Space Physics and Aeronomy, Volume 5, Space Weather Effects and Applications E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Serie: Geophysical Monograph Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 689

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

Examines how solar and terrestrial space phenomena affect sophisticated technological systems Contemporary society relies on sophisticated technologies to manage electricity distribution, communication networks, transportation safety, and myriad other systems. The successful design and operation of both ground-based and space-based systems must consider solar and terrestrial space phenomena and processes. Space Weather Effects and Applications describes the effects of space weather on various present-day technologies and explores how improved instrumentation to measure Earth's space environment can be used to more accurately forecast changes and disruptions. Volume highlights include: * Damage and disruption to orbiting satellite equipment by solar particles and cosmic rays * Effects of space radiation on aircraft at high altitudes and latitudes * Response of radio and radar-based systems to solar bursts * Disturbances to the propagation of radio waves caused by space weather * How geomagnetic field changes impact ground-based systems such as pipelines * Impacts of human exposure to the space radiation environment The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals. Find out more about the Space Physics and Aeronomy collection in this Q&A with the Editors in Chief

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

List of Contributors

Preface

Introduction: Space Weather Underlies Reliable Technologies

REFERENCES

1 Effects of Space Radiation on Contemporary Space‐Based Systems I

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.2. OVERVIEW OF SPACE RADIATION PROPERTIES

1.3. SPACE RADIATION EFFECTS

1.4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

2 Effects of Space Radiation on Contemporary Space‐Based Systems II

2.1. SURFACE CHARGING

2.2. INTERNAL (DEEP) CHARGING

2.3. PATH FORWARD

REFERENCES

3 Effects of Space Radiation on Humans in Space Flight

3.1. INTRODUCTION

3.2. THE SPACE WEATHER ENVIRONMENT

3.3. RADIATION QUANTITIES, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS

3.4. RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS

3.5. RADIATION LIMITS

3.6. REPRESENTATIVE SEP EVENT RADIATION EXPOSURES

3.7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

4 Space Weather Radiation Effects on High‐Altitude/‐Latitude Aircraft

4.1. INTRODUCTION

4.2. THE PHYSICS OF ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION

4.3. MEASUREMENTS OF THE RADIATION ENVIRONMENT

4.4. REGULATORY ACTIVITIES

4.5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

5 Remaining Issues in Upper Atmosphere Satellite Drag

5.1. INTRODUCTION

5.2. BACKGROUND

5.3. THE PHYSICS OF ATMOSPHERIC DRAG ON SPACECRAFT

5.4. THE LOWER REGISTER (100–500 KM ALTITUDE)

5.5. THE UPPER REGISTER (500–1000 KM)

5.6. SOLAR AND GEOMAGNETIC DRIVERS

5.7. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

6 Solar Radio Burst Effects on Radio‐ and Radar‐Based Systems

6.1. INTRODUCTION

6.2. CAUSE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTREME SOLAR RADIO NOISE

6.3. OCCURRENCE STATISTICS OF SOLAR RADIO BURSTS

6.4. NOTABLE SOLAR RADIO BURST IMPACTS REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE

6.5. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

7 Space Weather Influences on HF, UHF, and VHF Radio Propagation

7.1. INTRODUCTION

7.2. THE IONOSPHERE

7.3. RADIO PROPAGATION THROUGH AN IONIZED MEDIUM

7.4. IONOSPHERIC MORPHOLOGY AND DISTURBANCES

7.5. SOLAR STORM EFFECTS

7.6. SPACE WEATHER EFFECTS ON UHF/VHF AND HF USER APPLICATIONS

7.7. SUMMARY AND OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

8 GNSS/GPS Degradation from Space Weather

8.1. INTRODUCTION

8.2. GNSS SPACE WEATHER EFFECTS, MONITORING, AND APPLICATIONS

8.3. SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION OF GNSS

8.4. GNSS APPLICATIONS

8.5. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

9 Geomagnetic Field Impacts on Ground Systems

9.1. BACKGROUND FOR POWER SYSTEMS

9.2. GEOMAGNETIC STORM ENVIRONMENT MODEL

9.3. GROUND MODELS AND ELECTRIC FIELD CALCULATION

9.4. US ELECTRIC POWER GRID CIRCUIT MODEL

9.5. TRANSFORMER AND AC POWER GRID PERFORMANCE MODEL

9.6. THE EVOLVING VULNERABILITY OF ELECTRIC POWER GRIDS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HISTORICALLY LARGE STORMS

