Smart Food Packaging Systems E-Book
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- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the future of food packaging with this timely guide
Food packaging is a vital part of the food industry. It contributes to food safety and quality throughout the supply chain, reduced product loss, allows high-quality goods to be shipped safely to underserved regions, and more. Smart food packaging systems, which can sense or detect changes in the product or packaging, are at the forefront of this field, and show potentially revolutionary promise.
Smart Food Packaging Systems offer a comprehensive overview of the fundamental principles and practical applications of Active food packaging and Intelligent food packaging systems. The book incorporates the latest research developments and technologies in active and intelligent packaging systems that supplement food supply lines worldwide. It is a must-own for researchers and industry professionals looking to understand this key new tool in the fight against world hunger.
Smart Food Packaging Systems readers will also find:
- Case studies on life cycle assessments of specific smart packaging systems
- Detailed discussion of topics including additives, antimicrobial and other functional agents, and biopolymers in active food packaging
- Use of sensors and indicators to monitor quality, temperature, and freshness of the packaged food
Smart Food Packaging Systems is ideal for professionals, researchers, and academics in food science, food technology, and food packaging, as well as manufacturers, developers, government officials, and regulators working on supply chain and food distribution aspects.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction to Active Food Packaging System
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Active Food Packaging
1.3 Forms of Active Packaging Systems
1.4 Active Packaging and Food Distribution
1.5 Regulatory and Market Status
1.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
2 Additives in Active Food Packaging Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Techniques to Incorporate Active Agents Into Packaging Systems
2.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles (NPs) Used in Food Packaging
2.4 Active Agents Derived from Organic Sources
2.5 Antimicrobial Peptides
2.6 Essential Oils
2.7 Polymer Nanoparticles
2.8 Ecotoxicology
2.9 Conclusion
CRediT Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Acknowledgments
References
3 Antimicrobial Food Packaging Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Foodborne Pathogens and Their Control
3.3 Antimicrobial Active Agents
3.4 Technologies of Incorporation of Antimicrobials in Food Packaging System
3.5 Release of Antimicrobials from Food Packaging
3.6 Applications of Antimicrobial Active Packaging
3.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
4 Oxygen Scavengers in Active Food Packaging Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Oxygen Scavengers
4.3 Loading of Oxygen Scavengers in Active Packaging
4.4 Applications of Oxygen Scavengers in Active Packaging
4.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
Acknowledgments
References
5 Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) Scavengers and Emitters in Food Packaging
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CO
2
Scavengers and Emitters
5.3 Mechanistic Principles of CO
2
Scavenger
5.4 Mechanism of CO
2
Emitters
5.5 Incorporation of CO
2
Scavengers and Emitters in Active Food Packaging
5.6 CO
2
Emitters in Active Food Packaging
5.7 Application of CO
2
Scavenging and Emitting Systems in Active Packaging
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Ethylene Scavengers for Active Packaging of Fresh Horticultural Produce
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biosynthesis Pathway and Effects of Ethylene on Ripening of Fruits and Vegetables
6.3 Types of Ethylene Scavengers
6.4 Principles and Mechanisms of Ethylene Scavenging
6.5 Advances and Applications of Ethylene‐Scavenging Systems
6.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
7 Moisture‐Absorbent Food Packaging Systems and the Role of Chitosan
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classification of Moisture Absorbents
7.3 Mechanisms of Moisture Absorption
7.4 Incorporation of Moisture Absorbents in Food Packaging
7.5 Moisture‐Absorbent‐Based Active Food Packaging
7.6 Chitosan: A Better Substrate in Food Packaging
7.7 Applications of Moisture Absorbents in Food Packaging
7.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
8 Off‐Flavor Absorbents in Active Food Packaging
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Flavor Absorbents
8.3 Mechanisms of Off‐Flavor Absorbents
8.4 Off‐Flavor Absorbent‐Based Active Food Packaging
8.5 Applications of Off‐Flavor Absorbing System in Food Packaging
8.6 Conclusion and Perspective
References
9 Biopolymer‐Based Nanocomposites for Active Food Packaging
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biopolymers
9.3 Nanomaterials and Their Functional Properties
9.4 Biopolymer‐Nanocomposites Active Packaging Systems
9.5 Application of Nanocomposites in Food Packaging Systems
9.6 Regulation and Safety Aspects
9.7 Conclusion and Perspective
References
10 Introduction to Intelligent Food Packaging
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Types of Intelligent Packaging
10.3 Indicators
10.4 Sensors
10.5 Radio Frequency Identification
10.6 3D Printing and Intelligent Packaging
10.7 Legal Aspects of Intelligent Packaging
10.8 Conclusion and Perspective
References
11 Time–Temperature Indicators (TTIs) for Monitoring Food Quality
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Types of TTIs
11.3 Applications of TTIs for Monitoring Food Quality
11.4 Assessment of Applicability and Commercialization
11.5 Conclusion and Perspective
References
12 Carbon Dioxide Sensors/Indicators‐Based Intelligent Food Packaging
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of CO
2
Sensors
12.3 Applications of CO
2
Sensors/Indicators in Monitoring Food Quality
12.4 Safety Aspects of CO
2
Sensors
12.5 Conclusion and Perspective
Acknowledgment
References
13 Food Quality Indicator‐Based Intelligent Food Packaging
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Food Quality Indicators
13.3 Intelligent Packaging (IP) System for Monitoring Food Quality
13.4 Conclusion and Perspective
References
14 Freshness Indicator in Intelligent Food Packaging System
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Substance Releases Indicating Food Freshness
14.3 Types of Freshness Indicators
14.4 Fabrication of FIs
14.5 Application of FI in Monitoring Food Quality
14.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
15 Biopolymer‐Based Nanocomposites for Intelligent Food Packaging
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Bio‐Nanocomposite‐Based Intelligent Packaging Films/Labels
15.3 Natural Active Compounds‐Based Intelligent Packaging Systems
15.4 Bio‐Nanocomposite‐Based Color Sensor
15.5 Food Packaging Applications of Bio‐Nanocomposite Intelligent Films/Labels
15.6 Conclusion and Perspective
References
16 Life Cycle Assessment of Smart Food Packaging Systems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biodegradability in the Circular Economy Framework
16.3 Sustainability of Food Packaging: Rationales, Importance, and Approaches
16.4 Case Studies on Life Cycle Assessment of Smart Packaging Systems
16.5 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Hybrid UV light absorber‐based food packaging systems.
Table 1.2 Antimicrobial‐based packaging systems.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Foodborne bacterial illnesses and their control.
Table 3.2 Foodborne virus illnesses and their control.
