Spherical and Fibrous Filler Composites E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Polymer Nano-, Micro- and Macrocomposites
- Sprache: Englisch
Scrutinizing various fillers, such as fly ash, inorganic nanoparticles, Kevlar and wood flour, this book exemplifies how the choice of filler influences the micro- and macroscopic behavior of the resulting polymer composites, such as friction, wear and impact resistance.
In so doing, the text brings together a number of composite systems using different polymer matrices, different filler systems as well as different processing conditions, thereby serving as a beneficial guide for readers so as to select a particular set of processing conditions or composite constituents for the enhancement of certain properties.
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Seitenzahl: 459
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Nanoparticle- and Nanofiber-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nanoparticles
1.3 Fibrous Nanomaterials
1.4 Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites
1.5 Fibrous-Nanomaterial-Based Polymer Nanocomposites
References
Chapter 2: Fabrication and Surface Characterization of Spherical Fly Ash Particle–Reinforced Epoxy Resin
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Matrix Material for Polymer Matrix Composites PMCs
2.3 Experimental Fabrication: Dough Prepared for Experiment Part
2.4 Testing and Characterization
2.5 This Research (Done by the Authors)
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 3: Morphology, Structure, and Properties of Carbon Fiber–Polyamide Composites
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Experiments
3.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Overview of Natural Fibers from Plant Resources
4.3 Natural-Fiber Composites
4.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy and USP Resin Composites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of Natural Fibers
5.3 Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composites
5.4 Natural-Fiber-Reinforced USP Resin Composites
5.5 Miscellaneous Thermoset Resin–Natural Fiber Composites
5.6 Market Trend – Future Perspectives
5.7 Summary
5.8 Tables on Mechanical Properties of Thermoset Resin–Natural Fiber Composites
References
Chapter 6: Influence of Surface Treatment of Fillers on Mechanical, Surface, and Water Sorption Behavior of Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene Composites
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Tribological Behavior of PA/Rice Bran and PA/Glass Bead Composites
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rice Bran Ceramics
7.3 Glass Beads
7.4 Preparation of PA/Rice Bran Ceramics and PA/Glass Bead Composites
7.5 Mechanical Properties of PA/Rice Bran Ceramics and PA/Glass Bead Composites
7.6 Friction and Wear Behavior of PA/Rice Bran Ceramics and PA/Glass Bead Composites
7.7 Effect of Severity of Sliding Contact on Wear Behavior of PA Composites
7.8 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Utilization of Waste Carbon as Reinforcement in Thermoset Composites
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Natural Fiber a Source of Carbonaceous Material
8.3 Physical Characterization of Carbon Black Particles
8.4 Extraction of Waste Carbon from Lignocellulosic Fiber
8.5 Thermoset Polymer Composite Reinforced with Waste Carbon
8.6 Results and Analysis
8.7 Mechanical Properties of Thermoset Polymer Composite
8.8 Tribological Properties of Thermoset Polymer Composite
References
Chapter 9: Coconut-Shell-Based Fillers for Partial Eco-Composites
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Experimental Procedure
9.3 Results and Discussion
9.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Biocomposites with Biopolyesters and Date Seed Powder
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Experiment
10.3 Results and Discussion
10.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Nanoparticle- and Nanofiber-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Overview
Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of differences in the sizes of particles and their resultant properties.
Figure 1.2 (a,b) Field-emission SEM images of the poly (cyclotriphosphazene-4,4′sulfonyldiphenol) (PZS) nanofibers. (c,d) HR-TEM images of the PZS nanofibers.
Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of electrospinning chamber. (Bae
et al.
[47]. Reproduced with permission of Springer Publishing Company.)
Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of the CVD system with a horizontal quartz tube placed in a furnace. A small quartz vial inside the quartz tube is used to trap zinc vapor during the synthesis process.
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of (a) pure PHBV and (b) composite ZnO NPs/PHBV fiber.
Figure 1.6 Dependence of (a) dielectric permittivity and (b) dielectric loss tangent of the PI/TiO
2
nanocomposite films on the concentration of nano-TiO
2
particles.
Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of fiber orientations with respect to the sliding direction.
Figure 1.8 Schematic representation of preparation of PS/AgNW nanocomposites with the latex-based process.
Figure 1.9 (a) Flexural strengths and (b) flexural moduli of PLA nanocomposite incorporating various amounts of pristine VGCF and PLA-VGCF.
Figure 1.10 Electrical conductivity of epoxy/VGCNFs nanocomposites with respect to VGCNFs content (inset: calculation of the critical exponent by fitting the logarithmic conductivity as a linear function of the logarithmic different between weight percent VGCNF content and critical concentration of VGCNF).
Figure 1.11 PPy-coated PLGA meshes. (a) Photographs of uncoated PLGA meshes (white, left) and PPy-PLGA meshes (black, right). (b) SEM micrograph of single strands of PPy-PLGA fibers. (c) SEM image of section of the PPy-PLGA meshes.
Figure 1.12 Volume electrical resistivity of AgNp and AgNw/epoxy-resin conductive film with various silver contents.
Chapter 2: Fabrication and Surface Characterization of Spherical Fly Ash Particle–Reinforced Epoxy Resin
Figure 2.1 SEM images of fly ash particles [1].
Figure 2.2 Gray and light-gray colors of fly ash [12].
Figure 2.3 Schematic of a typical coal-powered power station [7].
Figure 2.4 (a–d) SEM morphology of different fly ashes (a)
T
59, (b)
T
60, (c)
T
63, and (d)
T
64. (e) Normalized radiation as a function of wavelength.
Figure 2.5 Chemical composition of epoxy [27, 28].
Figure 2.6 (a) Chemical structure of diamine [28]. (b) Cross-linking mechanism in epoxy [28]. (c) Cross-linked network of epoxy [28].
Figure 2.7 Mixing of fly ash and resin.
Figure 2.8 Secondary ion sputtering [32].
Figure 2.9 Components of SIMS [32].
Figure 2.10 Schematic of SIMS instrument used in this study [32].
Figure 2.11 SIMS holders.
Figure 2.12 Principle of EDS.
Figure 2.13 Sample of ED spectra of jadeite (part), showing K peaks of Na, A1, and Si [34].
Figure 2.14 SIMS irradiated area of 10 wt% FA–epoxy as a dark rectangle.
Figure 2.15 SIMS for Si, Mg, Fe, S, Ca, K, and Al elements in 10 wt% fly ash–epoxy.
Figure 2.16 EDS spectra for 10 wt% FA–epoxy.
Figure 2.17 (a) SIMS for 50% FA–epoxy. (b) SIMS for elements Al, Mg, Ca, K, Fe, Si, and S in 50% fly ash–epoxy composite. (c) EDS spectra for 50% FA–epoxy showing Si, C, and O.
Chapter 3: Morphology, Structure, and Properties of Carbon Fiber–Polyamide Composites
Figure 3.1 (a) Tensile strength, (b) tensile modulus, (c) elongation at break, and (d) impact strength of PA6/CF composites.
Figure 3.2 SEM images of (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/CF15, and (d) PA/CF20 composites.
Figure 3.3 Nonisothermal crystalline curves of PA6/CF composites at various cooling rates: (a) PA6; (b) PA/CF10; (c) PA/CF15; and (d) PA/CF20.
Figure 3.4 Melting curves of PA/CF composites subsequent different cooling rates: (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/CF15, and (d) PA/CF20.
Figure 3.5 X-ray diffraction patterns for (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/CF15, and (d) PA/CF20 composites.
Figure 3.6 POM micrographs of (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/CF15, and (d) PA/CF20 composites.
Figure 3.7 TGA thermograms of PA6 matrix and its composites with CF, (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/CF15, and (d) PA/CF20.
Figure 3.8 SEM images of the CF samples, (a,b) carbon fiber and (c,d) the CF after surface treatment with silane coupling agent.
Figure 3.9 SEM images of (a) PA6 matrix, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/KCF10, and (d) PA/KCF20 composites.