9.7. SIMULATIONS AND REVIEW OF STORM IMPACTS ON THE US POWER GRID

9.8. DESCRIPTIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOMAGNETIC STORMS

9.9. IMPACTS ON OTHER TYPES OF GROUND SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

Epilogue: The Road to Future Progress in Space Weather Understanding

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 List of 23 satellite anomalies from 1971. (Reproduced with permissi...

Table 2.2 Initial breakdown voltages for solar panel and thermal blanket samp...

Table 2.3 Maximum E and B fields radiated by arcs on solar panel and thermal ...

Table 2.4 Summary of CRRES IDM preflight deep charging ground test results. (...

Table 2.5 Charge decay tests in vacuum yield resistivities and electrical tim...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Skin dose thresholds.

Table 3.2 Dose limits for short‐term or career noncancer effects (in mGy‐Eq o...

Table 3.3 RBE values for noncancer effects of the eye lens, skin, blood formi...

Table 3.4 ESA radiation exposure limits.

Table 3.5 RSA radiation exposure limits.

Table 3.6 JAXA organ radiation exposure limits.

Table 3.7 JAXA career effective dose limits (Sv).

Table 3.8 Organ dose and effective dose in cis‐Lunar space for female crew me...

Table 3.9 Organ dose and effective dose in cis‐Lunar space for female crew me...

Table 3.10 Organ doses and effective dose for female crew members for the Aug...

Table 3.11 Organ dose and effective dose in cis‐Lunar space for female crew m...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Solar indices related to atmospheric heating.

Table 5.2 Characteristics of daily JB2008 solar indices.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Burst PDF regression parameters.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 A modern‐day view of the Earth’s radiation belts as observed by t...

Figure 1.2 A schematic diagram showing spacecraft impacts due to the space e...

Figure 1.3 A map of the Earth showing contours of constant surface magnetic ...

Figure 1.4 Illustration of the (a) single event upset, (b) deep‐dielectric d...

Figure 1.5 Observed solar array current reduction on a high‐altitude spacecr...

Figure 1.6 Long‐term (1992–2013) record of 2 ≤ E ≤ 6 MeV electrons measured ...

Figure 1.7 Temporal correspondence between star tracker anomalies onboard a ...

Figure 1.8 Induced attenuation of fiber optic cabling signals due to accumul...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Local‐time distribution of anomalies observed by several geostati...

Figure 2.2 “Musical” diagram showing 3‐hourly values of the planetary magnet...

Figure 2.3 Phase space density of particles before and during eclipse

Figure 2.4 Analysis suggested that DSCS II dielectric surfaces could charge ...

Figure 2.5 Distribution of ATS‐6 charging events with local time and by volt...

Figure 2.6 Discharges detected during eclipse charging event.

Figure 2.7 Multiple discharges occurred during sunlit (differential) chargin...

Figure 2.8 Most of the discharges detected by the CEEA occurred in the midni...

Figure 2.9 Comparison of NASCAP predictions and in‐orbit observations of Kap...

Figure 2.10 Comparison of NASCAP predicted spacecraft frame charging with ob...

Figure 2.11 Large differential potentials were induced around the METEOSAT‐1...

Figure 2.12 Worst‐case discharges are insensitive to mono‐, dual‐, and spect...

Figure 2.13 Effect of sunlight (UV) intensity on charging of dielectrics and...

Figure 2.14 Example of discharge occurrences during conditions of reduced su...

Figure 2.15 “Wishbone map” of surface charging hazard risks versus altitude ...

Figure 2.16 Local time distribution of all anomalies.

Figure 2.17 Seasonal distribution of all anomalies.

Figure 2.18 Local time and seasonal distribution of anomalies on GOES 4, 5, ...