Table 3.3 Foodborne parasitic illnesses and their control.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Commercially available oxygen scavengers and their active ingredi...
Table 4.2 Different oxygen scavengers in fruits and vegetables with their b...
Table 4.3 Different oxygen scavengers in dairy products with their benefits...
Table 4.4 Different oxygen scavengers in muscle foods with their benefits....
Table 4.5 Different oxygen scavengers in bakery and other food products wit...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Commercially available CO
2
scavengers and emitters.
Table 5.2 Thermodynamic properties of some CO
2
‐absorbing chemical reactions...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Some common examples of climacteric and non‐climacteric fruits.
Table 6.2 Classification of ethylene control systems.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Inorganic absorbers used in food packaging applications.
Table 7.2 Organic absorbers used in food packaging applications.
Table 7.3 Polymeric absorbers used in food packaging applications.
Table 7.4 Chitosan‐based active films for food packaging applications.
Table 7.5 Packaging materials used in muscle foods.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Some food products and the off‐flavor compounds.
Table 8.2 Flavor absorbents in food.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Features and preparation methods of several types of nanoparticle...
Table 9.2 Several pretreatment methods of nanomaterial before the preparati...
Table 9.3 Biopolymer‐based active nanocomposite systems.
Table 9.4 Remarkable outcomes of active bio‐nanocomposite food packaging ma...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Commercially available TTIs.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Monitoring quality changes of fruits and vegetables in intellige...
Table 12.2 Commercially available CO
2
indicators and mechanisms for packagi...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of recent literature on the fabrication of edible FIs.
Table 14.2 Fabrication methods of FIs.
Table 14.3 Application of FIs in monitoring the quality of fruits and veget...
Table 14.4 Application of FIs in monitoring the quality of dairy products....
Table 14.5 Application of FIs in monitoring the quality of muscle food.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Natural pigments‐based intelligent food packaging films/labels....
Table 15.2 Biopolymer and natural pigments‐based intelligent packaging film...
Table 15.3 Application of biopolymer‐based intelligent packaging in dairy p...
Table 15.4 Nanocomposite‐based intelligent packaging for monitoring muscle ...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Active scavenging/absorbing and active emitting/releasing systems...
Figure 1.2 (a) Mono‐layered film with an active agent. (b) Bi‐layered film, ...
Figure 1.3 Architecture of the absorbent pad.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the releasing systems and active scav...
Figure 2.2 Simplified fabrication process for films and coatings using casti...
Figure 2.3 Different types of active agents used in food packaging.
Figure 2.4 Fundamentals of AP: Development of biopolymer‐based active compos...
Figure 2.5 Chemical structure of different EOs components.
Figure 2.6 The antibacterial mechanism of natural antimicrobial chemicals in...
Figure 2.7 Structure of chitosan.Alginate;Gelatin;
Figure 2.8 (a) Internalization and translocation of NPs into cells. NPs infi...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Various benefits of antimicrobial food packaging.
Figure 3.2 Mechanism of action of antimicrobial compounds.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Interaction of active compound with packed food.
Figure 4.2 Oxygen scavengers and their role in maintaining food quality.
Figure 4.3 Iron‐based Ageless OMAC oxygen scavenger and its reaction mechani...
Figure 4.4 (a) Titania‐based flexible active film. (b) UV irradiation time r...
Figure 4.5 Reaction mechanism of oxygen scavenging by glucose oxidase and ca...
Figure 4.6 Cryovac Oxygen scavenging films (a) being activated by light‐acti...
Figure 4.7 (a) Composition of
cis
‐isoprene based oxygen scavenger. (b) React...
Figure 4.8 PETG‐based bottle containing bacterial spores.
Figure 4.9 Loading techniques of oxygen scavenger in packaging.
Figure 4.10 Different routes of incorporating oxygen scavenger in primary pa...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 An illustration of the working principles of active packaging sys...
Figure 5.2 One‐way active valve with typical design.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Ethylene biosynthesis in plant cells as illustrated by Yang’s cyc...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Categorization of moisture‐absorbing materials for applications i...
Figure 7.2 Various forms of moisture absorbers for effective food packaging ...
Figure 7.3 Overview of chitin/chitosan extraction methods and their applicat...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Adsorption and diffusion through activated carbon channels.
Figure 8.2 Cage structure of zeolite.
Figure 8.3 Tetrahedral structure of TO
4
unit.
Figure 8.4 Mechanism of ion exchange.
Figure 8.5 Binding by chelating agent.
Figure 8.6 Diffusion phenomena (diffusion of molecules from Region A to Regi...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Classification of biopolymers.
Figure 9.2 Different classifications of nanomaterials.
Figure 9.3 Preparation of biopolymer nanocomposite active packaging system....
Figure 9.4 Nanoemulsion‐based coated fruit.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Intelligent packaging systems.
Figure 10.2 Types of time and temperature indicators.
Figure 10.3 Cellulose nanofiber‐mediated natural dye‐based biodegradable bag...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 (a) An enzymatic reaction‐based critical temperature‐sensing sys...
Figure 11.2 (a) CRYOLOG'S TRACEO TTI.(b) An indicator of time and temper...
Figure 11.3 (a) RipeSense™ TTI for fruit.(b) OnVu™ TTI [52]. (c) Fresh‐C...
Figure 11.4 (a) Monitor Mark indicator.(b) Freshness check TTI by 3M....
Figure 11.5 (a) Timestrip
®
time indicator and time–temperature indicato...
Figure 11.6 (a) eO TTI.(b) Cryolog’s eO TTI.
Figure 11.7 TTI by Smartdots.
Figure 11.8 (a) Freshtag TTI.(b) TTI’s of SpotSee, USA.(c) Freeze ch...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Depiction of color change in CO
2
sensors based on (a) pH‐sensiti...
Figure 12.2 Innovations in optical CO
2
sensors: (a) preparation of sugarcane...
Figure 12.3 Preparation of freshness indicator using PET, PEBA, PEI, and dye...
Figure 12.4 (a) Indicator labels’ color changes by using different formulas....
Figure 12.5 (a) Change in appearance and the related color parameter of mush...
Figure 12.6 Three different routes by which carbon dioxide sensors can sense...
Figure 12.7 Identification of microbial spoilage in dairy products showing (...
Figure 12.8 (a) Carbon dioxide‐sensitive dyes for films.(b) Freshness in...
Figure 12.9 (a) Vertical silo used in the storage and monitoring of grain qu...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Food quality indicator‐based IP.
Figure 13.2 Statistics on (a) the number of publications vs. years, (b) the ...
