various cell components.
1.3 Comparing Various Battery Technologies
Li-ion batteries are the preferred choice for EVs due to their high energy density, cost-effectiveness, and satisfactory cycle life. Emerging technologies like sodium-based and metal–air batteries show promise but have not yet become mainstream and are still under research. SSBs stand out for their potential to exceed Li-ion batteries in energy density and cycle life, with a solid electrolyte that could also enhance safety. However, SSBs are still in the development phase and not widely available. Sodium–ion batteries, using readily available sodium ions, could offer a cost advantage over lithium ions, while metal–air batteries, being lighter, might be more cost-effective by harnessing oxygen from the air. Yet, these technologies have not reached commercial viability for EVs. Older battery technologies such as nickel-based and LA batteries have been mostly replaced by Li-ion batteries in EVs due to their longer charging times, shorter cycle lives, and lower energy densities. LA batteries are inexpensive but heavy and have a low specific energy density. Nickel-based batteries, despite having a higher energy density, can experience a memory effect that may shorten their cycle life. The continuous development and testing of these battery technologies are directed toward enhancing performance, safety, and affordability for the EV industry’s future. The comparison of the different battery technologies covered above is displayed in Table 1.1.
1.4 Battery Management System
BMS is an essential element of an EV. Because of the capability of maintaining high energy density and minimal self-discharge, BMS provides great support for EV batteries. For the acceptance of EVs, safety issues with EV batteries must be taken into account. The primary purpose of the electronic circuit utilized in EV termed BMS guarantees the protection and stability of these battery packs [62]. The majority of studies have focused on the optimal BMS operating parameters for EV systems. When it comes to academic and institutional research, the BMS study area draws greater attention and broadens the scope of the research. Figure 1.2 illustrates the importance of BMS research by listing the number of publications since 2014.
Figure 1.2 The number of published and reviewed articles on BMS.
Sources: Elsevier/http://surl.li/kytai/Last accessed on April 18, 2024.
Table 1.1 Various battery technologies.
Battery type
Example
Specific energy density (Wh/kg)
Energy density (Wh/l)
Life cycle
Cost ($/KWh)
Charging
Safety
Efficiency
References
Leadacid
Pb-acid
25–70
60–100
500–2000
120–150
Slower
Poor
78–90
[2
42
–
47]
Nickel-based
Ni-Cd, Ni-MH
40–140
80–300
500–3000
190–300
Moderate
Good
60–95
[24
,
46
,
48
–
50]
Li-ion
Li-ion
90–250
300–1200
3500–8000
110–600
Faster
Good
90–100
[42
44
–
47
,
49
–
51]
Sodium-based
Na/S, Na/FeCl
2
, Na/NiCl
2
115–270
150–250
2500–3500
150–500
Moderate
Good
75–80
[
2
,
52
,
53
]
Metal–air
Al-air, Zn-air, Li-air, Mg-air, Na-air
350–1700
500–1000
300–3500
90–120
Faster
Good
70–96
[
2
,
50
,
54
,
55
]
Solid-state
Li metal, graphite
350–580
700–1700
1000–5000
400–800
Moderate
Excellent
70–90
[56
–
61]
Figure 1.3 Roles of BMS in EV.
The chargers in PHEVs are connected directly. The effectiveness of the vehicle as well as the battery’s performance and lifespan are both impacted by this process. In a HEV, the braking system recharges the batteries. This procedure has an indirect impact on battery performance because the unstable charging process reduces battery lifetime and performance. BMS is also designed to cater to these issues.
BMS is a safety measure. It serves as EV protection for the batteries. The BMS is the battery’s primary management component [63].
The role of BMS in an EV is shown in Figure 1.3, which describes the general features of BMS. Cell monitoring refers to the general process of keeping track of cell performance. Here, battery lifetime, overcharging and over-discharging, and both are monitored [64]. The safety signals produced in the event of a fault or irregular behaviors control the fault process. The proportion of a battery’s total storage capacity to its present storage capacity is defined as SOC [65]. The battery’s remaining charge divided by the highest charge it can give is used for determining the SOH of battery [66]. Thermal management is utilized for gauging the temperature of battery pack while an EV is being charged, discharged, and operated [67]