Figure 2.19 TDRS‐1 CVU anomalies associated with very specific local time an...

Figure 2.20 Local time distribution of antenna positioner electronic upsets...

Figure 2.21 Surface charging initiated sustained vacuum arcs begin with conv...

Figure 2.22 Sustained arc and permanent damage that occurred during EOS‐AM g...

Figure 2.23 Source of commercial satellite anomalies by number (left) and am...

Figure 2.24 Safe voltage and current limits that prevent sustained arcs deri...

Figure 2.25 Evidence of substorm activity from local magnetograms and aurora...

Figure 2.26 Example ground magnetogram and auroral X‐ray image near satellit...

Figure 2.27 Correlation of PORs with high energy electron fluence.

Figure 2.28 Typical electron flux‐energy spectrum at 4.5 R

J

.

Figure 2.29 Correlation of DSP star tracker shutter anomalies with GOES‐2 >1...

Figure 2.30 In‐orbit electron fluxes Vs energy and fluxes that produced ESD ...

Figure 2.31 Correlation of two anomalies to high fluxes of extremely energet...

Figure 2.32 Designation of surface versus internal discharges is supported b...

Figure 2.33 Frequency distribution of internal discharges versus 1.4 MeV ele...

Figure 2.34 Number and amplitude of surface versus internal discharges.

Figure 2.35 Photograph of IDM experiment tray, with sixteen 5 cm x 5 cm plan...

Figure 2.36 Configurations used for IDM samples. Small circles indicate conn...

Figure 2.37 Incident fluence to first discharge during low flux exposures...

Figure 2.38 Number of discharges per orbit (lower panel) is driven by the in...

Figure 2.39 Pulses/orbit by sample types with geometries listed in table....

Figure 2.40 Scatter plot of pulse count/orbit vs electron fluence for each o...

Figure 2.41 The IDM insulator pulses (second panel) and CRRES anomalies (thi...

Figure 2.42 CRRES IDM pulse rate (bars, top panel), spacecraft anomaly rate ...

Figure 2.43 Review of space weather prior to Anik failures implicated deep c...

Figure 2.44 Energetic electron flux history from the launch of Anik E1 and E...

Figure 2.45 Correlation of AME switching anomalies on DRA‐δ with peaks in 48...

Figure 2.46 Telstar 401 failure was preceded by significant energetic electr...

Figure 2.47 Episode of elevated energetic electron flux preceding the G4 and...

Figure 2.48 G4 and other similar spacecraft had been exposed to much higher ...

Figure 2.49 Relationship of anomalies to energetic electron flux (7‐day aver...

Figure 2.50 Example of 54 anomalies on one spacecraft correlated with the ex...

Figure 2.51 Internal energetic electron flux responsible for the anomalies w...

Figure 2.52 Parametric study of the buildup and decay of trapped charge insi...

Figure 2.53 Common elements of command control circuits.

Figure 2.54 Radiation‐induced conductivity from high‐energy penetrating elec...

Figure 2.55 Effect of temperature on resistivity for a range of activation e...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Relative abundances of galactic cosmic ray element species at 1 G...

Figure 3.2 Energy spectra for representative GCR elements displaying typical...

Figure 3.3 Energetic proton spectra for the 30 September 1998 impulsive sola...

Figure 3.4 Energetic proton spectra for the 24 September 2001 gradual solar ...

Figure 3.5 Proton energy spectra for the 19 October 1989 series of SEP event...

Figure 3.6 Monthly sunspot numbers and smoothed monthly sunspot numbers vers...

Figure 3.7 Proton energy spectra for the SEP events of 24–27 August 1998 (le...

Figure 3.8 Proton integral fluence spectra for the August 1972 and 19–24 Oct...

Figure 3.9 August 1972, February 1956, and AD775 SEP event proton spectra.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 The complex radiation conditions at and above commercial aviation...

Figure 4.2 GCR spectral flux for various nuclei predicted by the Badhwar and...

Figure 4.3 Wilcox Solar Observatory solar polar magnetic field measurements....