Figure 13.3 (a) Natural and synthetic halochromic indicators. (b) Paper‐base...
Figure 13.4 Biosensor for detection of fish deterioration.
Figure 13.5 Ethylene chemoresistive sensor for detection of fruit deteriorat...
Figure 13.6 (a) Types of intelligent packaging.(b) List of IP systems....
Figure 13.7 The color of the Ageless Eye oxygen indicator changes from pink ...
Figure 13.8 (a) Color changes of indicator labels for fresh‐cut peppers spoi...
Figure 13.9 Chitosan‐based carbon dioxide indicator.
Figure 13.10 Food packaging containing DNAzyme Probes for monitoring food co...
Figure 13.11 (a) Natural halochromic indicators and polymers for intelligent...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Schematic showing working of FI in intelligent food packaging....
Figure 14.2 Color variation and chemical structures of (a) curcumin and (b) ...
Figure 14.3 Schematic showing different methods to fabricate FIs.
Figure 14.4 Changes in the color of FIs after exposure to (a) apple and (b) ...
Figure 14.5 Changes in the color of FI attached to package of shrimps: (a) i...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 (a) Types of natural biopolymers and (b) advantages of biopolyme...
Figure 15.2 Types of intelligent packaging.
Figure 15.3 Improvement in functional properties of bio‐nanocomposites.
Figure 15.4 Changes in color of various natural pigments with change in pH....
Figure 15.5 Parameters for monitoring freshness of fruits and vegetables.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Circular economy for bio‐polymeric composites manufacturing.
Figure 16.2 The global production of plastics and their fate from 1950 to 20...
Figure 16.3 Recyclability of bio‐nanocomposites.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Smart Food Packaging Systems
Innovations and Technology Applications
Edited by
Avik Mukherjee
Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar
Kokrajhar, Assam, India
Santosh Kumar
Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar
Kokrajhar, Assam, India
Manjusri Misra
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Amar K. Mohanty
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:Hardback ISBN: 9781394189564
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This book is dedicated to future of sustainable food packaging.
About the Editors
Dr. Avik Mukherjee
Avik Mukherjee is an Associate Professor at the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar (Deemed‐to‐be‐University, MHRD, Govt. of India), Assam, India. He earned his MS and PhD degrees, majoring in Food Science, at the University of Minnesota, USA, and then worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for Meat Safety and Quality, Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University, USA. Dr. Mukherjee has 18 years of teaching and research experience in the areas of microbial food safety, sustainable and novel food preservation and packaging. He has published almost 40 international peer‐reviewed journals, coauthored and/or co‐edited 8 books and 13 book chapters, and his research works have produced more than 30 conference papers. Dr. Mukherjee’s research area includes the application of natural and sustainable food preservation and packaging technologies, including the application of nanotechnology to ensure safe and healthy foods, and the utilization of food processing waste(s) for biofuel production. Dr. Mukherjee has also shown academic and administrative leadership skills serving his Institutes as Head of the Department for more than nine years, and as Dean for more than five years.
Dr. Santosh Kumar
Dr. Santosh Kumar is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, India, since 2011. He earned his MTech and PhD degrees from the Department of Food Technology and Biochemical Engineering (FTBE), Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India, and then worked as Postdoctoral Fellow at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, during 2018–2019. Dr. Kumar has more than 12 years of teaching and research experience in Sustainable Food Systems, particularly in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging, Edible Films and Coatings, and Agro‐food Waste Valorization. Dr. Kumar has authored/edited more than 65 publications including 45 peer‐reviewed journal papers, 3 books, and 15 book chapters. Dr. Kumar has received several awards including Overseas Associateship Award by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. He is a professional member of many scientific societies and institutions, including the Royal Society of Chemistry, London. He also serves as an Editorial Board member of many reputed journals including “Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy” published by Elsevier. Dr. Kumar has shown academic and administrative leadership skills by serving his institutions in many positions, including as the Head of the Department for about five years.
Dr. Manjusri Misra
Dr. Manjusri Misra is a professor and Tier 1 Canada Research Chair (CRC) in Sustainable Biocomposites in the School of Engineering and holds a joint appointment in the Department of Plant Agriculture at the University of Guelph. As well, she is the Research Program Director of the Bioeconomy Panel for the Ontario Agri‐Food Innovation Alliance, a program between the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (OMAFRA) and the University of Guelph. Dr. Misra’s research directly contributes to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. She is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (UK), the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), and the Society of Plastic Engineers (SPE). She was an editor of the CRC Press volume, “Natural Fibers, Biopolymers and Biocomposites,” Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL (2005); American Scientific Publishers volume “Packaging Nanotechnology”, Valencia, California (2009); “Polymer Nanocomposites”, Springer (2014); “Biocomposites: Design and Mechanical Performance”, Woodhead Publishing (2015); “Fiber Technology for Fiber‐Reinforced Composites”, Woodhead Publishing (2017); and “Nanomaterials from Renewable Resources for Emerging Applications (Emerging Materials and Technologies)”, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group (2023).
Dr. Amar K. Mohanty
Dr. Amar K. Mohanty is a Professor, Distinguished Research Excellence Chair in Sustainable Materials, and the Director of the Bioproducts Discovery and Development Centre. He is a Full Professor in two departments – Department of Plant Agriculture and the School of Engineering at the University of Guelph, Canada. Dr. Mohanty is the Editor‐in‐Chief of Composites Part C (ELSEVIER). He is a Fellow of the Society of Plastic Engineers (SPE), Royal Society of Canada (RSC), the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), the Royal Society of Chemistry (UK), and the Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChE). He is one of the most cited researchers worldwide with 498 peer‐reviewed journal papers, 71 patents (awarded/applied), and over 160 plenary and keynote presentations. He has received many awards, including the prestigious Miroslaw Romanowski Medal for his significant scientific contributions to the resolution of environmental problems from the Royal Society of Canada. He also received the Synergy Award for Innovation from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Andrew Chase Forest Products Division Award from the AIChE, J. L White Innovation Award from the International Polymer Processing Society (PPS), and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the BioEnvironmental Polymer Society (BEPS), USA. His research encompasses sustainable polymeric materials, circular economy, environmental sustainability, waste plastic valorization, 3D printing, AI for sustainable materials development, biodegradable plastics, biocarbon‐based composites all targeted in reducing greenhouse gas emission.