Figure 3.10 Nonisothermal crystalline curves of PA6 and its composites at various cooling rates: (a) PA6; (b) PA/CF10; (c) PA/KCF10; and (d) PA/KCF20.
Figure 3.11 Melting curves of PA6 and its composites at subsequent different cooling rates: (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/KCF10, and (d) PA/KCF20.
Figure 3.12 XRD patterns of (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/KCF10, and (d) PA/KCF20 composites.
Figure 3.13 POM micrographs of (a) PA6, (b) PA/CF10, (c) PA/KCF10, and (d) PA/KCF20 composites.
Figure 3.14 TGA curves of PA6, PA/CF10, PA/KCF10, and PA/KCF20 composites.
Figure 3.15 Mechanical properties of PA/CF composites with different tougheners.
Figure 3.16 SEM images of PA6/CF composites with different tougheners after impact test, (a) PA/EVA/0, (b) PA/EPDM/0, and (c) PA/SEBS/0.
Figure 3.17 SEM and enlarged SEM images of PA6/CF composites with different tougheners after impact test: (a) PA/CF20, (b) PA/EVA/CF20, (c) PA/EPDM/CF20, and (d) PA/SEBS/CF20.
Figure 3.18 Nonisothermal crystalline curves of PA/CF composites with different tougheners at various cooling rates: (a) PA/CF20, (b) PA/EVA/CF20, (c) PA/EPDM/CF20, and (d) PA/SEBS/CF20.
Figure 3.19 Melting curves of PA6/toughener/CF composites subsequent nonisothermal crystalline: (a) A20; (b) PA/EVA/20; (c) PA/EPDM/20; and (d) PA/SEBS/20.
Figure 3.20 XRD patterns of PA/CF composites with different tougheners (a,b) and annealed at 160 °C (c,d) and 200 °C (e,f) for 4 h.
Figure 3.21 POM photographs of PA/CF composites with different tougheners: (a) pure PA6, (b) PA/EVA/0, (c) PA/EPDM/0, (d) PA/SEBS/0, (e) PA/CF20, (f) PA/EVA/CF20, (g) PA/EPDM/CF20, and (h) PA/SEBS/CF20.
Figure 3.22 TGA curves of PA/toughener/CF composites.
Chapter 4: Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
Figure 4.1 Microstructures, molecular structures of natural fiber.
Figure 4.2 The influence of chemical composition of natural fiber on the performance of fiber.
Figure 4.3 Common chemical surface modifications of natural fibers.
Figure 4.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of (a) untreated OPS, (b) alkali-treated OPS, (c) untreated OPS-UP composite, and (d) alkali-treated OPS-UP [43].
Figure 4.5 Effect of OPS size on tensile strength and flexural strength.
Figure 4.6 (a) Storage modulus (
E
′) and (b) loss modulus (
E
″) curves for 50% of different natural-fiber-reinforced polypropylene composite.
Figure 4.7 (a) DSC and (b) TGA curve of fiber constituents and untreated fiber.
Figure 4.8 TGA and DTG curves of untreated and alkali-treated oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber.
Figure 4.9 TGA curves of different percentages of oil palm shell (OPS) in polyester (UP) composite.
Figure 4.10 Effect of alkali treatment of RHP on the composite moisture absorption.
Figure 4.11 Effect of natural filler percentage on wear rate and COF of OPS-UP composite.
Chapter 6: Influence of Surface Treatment of Fillers on Mechanical, Surface, and Water Sorption Behavior of Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene Composites
Figure 6.1 SEM pictures of (a) cellulose, (b) sawdust, and (c) wheat straw.
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of silane treatment.
Figure 6.3 Torque versus time data for 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 wt% cellulose-loaded PP composites.
Figure 6.4 Variation of stabilization torque with respect to cellulose loading and treatment.
Figure 6.5 Effect of concentration of AS treatment on stabilization torque of 30 wt% fiber-loaded PP composites.
Figure 6.7 Effect of concentration of MAPP treatment on stabilization torque of 30 wt% fiber-loaded PP composites.