Figure 4.4 ARMAS effective dose rates substantially increase between 4 ≤ L ≤...

Figure 4.5 The ARMAS 3 October 2015 G5 flight at 11.5 km and magnetic latitu...

Figure 4.6 One‐minute ratios of ARMAS (measurements) to NAIRAS (model; GCR a...

Figure 4.7 Zonal‐averaged vertical geomagnetic cutoff rigidity. The solid re...

Figure 4.8 Global grid of quiescent vertical geomagnetic cutoff rigidities (...

Figure 4.9 Simulated vertical geomagnetic cutoff rigidity shown over the nor...

Figure 4.10 Characteristic scattering length for ion beam transport through ...

Figure 4.11 Average range versus kinetic energy of an ion beam incident at t...

Figure 4.12 Stopping power versus kinetic energy of incident ions on Earth’s...

Figure 4.13 Event‐averaged GCR spectral fluence rates at zero vertical geoma...

Figure 4.14 Event‐averaged SEP spectral fluence rates at zero vertical geoma...

Figure 4.15 Nuclear survival probability versus kinetic energy of an ion bea...

Figure 4.16 The green lines show the fluence‐to‐effective dose conversion co...

Figure 4.17 Normalized spectral effective dose rates evaluated during the Ha...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Major pathways by which space weather couples to satellite aerody...

Figure 5.2 (a) Global average number density profiles at solar maximum (F

10.

...

Figure 5.3 LEO object population densities and future potential constellatio...

Figure 5.4 (a) Flow regimes according to the Knudsen number for gas dynamics...

Figure 5.5 The altitude‐variable drag coefficient for a SL6 cylindrical rock...

Figure 5.6 Various methods of estimating energy accommodation compared with ...

Figure 5.7 Partial pressures for thermosphere species as determined by MSIS....

Figure 5.8 Altitudinal and latitudinal variations in mass density change dur...

Figure 5.9 GRACE‐A panel model C

D

xA as a function of He/O ratio at two value...

Figure 5.10 F

10.7

daily and 81‐day smoothed values from 1 January 1997 to 1 ...

Figure 5.11 S

10.7

daily and 81‐day smoothed values from 1 January 1997 to 1 ...

Figure 5.12 M

10.7

daily and 81‐day smoothed values from 1 January 1997 to 1 ...

Figure 5.13 Y

10.7

daily and 81‐day smoothed values from 1 January 1997 to 1 ...

Figure 5.14 F

10.7,

S

10.7,

M

10.7,

and Y

10.7

daily and 81‐day smoothed values ...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Examples of solar type IV spectral fine structures observed at L ...

Figure 6.2 Cumulative number of bursts per day at frequencies above 2 GHz (a...

Figure 6.3 The percentages (on an hourly basis) of dropped calls averaged ov...

Figure 6.4 Radio light curves in sfu of the 4 November 2015 event from the H...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 TEC from the International Reference Ionosphere that illustrates ...

Figure 7.2 Example image showing the ionospheric plasma frequency (color) wi...

Figure 7.3 Three ionospheric propagation paths, for the same frequency and l...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 The top and middle panels show the comparison between model estim...

Figure 8.2 The 30‐minute average 2D map of a GNSS TEC snapshot that shows st...

Figure 8.3 GPS scintillation observations (black circles) overlaid onto a GP...

Figure 8.4 Plots available through the Cedar Madrigal web site illustrating ...

Figure 8.5 The panels on the left side show the vertical electron density di...

Figure 8.6 The statistical view of GNSS ROTI distribution as a function of l...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Sunspot cycles and the occurrence and intensity (using Ap index) ...

Figure 9.2 Growth of the US high‐voltage transmission network and the annual...

Figure 9.3 Vector intensity of geomagnetic field disturbances at numerous ma...

Figure 9.4 Magnetic field environment model using the vector data from Figur...

Figure 9.5 Peak geo‐electric field from a 2400 nT/min electrojet threat.

Figure 9.6 Multiple 1‐D ground models for the US grid.

Figure 9.7 Comparison of calculated and measured electric fields for 4 Nov 1...

Figure 9.8 Comparison of measured and calculated GIC waveforms at Chester, M...