List of Contributors
Arihant AhujaDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
P. S. AiswaryaDepartment of ChemistryChrist UniversityBangalore, KarnatakaIndia
R. AnandalakshmiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Satish Kumar BachalaDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Soubani BaidyaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Himakshi BaishyaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologyCentral Institute of TechnologyKokrajharKokrajhar, AssamIndia
Het Paraskumar BhadaniaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringInstitute of Chemical Technology‐MumbaiIOC CampusBhubaneswar, OdishaIndia
Ayyan P. BorkakotyDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
K. P. ChaithraDepartment of ChemistryChrist UniversityBangalore, KarnatakaIndia
Smriti DograDepartment of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute ofTechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia
Pradip Kumar DuttaDepartment of ChemistryMotilal Nehru National Institute ofTechnologyAllahabad, PrayagrajIndia
B. GayathriDepartment of ChemistryChrist UniversityBangalore, KarnatakaIndia
Rishabh GoyalDepartment of Food Process EngineeringNational Institute of Technology RourkelaOdishaIndia
Gurbuz GunesDepartment of Food EngineeringFaculty of Chemical and MetallurgicalEngineeringIstanbul Technical UniversityIstanbulTurkey
Nitin GuptaWood K Plus ‐ Competence Center forWood Composites and Wood ChemistrySt. Veit an der GlanAustria
Kandeepan GurunathanPackaging LabICAR‐National Meat Research InstituteHyderabad, TelanganaIndia
Krishna Kamal HazarikaChemical Engineering Group and Centrefor Petroleum Research DivisionCSIR‐North East Institute of Scienceand TechnologyJorhat, AssamIndiaAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar PradeshIndia
Pallabi HazarikaChemical Engineering Group and Centrefor Petroleum Research DivisionCSIR‐North East Institute of Scienceand TechnologyJorhat, AssamIndiaAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar PradeshIndia
Swapnali HazarikaChemical Engineering Group andCentre for Petroleum Research DivisionCSIR‐North East Institute of Scienceand TechnologyJorhat, AssamIndiaAcademy of Scientific and InnovativeResearch (AcSIR)Ghaziabad, Uttar PradeshIndia
JigyasaDepartment of ChemistryMaharishi Markandeshwar UniversityMullana, Ambala, HaryanaIndia
Sweety KalitaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologyCentral Institute of Technology KokrajharKokrajhar, AssamIndia
Deepak KumarDairy Technology DivisionFood Packaging LaboratoryICAR‐National Dairy Research InstituteKarnal, HaryanaIndia
Santosh KumarDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologyCentral Institute of Technology KokrajharKokrajhar, AssamIndia
Satti Venu Gopala KumariDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Manjusri MisraSchool of Engineering, ThornbroughBuildingUniversity of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanadaDepartment of Plant AgricultureBioproducts Discovery andDevelopment CenterCrop Science Building, University of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanada
Amar K. MohantySchool of Engineering, ThornbroughBuildingUniversity of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanadaDepartment of Plant AgricultureBioproducts Discovery andDevelopment CenterCrop Science Building, University of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanada
Avik MukherjeeDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologyCentral Institute of Technology KokrajharKokrajhar, AssamIndia
Debarshi NathSchool of Engineering, ThornbroughBuildingUniversity of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanadaDepartment of Plant AgricultureBioproducts Discovery andDevelopment CenterCrop Science Building, University of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanada
Kannan PakshirajanDepartment of Biosciences andBioengineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyGuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Narender Raju PanjagariDairy Technology DivisionFood Packaging LaboratoryICAR‐National Dairy Research InstituteKarnal, HaryanaIndia
Ehsan PesaranhajiabbasDepartment of Plant AgricultureBioproducts Discovery and DevelopmentCenter, Crop Science BuildingUniversity of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanadaSchool of EngineeringThornbrough BuildingUniversity of GuelphGuelph, OntarioCanada
G. PugazhenthiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyGuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndiaCentre for Sustainable PolymersIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiGuwahati, AssamIndia
Jaspreet Kaur RajputDepartment of ChemistryDr B R Ambedkar National Institute ofTechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia
Vibhore Kumar RastogiDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Neelisetty Sesha Sai BabaDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Anamika SinghDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Dimple SinghDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Poonam SinghaDepartment of Food Process EngineeringNational Institute of Technology RourkelaOdishaIndia
Sushil Kumar SinghDepartment of Food Process EngineeringNational Institute of Technology RourkelaOdishaIndia
Varsha SinghDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
Vinayak SrivastavaDepartment of Paper TechnologyIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia
T. P. VinodDepartment of ChemistryChrist UniversityBangalore, KarnatakaIndia
Srasti YadavDivision of Chemistry, School of BasicSciencesGalgotias UniversityGreater Noida, Uttar PradeshIndia
Preface
The project Smart Food Packaging Systems: Innovations and Technology Applications was born sometime in the year 2022 inspired by successful completion of our first book project with John Wiley & Sons. The idea of such a book stemmed from the emerging interest and emphasis on safe and healthy food ensured by sustainable food packaging preferred by consumers, food industries, and all other stakeholders. As more and more user‐friendly active and intelligent food packaging systems are being developed, the replacement of hazardous synthetic inputs with natural, biodegradable, and/or edible materials is an important step towards the development of sustainable food packaging systems. This book is a complete and systematic account of the contemporary developments in the area of smart food packaging, including applications of bionanocomposites and natural active/intelligent agent(s) as sustainable alternatives to synthetic plastic polymers and synthetic chemicals, respectively. It is a unique reading and resource material for academicians, professionals of food packaging and other related industries, research scholars, graduate students, entrepreneurs, and people working in the area of food preservation, food packaging, food shelf life enhancement, environmental safety, human health, sustainability, and circular economy. Also, the book includes detailed discussions on intelligent agents of natural origins that add functionalities and communicate quality status of packaged food to consumers.
This book consists of sixteen (16) chapters divided into two parts: the first nine chapters covering different types of active food packaging systems incorporated with antimicrobial, scavengers of oxygen, ethylene, carbon dioxide emitters, absorbents of moisture, off‐flavor, and various different nanomaterials, and the next six chapters elaborating on major types of intelligent packaging systems, e.g., time‐temperature‐indicators, freshness indicators, gas sensors, food quality indicators, such as humidity indicators, pH indicators, indicators of specific chemical, etc. The final chapter of the book gives a synoptic description of the life cycle assessment of smart food packaging systems including their contribution towards achieving circularity in our day‐to‐day livelihood.
It has been a great pleasure and a privilege to collaborate with the contributing authors representing almost a dozen academic Institutes/Universities of international repute in India and abroad. The success of this project depends on the usefulness of the book to potential readers across the entire spectra of food packaging and sustainability in academia, industries, businesses, and government bodies. The reader’s enthusiastic acceptance, appreciation, comments, and critiques will inspire us to venture into more such collaborative projects in the future. We could not have achieved success in our efforts without the support, cooperation, and understanding of our peers, friends, and families, which stems from our unwavering dedication and commitment towards the successful completion of this book.