Figure 9.9 Map of 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV substations and transmission ne...

Figure 9.10 Miles of 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV transmission lines in US gri...

Figure 9.11 Number of 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV transformers in US grid mod...

Figure 9.12 Range of transmission line resistance for the major kV‐rating cl...

Figure 9.13 Transformer MVAr increase versus GIC for 500 kV single phase and...

Figure 9.14 Transformer MVAr increase versus GIC for 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765...

Figure 9.15 Demographic estimates of 345 kV transformers: single phase vs. t...

Figure 9.16 Demographic estimates of 500 kV transformers: single phase vs. t...

Figure 9.17 Demographic estimates of 765 kV transformers: single phase vs. t...

Figure 9.18 BPA 500 kV transformer demographics: single phase vs. three phas...

Figure 9.19 BPA 230 kV transformer demographics: single phase vs. three phas...

Figure 9.20 Normal excitation current in 500 kV transformer.

Figure 9.21 Distorted excitation current with 5 Amps/phase of GIC.

Figure 9.22 Distorted excitation current with 25 Amps/phase of GIC.

Figure 9.23 Distorted excitation current with 100 Amps/phase of GIC.

Figure 9.24 Transformer total load current: normal conditions (blue) and wit...

Figure 9.25 Pattern of geoelectric field and GIC flows in New England region...

Figure 9.26 Peak dB/dt observed by region on 13–14 March 1989.

Figure 9.27 GIC and geoelectric field conditions: 7:45 UT, 13 March 1989.

Figure 9.28 Simulation of geomagnetic conditions at 11:26 UT on 13 March 198...

Figure 9.29 Reported North American power system impacts, 13 March 1989 for ...

Figure 9.30 Reported North American power system impacts, 13 March 1989 for ...

Figure 9.31 Simulated 21:50 UT, 13 March 1989, conditions.

Figure 9.32 Simulated 22:00 UT, 13 March 1989, conditions. The intense geoma...

Figure 9.33 Simulation of US power grid conditions at 21:44 UT on 13 March 1...

Figure 9.34 Simulation of US power grid conditions at 21:51 UT on 13 March 1...

Figure 9.35 Simulation of US power grid conditions at 21:57 UT on 13 March 1...

Figure 9.36 Simulation of US power grid conditions at 22:09 UT on 13 March 1...

Figure 9.37 Reported North American power system impacts, 13–14 March 1989 f...

Figure 9.38 Simulated 01:20 UT, 14 March 1989, conditions.

Figure 9.39 World map of measurement sites considered for the evaluation of ...

Figure 9.40 Comparison of the measured SI event on 18 March 2002 at 13:23 UT...

Figure 9.41 Locations of the four magnetometer sites for electrojet comparis...

Figure 9.42 Horizontal B fields at four sites for 29 October 2003.

Figure 9.43 Tromso horizontal B‐fields for 4‐month period in 1994.

Guide

Introduction: Space Weather Underlies Reliable Technologies

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

List of Contributors

Preface

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

Wiley End User License Agreement

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Space Physics and Aeronomy Collection Volume 5 Geophysical Monograph 262

Space Weather Effects and Applications

Anthea J. CosterPhilip J. EricksonLouis J. Lanzerotti

Editors

Yongliang ZhangLarry J. Paxton

Collection Editors in Chief

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Coster, A. J. (Anthea J.), editor. | Erickson, Philip, J. 1965– editor. | Lanzerotti, Louis J., editor.Title: Space weather effects and applications / Anthea J. Coster, Philip J. Erickson, Louis J. Lanzerotti, editors.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐American Geophysical Union, 2021. | Series: Geophysical monograph series | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020042802 | ISBN 9781119507574 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119815594 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119815587 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Technology–Environmental aspects. | Space environment.Classification: LCC TD174 .S673 2021 | DDC 600–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020042802

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © John Oertel, Green Pepper Media LLC, provided courtesy of Dr. Lanzerotti

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Daniel N. BakerLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA

Timothy S. BastianNational Radio Astronomy ObservatoryCharlottesville, Virginia, USA

Michael BodeauNorthrup Grumman Aerospace SystemsRedondo Beach, California, USA (ret.)

Gary S. BustJohns Hopkins UniversityApplied Physics LaboratoryLaurel, Maryland, USA

Anthea J. CosterHaystack ObservatoryMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyWestford, Massachusetts, USA

Philip J. EricksonHaystack ObservatoryMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyWestford, Massachusetts, USA

Dale E. GaryCenter for Solar‐Terrestrial ResearchNew Jersey Institute of TechnologyNewark, New Jersey, USA

John KappenmanStorm Analysis ConsultantsDuluth, Minnesota, USA

Louis J. LanzerottiNew Jersey Institute of Technology andAlcatel Lucent Bell LaboratoriesNew Jersey, USA (ret.)

William LilesHamSCI CommunityVirginia, USA

Christopher J. MertensSpace Radiation GroupNASA Langley Research CenterHampton, Virginia, USA

Cathryn MitchellDepartment of Electronic and Electrical EngineeringUniversity of BathBath, UK

Marcin D. PilinskiLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA

William RadaskyMetatech CorporationGoleta, California, USA

Eric K. SuttonSpace Weather Technology, Research, and Education CenterUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA

Jeffrey P. ThayerAnn and H. J. Smead Aerospace Engineering Sciences DepartmentUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, Colorado, USA

W. Kent TobiskaSpace Environment TechnologiesPacific Palisades, California, USA

Lawrence W. TownsendDepartment of Nuclear EngineeringThe University of TennesseeKnoxville, Tennessee, USA

Endawoke YizengawSpace Science Application LaboratoryThe Aerospace CorporationEl Segundo, California, USA

PREFACE

Since the advent of the electrical telegraph about 170 years ago, human technologies have greatly expanded in type and in purpose for civilian, commercial, and national security uses. These include electrical grids, pipelines, radar, wireless signaling, navigation, flying spacecraft, and telephony: technologies that cross continents, oceans, and now space. Regardless of specific application, successful operational use of these technologies has determined that compelling needs exist to take into account Sun and Earth space phenomena and processes in both design and implementation. Increasingly sophisticated technical systems require increasingly detailed understanding of solar and terrestrial space phenomena. Achieving this detailed understanding has been aided by the access to space provided by reliable launch vehicles, and by ever more sophisticated instrumentation deployed to measure Earth’s space environment. The data acquired can be incorporated into ever better models to describe and even forecast the environment and its changes. This volume contains nine chapters, written by experts, describing current‐day technologies and how solar and terrestrial space processes can affect them. Without these technologies, contemporary life in civil, commercial, and national security realms would be very different, and arguably impossible. One chapter in this volume outlines a number of issues related to human survival in the space radiation environment inside and outside Earth’s magnetosphere. An epilogue closes by looking to the future in this broad area of applied geophysics. As the historical record demonstrates, despite specific qualities such as form and function, there is a high likelihood that some electrical technologies yet to be implemented or invented will always require design features whose goals are to ensure successful operations under all levels of solar and terrestrial conditions. The study of these environmental conditions in both basic and applied form will thus remain essential for the future.

Anthea J. CosterHaystack ObservatoryMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyWestford, Massachusetts, USA

Philip J. EricksonHaystack ObservatoryMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyWestford, Massachusetts, USA

Louis J. LanzerottiNew Jersey Institute of Technology andAlcatel Lucent Bell LaboratoriesNew Jersey, USA (ret.)

Introduction: Space Weather Underlies Reliable Technologies

Louis J. Lanzerotti1, Philip J. Erickson2, and Anthea J. Coster2

1 New Jersey Institute of Technology and Alcatel Lucent Bell Laboratories, New Jersey, USA (ret.)

1 Haystack Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Westford, Massachusetts, USA

Descriptions and understandings of the space environment around Earth have grown exponentially over the centuries since William Gilbert described the Earth as a “great magnet” in his classic book De Magnete (1600). Gilbert used a model Earth, called a terrella, in his work, and studied several aspects of what can be called “electricity,” including static electricity using amber because of its attractive properties. The invention of the telescope concept by Hans Lippershey and the use of the telescope by Galileo Galilei for astronomical (and thus space environment) purposes (including studies of the Moon and Jupiter’s four major moons) occurred in the decade following the publication of De Magnete.