Avik Mukherjee
Santosh Kumar
Manjusri Misra
Amar K. Mohanty
Acknowledgments
We take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to the research grant from the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Govt. of India, for partially funding this book project under the Research Promotion Scheme for North Eastern Region (RPS‐NER) of India. We are also thankful for the partial funding support by (i) the Ontario Agri‐Food Innovation Alliance – Bioeconomy for Industrial Uses Research Program, (ii) the Ontario Research Fund, Research Excellence Program; Round 11 (ORF‐RE11) Ontario Ministry of Colleges and Universities, (iii) the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and (iv) Canada Research Chair (CRC) program. Moreover, it was a great pleasure and privilege to work with John Wiley & Sons, the publisher of the book.
Avik Mukherjee
Santosh Kumar
Manjusri Misra
Amar K. Mohanty
1Introduction to Active Food Packaging System
Sweety Kalita1, Amar K. Mohanty2,3, Manjusri Misra2,3, Avik Mukherjee1, and Santosh Kumar1
1 Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, Assam, India
2 School of Engineering, Thornbrough Building, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
3 Department of Plant Agriculture, Bioproducts Discovery and Development Center, Crop Science Building, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
1.1 Introduction
The realm of food packaging is rapidly growing within scientific research and industry driven by rising global demands, and the continuous, stringent updates and amendments of food safety regulations. Food packaging is crucial in safeguarding food quality and shelf life. Shifts in consumer lifestyles have heightened interest in fresh, high‐quality, and clean products with a prolonged shelf life, which has consequently prompted the necessity for advanced packaging technology [1–3]. Furthermore, with the passage of time, the scope of food packaging has progressed from basic containment to intricate systems that actively engage with the packaged food, giving rise to active food packaging systems. Active packaging has become essential across diverse sectors of the food industry [4]. Active packaging systems were first developed in the 1980s, and are now integrated with active compounds to retain or enhance quality aspects and safety of the packaged food [5]. Depending on the active components added into the active packaging, they are designed to reduce respiration, inhibit microbial growth, and/or mitigate moisture migration by releasing active agent(s), absorbing moisture or gases, blocking certain deteriorations, or buffering pH alterations [6, 7]. Broadly, active packaging falls into two main categories: nonmigratory, which involves scavengers that remove/absorb undesirable substances from headspace of the packaging without any release of an active agent into the packaged food (called an active scavenging/absorbing system), and migratory packaging, which includes emitters that facilitate sustained release of the active compounds inside the package (called an active emitting/releasing system) (Figure 1.1) [4, 8, 9]. Active agents are incorporated into packaging systems as separate entities (for example, a pad or sachet), combined with polymers (e.g., composite film or coating), or applied to the film or packaging surface (e.g., by coating a layer of active agent on the packaging material). Furthermore, the active agent either firmly fixes or immobilizes onto the film surface. The flexible active films can be mono‐, bi‐, or multilayered (Figure 1.2). Continuous technological progress is driving the evolution of novel active packaging systems, leading to elevated levels of food safety and quality, along with decreased waste and enhanced sustainability [11].
Figure 1.1 Active scavenging/absorbing and active emitting/releasing systems.
Figure 1.2 (a) Mono‐layered film with an active agent. (b) Bi‐layered film, in which the inner layer contains an active agent. (c) Bi‐layered film having immobilized active substance on the film surface. (d) Active scavenging. (e) Active emitting systems.
Source: Reference [10], 2022/MDPI/CC‐BY‐4.0.
Food packaging made of biodegradable polymers is a sustainable alternative to the synthetic plastic‐based packaging, and the former is gaining increased popularity due to consumer awareness about the detrimental effects of petroleum‐based plastic packaging on human and environmental health [12]. Moreover, many natural compounds (e.g., certain secondary metabolites of some plants and microorganisms) act as antimicrobial and/or antioxidant active agents that can be blended into biopolymer‐based active food packaging systems [12, 13]. Polysaccharides, such as chitosan, cellulose, and starch, proteins such as gelatin, whey, and casein, and lipids such as beeswax, carnauba wax, and shellac wax are being studied extensively for the development of active packaging [14–16]. In this chapter, an in‐depth exploration of active packaging systems is presented, covering gas and moisture scavengers, ethylene absorbers, antioxidant‐releasing systems, CO2 emitters, and antimicrobial packaging. This chapter also reviews scientific research highlighting the benefits and challenges regarding the application of these novel systems for the packaging of perishable foods.
1.2 Types of Active Food Packaging
1.2.1 Active Scavenging/Absorbing System
Active scavenging/absorbing food packaging systems effectively scavenge/remove undesirable components/gases that are either present in the package or emanate from the food item into the packaging headspace. Ethylene scavengers for fresh fruits and vegetables, oxygen scavengers (OSs) for cut fruits and vegetables, fish, meat, edible oil, and moisture absorbers for milk powder, processed tea leaves, biscuits, crackers, and chips are effective for shelf‐life extension of packaged products [17]. The various active scavenging systems are explained in the subsequent discussions.