Initial use of electrical phenomena for practical purposes by humans can perhaps be attributed to the development of the lightning rod in about 1749 by Benjamin Franklin, and of the telegraph system patented in 1837 by Samuel F. B. Morris. The telegraph system revolutionized long‐distance communications for personal, commercial, and military purposes. The long grounded wires of the first telegraph systems in the eastern United States and in western and southern Europe formed the detector arrays that first gave evidence of the coupling of Earth’s space environment to human technologies. The engineering superintendent of the Midland Railway Company, William Henry Barlow, first documented “spontaneous” currents in the electrical circuits of railway telegraph systems (Barlow, 1849). His data, purposefully taken over a two‐week period to study the subject, showed clear diurnal variations in the electrical currents. Barlow also wrote that “in every case which has come under my observation, the telegraph needles have been deflected whenever aurora has been visible.”

The large geomagnetic storm that occurred following the discovery by amateur solar astronomer Richard Carrington of the first white light solar flare on 1 September 1859, caused havoc in the telegraph systems of Europe and the U.S. (Prescott, 1866). One example of the havoc of this singular “Carrington event” was that for lengthy intervals the telegraph between Boston and Portland, Maine, could be operated solely on the basis of the “spontaneous” electrical currents flowing in the wires; batteries were not needed at each end of the telegraph line to send messages. Disruptions of telegraphic communications occurred in systems in the U.S. and Europe throughout the extensive geomagnetic storm interval of 1–2 September 1859.

It seemed clear that there was some type of significant coupling between Sun and Earth (including the generation of aurora) and the telegraph systems. But no authorities had any insight of what such couplings might be. Debate waged in the scientific and engineering literatures for several decades in the late 19th century. Indeed, an authority with the eminence of Lord Kelvin (William Thomson), whose analysis work was key in the implementation of the first trans‐Atlantic cable, argued in his presidential address to the Royal Society in 1892 that such Sun–Earth coupling was not physically possible (Kelvin, 1892).

Since the days of the advent of the electrical telegraph about 170 years ago, human technologies have greatly expanded in type and in purpose for civilian, commercial, and national security uses. Many of these important contemporary technology developments are illustrated in the figure. These depicted elements, relied on heavily by current society, must by necessity take into account phenomena and processes in Sun and near‐Earth space for their design, implementation, and ultimate successful operations. Since the time of the telegraph, several additional technologies have developed that use long conductors and are therefore susceptible to induced ground currents. These include electrical grids, pipelines, and telephony, both continental and transoceanic.

Successful operations of increasingly sophisticated technical systems require increasingly detailed understanding of solar and terrestrial space phenomena. This has been accomplished by the access to space provided by increasingly reliable launch vehicles since the late 1950s. Ever more sophisticated instrumentation has been deployed to measure Earth’s space environment. The data acquired can be incorporated into ever better models to describe and even forecast the environment and its changes. This also has the complementary result of better understanding the effects of the environment on contemporary technologies.

This volume was designed to provide a topical discussion of current day technologies and how they are affected by solar and terrestrial space processes. Without these technologies, contemporary life in civil, commercial, and national security realms would be very different, and indeed impossible. Access to space has also meant that humans can now live, with appropriate support systems, above the sensible atmosphere. Thus, a closely related topic, also covered in this volume, involves the many issues related to human survival in the space radiation environment inside and outside Earth’s magnetosphere. These issues deserve serious consideration prior to the planning and execution of projects involving a significant human presence in interplanetary space.

REFERENCES

Barlow, W. H. (1849). On the spontaneous electrical currents observed in the wires of the electric telegraph.

Proc. Royal Soc.

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(61), 1849.

Kelvin, Lord W. T. (1892).

Nature

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47

(109).

Prescott, G. B. (1866).

History, theory, and practice of the electric telegraph

. Boston: Ticknor & Fields.