1.2.1.1 Ethylene Scavenger
Ethylene (C2H4), a plant hormone, intricately regulates diverse physiological functions within plants, such as growth, ripening, and senescence with both positive and negative consequences. Its positive impact involves expediting the ripening process in fresh produce, while its negative effects lead to a diverse array of rapid undesirable changes [18, 19]. The process of fruit ripening generates ethylene, aldehydes, and other gases, amplifying the ripening progression. Ethylene influences ripening through two distinct forms: through endogenous ethylene, produced by the plant itself, and through external ethylene, originating from neighboring crops, automotive emissions, and polymers [20]. Ethylene also possesses the capability to trigger the expression of ripening‐associated genes via signal transduction pathways [21]. Ethylene production can be controlled by preventing its synthesis, oxidation and by its absorption during the handling and transportation of fresh produce [20]. Notably, ethylene exerts pronounced effects on the quality of fruits and vegetables with even minute concentrations, as low as 0.1 μl/l, significantly impacting their growth and development [22]. Consequently, the implementation of ethylene control measures, such as the use of ethylene scavengers, becomes indispensable for curbing product losses and safeguarding food quality by delaying postharvest ripening processes [23]. Ethylene scavengers can effectively reduce ethylene levels in packaging, chemically or physically, as the gas is highly reactive due to its double bond [9]. Chemical methods typically employ potassium permanganate (KMnO4) embedded in materials such as porous sachets, which oxidize ethylene into acetate, and ethanol without affecting the produce. However, KMnO4 cannot be used in direct contact with food due to its toxicity and lack of efficacy in high‐moisture environments [24, 25]. Other alternatives for ethylene removal include metal oxides, layer silicates, zeolites, nanoparticles, and activated carbon, which can be incorporated into packaging materials or provided inside the packaging in sachets [9, 19, 26]. These active materials/scavengers fall into two main categories: absorbers, which physically trap ethylene, and scavengers, which chemically react with ethylene. They can be incorporated in the film or in the form of sachets, and are commonly used in packaging for fruits and vegetables. The reduction of ethylene gas in the vicinity of fresh produce postpones fruit maturation by slowing down metabolic activities, resulting in a substantial extension of the shelf life of the produce [17, 22, 27]. Numerous scientific studies have explored the application of ethylene scavengers in active food packaging. Notably, Joung et al. [28] used encapsulated potassium permanganate (P)‐based ethylene scavenger in halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) and revealed a reduction in ethylene production and respiration rates, as well as a delay in loss of firmness and color changes for 21 days in cherry tomatoes wrapped with the developed nanocomposite film. Furthermore, Kaewklin et al. [29] reported that the use of chitosan and TiO2 nanocomposite films as an ethylene scavenger for postharvest management of climacteric fruits resulted in ethylene photodegradation, potentially contributing to the delay of the ripening process, and their shelf‐life extension. Upadhyay et al. [30] developed an optimal ethylene scavenging film using a nanocomposite of corn starch (CS) and gum acacia (GA) with 20% sepiolite that demonstrated effectiveness in packaging broccoli florets for six days at 23 °C storage. Moreover, the cellulose nanofiber/TiO2 nanotubes‐Cu2O‐based film exhibited the capability to scavenge ethylene gas generated in the headspace during storage, resulting in delayed tomato discoloration, softening, and weight loss [31]. Another noteworthy development in the realm of ethylene scavengers involves innovative films containing nano‐clay and nano‐silica that have been incorporated with KMnO4, which demonstrated an ability to extend the shelf life of bananas by up to 15 days when stored under ambient conditions [32]. An innovative KMnO4‐based ethylene scrubber, in combination with protonated montmorillonite (PMMT) and modified atmosphere packaging, effectively extended the shelf life of blueberries by 25 days at 2 °C and by 14 days at 10 °C [33].
1.2.1.2 Oxygen Scavenger
Intrusion of oxygen (O2) within food packaging catalyzes the rapid oxidation of fats, oils, pigments, and vital nutrients resulting in food deterioration. Moreover, the presence of O2 offers a conducive environment for the proliferation of microorganisms including aerobic bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Oxidative deteriorations result in undesirable traits, such as unpalatable odors, displeasing flavors, alterations in color, and degradation of essential nutrients. In response to this challenge, innovations such as packaging in vacuum and modified atmospheric conditions have achieved a reduction of in‐package oxygen levels to 0.5–2% v/v. It is noteworthy that even within this range, deterioration may persist in the packaged food. In contrast, OSs offer a reliable solution by lowering oxygen concentrations to less than 0.1% (v/v), resulting in a far more impactful extension of the product’s shelf life [1, 34]. These scavengers are rapid and high‐capacity oxygen absorbers (OAs) that function through differential partial pressure, which facilitates the removal of oxygen from both the in‐package environment and the packaged food product itself through diffusion [9, 35]. Iron powder sachets enclosed within small, oxygen‐permeable bags are the most widely utilized OSs for commercial purposes. They function by oxidation of iron and ferrous salts, which react with water from the food to create a process that hydrates the iron within the packaging, irreversibly converting it to a stable oxide [36, 37]. The combination of modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) (e.g., 70% CO2 and/or 30% N2) and OSs containing Fe/FeO2 effectively enhanced the shelf life of chicken thigh meat by hindering microbial growth and preventing lipid and protein oxidation for up to nine days [38]. Despite their effectiveness in diverse food applications, iron‐containing sachets have drawbacks, such as accidental ruptures, a necessity for additional packaging, and an unsuitability for liquid food. Alternatively, iron nanoparticles, immobilized yeast, enzymes (such as glucose oxidase), ascorbic acid, photosensitive dyes, and unsaturated fatty acids (such as linoleic and linolenic acids) can be effective OAs [9, 34, 37]. Recent publications on alternative oxygen scavenging systems have highlighted nanoscale OSs featuring zerovalent iron particles within a silicon matrix. These nanoscale iron particles demonstrated a 10‐fold increase in oxygen scavenging rates compared to that of commercially available iron‐based scavengers within polyethylene or polypropylene (PP) polymer matrices [39]. In a study, a fast oxygen scavenge system was developed by Faas et al. [40] where they engineered an oxygen scavenging film utilizing palladium to mitigate lipid oxidation in linseed oil, the findings indicate that the application of this scavenging film in conjunction with MAP yielded a substantial reduction in lipid oxidation in linseed oil when compared to conventional MAP with 2 v/v O2. Another metallic oxygen scavenger using titanium oxide nanotubes (TONT) demonstrated significantly higher oxygen uptake rates than that of the commercial iron‐based scavengers, suggesting that TONT scavengers can be suitable as oxygen indicators for the secure packaging of highly oxygen‐sensitive products, as they can switch from dark blue to yellowish brown color in the presence of oxygen [41]. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) blended in hydroxyl‐terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), low‐density polyethylene (LDPE), and polylactic acid (PLA) revealed increased oxygen absorption by the composite [42]. Another study on coating mesoporous silica nanospheres with oxygen scavenging materials (iron or titania‐based) has received a rapid response and enhanced adsorption efficiency, especially in dry conditions, in which activation by moisture is undesirable [43].
Researchers have now moved toward developing organic OSs in oxygen‐absorbing films, as traditional metallic agents have limitations for packaging production. These organic agents may involve low‐molecular‐weight oligomers in polymer films with designed structures that react with oxygen, and thus provide better dispersion and compatibility [44]. Lee et al. [45] introduced a nonmetallic scavenger, i.e. activated carbon and sodium L‐ascorbate, which showed higher oxygen scavenging efficiency (2.2 times) than Fe powder‐based scavengers. These ascorbic acid‐based systems, when applied to the packaging of raw meatloaf, effectively prevented the oxidation of lipid and lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and mold growth [45]. Another study developed oxygen scavenging films by incorporating 10% or 20% pyrogallic acid, a phenolic compound known for its potent oxygen scavenging ability, in an LDPE‐based film altered with adding sodium carbonate. The developed composite films were used for storing peeled garlic for 30 days at 5 and 25 °C, and the results showed reduced fungal decay, aerobic count, and weight loss in the product at both storage conditions [46]. The diffusion and interaction between oxygen and pyrogallol in the polymers are primarily controlled by factors such as molecular mobility, reaction rates, and film microstructures, as demonstrated by Promsorn and Harnkarnsujarit [47], who developed a thermoplastic starch‐based composite film loaded with pyrogallol and linear LDPE. Gallic acid acts as a moisture‐activated oxygen scavenger in degradable polyester films (polybutylene adipate co‐terephthalate (PBAT)) and polybutylene succinate (PBS), among which PBAT shows smooth surface topography and structure, while the introduction of gallic acid in PBS reduced homogeneity leading to void spaces and an increase in surface roughness [48]. Numerous other reports have documented the successful incorporation of natural oxygen scavenging agents, such as gallic acid and polyisoprene into polymeric films through various fabrication methods [49–52].
1.2.1.3 Moisture Absorber
Condensation frequently occurs in packaged foods, particularly for those with high water vapor pressure due to the metabolic processes of fats and carbohydrates common in fruits and vegetables. Temperature variations between the outside and inside of the package lead to the formation of water droplets inside the package or on the surface of the food. The presence of water droplets negatively affects the package’s appearance, reduces consumer appeal, and contributes to increased surface mold growth, thereby shortening food shelf life [1]. Moreover, storage conditions, especially relative humidity, profoundly affect the quality of dry food items. Insufficient humidity within packages can significantly degrade the quality, as increased moisture content heightens susceptibility to microbial growth and triggers undesirable alterations in appearance and texture, leading to a reduced shelf life. Conversely, for products with elevated water activity, such as fish, meat, fruits, and vegetables, maintaining controlled humidity proves advantageous in preventing dehydration, however, these packaged products may experience excess liquid due to drip loss and temperature fluctuations during storage [9, 53, 54]. A practical method for managing excess moisture within a package is incorporating a moisture absorber to regulate the water activity of the product, thus inhibiting microbial growth [55]. Moisture absorbers are typically available as sachets, films, trays, or pads, in which the materials designed for moisture absorption/scavenging are typically enclosed to control exudates from food products or to control the desired humidity inside the package [56]. Moisture absorbers are hygroscopic substances or desiccants such as silica gel, clays, synthetic crystalline sieves (e.g., potassium, zeolite, calcium alumina silicate, and sodium), and humectant salts (e.g., NaCl, MgCl2, or compound such as sorbitol). The absorption capacity of desiccants is determined by the water vapor sorption isotherm. Desiccants are typically incorporated inside the packages as sachets, microporous bags, or combined with pads [9, 57]. A recent study showcased the enhancement of desiccants within the PP medium by adding different molecular weight polyethylene glycol and molecular sieves (MS) [58]. Notably, polyethylene glycol with molecular weight of 8000 facilitated uniform microphase separation in the composite because of its enhanced chemical compatibility with MS during the channeling structure formation, leading to substantial moisture absorption. Although most commercial manufacturers use desiccants for high‐moisture foods, in recent years, a growing interest in superabsorbent composites, including polymer‐based materials, is evident among packaging film industries [9, 57].
Researchers are particularly interested in food‐grade organic absorbers such as fructose and sorbitol [44]. Bovi et al. [56] introduced a Fruitpad, which included fructose to enhance the overall moisture absorption capacity for the packaging of fresh strawberries. A Fruitpad containing 30% fructose demonstrated 0.94 g of moisture absorption (highest) per gram of pad at 100% RH and 20 °C [56]. Cellulose is a hygroscopic substance that exists naturally and is widely utilized in the manufacturing of moisture‐absorbing films for food packaging. This polymer, and its derivatives such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), can absorb moisture on the surface or within the bulk of the amorphous regions [59–61]. In the industrial production of moisture absorbers, inorganic materials, such as calcium oxide (CaO), silica gel, and calcium chloride in sachets for adsorption, play a crucial role. These materials employ both physical and chemical processes to effectively reduce the relative humidity inside the package or the collected liquid at the bottom of the food container. Various other minerals such as potassium chloride (KCl), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and bentonite have also served as moisture absorbers in food packaging applications [1, 9]. In a recent study, a moisture absorber was developed using rice husk and CaCl2, and the resulting sachet was applied to the packaging of coconut palm sugar granules (CSG). The results showed that the rice husk‐CaCl2 composite with a concentration of 15% CaCl2 exhibited the highest moisture absorption capability maintaining the moisture content of CSG at approximately 2% under conditions with a relative humidity of 70% [62]. Furthermore, the moisture sorption isotherm behavior of the rice husk‐CaCl2 composite desiccants displayed a J‐shaped curve of equilibrium moisture content with boundary zones Aaw 0.2 and Baw 0.67, which indicated that the rice husk desiccant could effectively absorb water vapor at both low and moderate humidity levels [63]. In general, polymer‐based packaging materials, such as sorbitol containing glycerin, incorporated with uniformly dispersed magnesium chloride, can effectively control the humidity in packaged foods by reducing condensed water and stabilizing relative humidity within the packaging headspace. However, a challenge in manufacturing such materials is the increased volume of a salt solution in comparison to its dry crystal. To address this, the polymeric film needs an appropriate porous structure to accommodate the salt solution, which functions inside the film through water vapor absorption [64, 65]. Sängerlaub et al. [66] observed that PP film containing dispersed NaCl increased porosity that facilitates enhanced diffusion of the salt boosting its water vapor absorption rates. The authors further proposed that a similar positive effect could be achieved through the thermoforming process. Consequently, thermoforming was found to elevate the packaging material’s porosity from 0.28 to 0.63 [64]. In a recent study, various equilibrium‐modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP) systems such as cellulose, PLA, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with PP film as moisture absorbers were tested for cape gooseberry fruits. Stored at 6 °C and 75% RH, fruits in PLA trays without sachets had a maximum shelf life of 42 days due to the higher water vapor permeability preventing condensation and reducing dehydration compared to cellulose packages [67]. Prior studies have proven the efficacy of polymeric moisture absorbers, including PVA/Uncaria Gambir (UG) extract film [68], HDPE bags with a moisture absorber containing triple‐refined super‐activated white DMF and PCP‐free silica gel [69], and TEMPO‐oxidized cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) film [70].
1.2.1.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Light Absorbers
Active packaging incorporated with UV light barriers is a notable alternative to traditional packaging that involves integrating light absorbers or coatings onto packaging materials to diminish photo‐oxidation, a major cause of degradation of light‐sensitive food such as muscle products and beverages. Aluminum/metalized foil is recognized as the top material for blocking UV and visible light. Despite its effectiveness, it has drawbacks related to recyclability, cost, and transparency. However, recently studied UV absorbers address these concerns when selectively choosing and applying them to suitable polymers and considering their specific functions [37, 71]. Inorganic UV‐absorbing materials, mainly composed of metal oxide particles, include titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and zinc oxide (ZnO) which utilize “pigment theory” through band gap absorption and light scattering pathways to attenuate light. The band gap property enables semi‐conductive metal oxide particles to absorb photons when their energy matches or exceeds the band gap. Additionally, the high refractive index of metal oxide particles contributes to light blocking through reflection, refraction, and scattering, influenced by their internal crystal structure [71]. In a recent research work, PLA biopolymer‐based film incorporated with 5 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles was found to block UV radiation effectively [72]. Another contemporary study developed a nanocomposite using dapsone‐capped TiO2 nanoparticles (DAP‐TiO2‐NPs) incorporated into biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films, the results revealed that the films containing DAP‐TiO2‐NPs had excellent UV‐shielding properties, blocking almost all UV bands and up to 98% of visible light even at lower nanofiller ratios [73]. Composite films, formed with 2% graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets and regenerated cellulose exhibited notable UV‐shielding capabilities, blocking 66.7% of UVA, 54.2% of UVB, and showed outstanding visible light transmittance [74]. Organic UV absorbers, especially phenolic compounds, are either colorless or light yellowish in color with a high absorption coefficient in the UV range. Several research publications focused on organic UV light absorbers have effectively showcased their research findings that phenolic absorbers possess an excellent capacity to absorb and convert light energy into less harmful forms, along with excellent photo‐stability [75–79]. These compounds typically incorporate intramolecular hydrogen bonds, such as O–H–O bridges or O–H–N bridges, which effectively dissipate energy, transforming incident light energy into low thermal energy through photo‐physical reactions. This mechanism helps postpone the formation of free radicals in the early stages of degradation [71]. A film of poly (methyl methacrylate) combined with lignin (L) from coconut shell demonstrated UV‐blocking properties, showed lower transparency (approximately 26%) compared to pristine films, transmitted about 79% visible light at 550 nm, and exhibited excellent ability toward UV light absorption [80]. Shikinaka et al. [81] reported on a film composed of lignosulfonate and clay minerals that demonstrated outstanding UV protection properties, providing 99% UVA protection. Additionally, hybrid UV absorbers can be developed by either incorporating an inorganic UV absorber into the organic polymer matrix or by polymerizing an organic monomer to envelop the inorganic phase of the UV absorber [71]. For instance, Lei et al. [82] developed catechol‐functionalized chitosan (C‐CS)/PVA composite films for active food packaging through a solution blending method in a neutral aqueous solution. The UV transmittance (at 280 nm) of C‐CS/PVA films decreased by 67.6% with a 10 wt% C‐CS content, while maintaining transparency in the visible range compared to pure PVA film [82]. Another study produced durable and transparent bioplastics through the blending of cellulose and naringin at various ratios, and the results exhibited outstanding transparency and highly effective UV‐blocking capabilities of the developed films, particularly against UV‐A and UV‐B radiation [83]. Table 1.1 compiles diverse studies on hybrid UV absorber‐based composites intended for application in food packaging.
Table 1.1 Hybrid UV light absorber‐based food packaging systems.
Active substances
Film‐forming polymer/biopolymer
Benefits
Reference
Extract of cocoa bean shell and zinc oxide nanoparticles
Pectin‐based active film
The incorporation of the extract and nanoparticles significantly improved UV barrier properties by 98%, a crucial enhancement for UV‐sensitive packaged foods.
[84]
Methylene blue (dye) and cloisite (clay)
Polylactic acid film (PLA)
PLA films, with a thickness of 100 μm and containing dye and clay demonstrated 100% UV protection performance, slightly surpassing that of PLA‐Cloisite.
[85]
Grape syrup (GS)
Polylactic acid film (PLA)
PLA‐GS films demonstrated UV absorption from 250 to 400 nm, as indicated by UV–Vis results due to O–H, C=C, and C=O functional groups.
[86]
Date palm syrup (DPS)
Starch films
UV–Vis spectroscopy revealed effective UV absorption for these films, attributed to C=O, C=C, and O–H functional groups.
[87]
Uncaria gambir
(UG) extract and boric acid (BA)
Poly(vinyl alcohol) film
The PVA/UG/BA film absorbs around 98% of UV light at 400 nm without compromising transparency.
[68]
Waste tea residue carbon dots
Poly(vinyl alcohol) film
Higher amount of WTR‐CDs in PVA films enhanced UV light protection, with 100% blockage of UV‐C and UV‐B at 230−280 nm, and 280−315 nm, respectively.
[88]
Cellulose acetate and phenyl salicylate
Polylactic acid (PLA) film
The composite films completely absorbed UV‐C and UV‐B regions, while achieving over 95% UV absorption in the UV‐A range.
[89]
Lignin (L)
Cellulose nanofibril film (CNF)
The lignin‐cellulose nanofibril films completely blocked UV rays in range of 290–400 nm.
[90]
Citric acid‐modified lignin nanoparticles (LNP)
Poly(vinyl alcohol) nanocomposite film
The UV‐blocking test showed excellent performance, with over 97.5% UV absorption.
[91]
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and diethyl ferulate (DEF)
Poly(vinyl alcohol) film
PVA films containing 20 wt% CNC‐DEF provided total UV blockage (100%).
[92]
Lignocellulose particles (extracted from waste hemp hurd)
Poly(vinyl alcohol) film
The hemp/PVA films show enhanced UV protection mainly in the UVA range.
[93]
ZnO nanoparticles
Poly(vinyl alcohol) film
ZnO‐blended films had a notable UV shielding below 380 nm.
[94]
1.2.1.5 Flavor Absorbers
Unpleasant aromas and flavors can deteriorate sensory attributes of foods, significantly influencing their consumer acceptability. Undesirable aromas can emanate from food due to various physiological and biochemical changes, e.g. amines produced by oxidation of protein in foods such as fish, rancid flavored aldehydes, and ketones resulting from oxidation of fatty acids in foods such as fried foods, bakery, and fruit juices. Additionally, packaging materials, particularly plastic components such as polyolefins, may contribute to undesirable odors. Flavor absorbers such as clays, zeolites, and activated carbon are designed to eliminate undesirable aromas within the package headspace [95, 96