Figure 6.6 Effect of concentration of MS treatment on stabilization torque of 30 wt% fiber-loaded PP composites.
Figure 6.8 Effect of fiber loading on tensile strength of PP/CE, PP/SD, and PP/WS composites.
Figure 6.9 Effect of coupling agent on tensile strength of PP/CE, SD, and WS composites.
Figure 6.10 Effect of coupling agent on the experimental and calculated yield stress values of PP/CE composites with respect to volume fraction.
Figure 6.11 Effect of fiber loading and treatment type on Young's Modulus of PP/CE composites.
Figure 6.12 Effect of fiber and treatment type on Young's Modulus of PP fiber composites at 30 wt% fiber loading.
Figure 6.13 Effect of CE loading on strain at break and energy to break of untreated PP/CE composites.
Figure 6.14 Effect of fiber and treatment type on strain at break of PP/CE, SD, WS composites at 30 wt% fiber loading.
Figure 6.15 SEM images of (a) untreated, (b) AS-treated, (c) MS-treated, and (d) MAPP-treated CE/PP composites at 30 wt% loading and 100 times magnification.
Figure 6.17 SEM images of (a) untreated, (b) AS-treated, (c) MS-treated, and (d) MAPP-treated WS/PP composites at 30 wt% loading and 100 times magnification.
Figure 6.16 SEM images of (a) untreated, (b) AS-treated, (c) MS-treated, and (d) MAPP-treated SD/PP composites at 30 wt% loading and 100 times magnification.
Figure 6.18 SEM images of (a) untreated, (b) AS-treated, (c) MS-treated, and (d) MAPP-treated CE/PP composites at 30 wt% loading and 1000 times magnification.
Figure 6.19 Effect of coupling agents and fiber type on water sorption of composites.
Chapter 7: Tribological Behavior of PA/Rice Bran and PA/Glass Bead Composites
Figure 7.1 Friction coefficients and specific wear rates of thermoplastic resin/RBC composites: (a) friction coefficients and (b) specific wear rates [25].
Figure 7.2 SEM images of fillers: (a) RBC particles and (b) GBs.
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram of manufacturing process of PA composites.
Figure 7.4 SEM images of surfaces of (a) pure PA, (b) RBC 26 vol% composite, and (c) GB 26 vol% composites.
Figure 7.5 Friction tester: (a) linear-motion type and (b) rotation-motion type.
Figure 7.6 Relationship of friction coefficients with normal loads at: (a)
v
= 0.01 m s
−1
, (b)
v
= 0.1 m s
−1
, and (c)
v
= 1.0 m s
−1
.
Figure 7.7 Friction coefficients as a function of
P
max
v
.
Figure 7.8 Specific wear rates as a function of normal loads at: (a)
v
= 0.01 m s
−1
, (b)
v
= 0.1 m s
−1
, and (c)
v
= 1.0 m s
−1
.
Figure 7.9 Specific wear rates as a function of
P
max
v
.
Figure 7.10 SEM images of the worn surfaces at a normal load of 0.49 N and a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
: (a) RBC 26 vol%, (b) GB 26 vol% composites, and (c) pure PA.
Figure 7.11 SEM images of the worn surfaces at a normal load of 4.9 N and a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
: (a) RBC 26 vol%, (b) GB 26 vol% composites, and (c) pure PA.
Figure 7.12 SEM images of the worn surfaces at a normal load of 0.49 N and a sliding velocity of 1.0 m s
−1
: (a) RBC 26 vol%, (b) GB 26 vol% composites, and (c) pure PA.
Figure 7.13 Wear volume as a function of friction cycles at a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
and a normal load of 4.9 N.
Figure 7.14 SEM images of the worn surfaces at a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
and a normal load of 4.9 N in (a) 10
2
cycles, (b) 10
3
cycles for pure PA, (c)10
2
cycles, and (d)10
3
cycles for RBC 26 vol% composite.
Figure 7.15 Specific wear rates at a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
as a function of ratios of tensile stress to tensile strength.
Figure 7.16 Specific wear rates at a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
as a function of dimensionless parameter.
Figure 7.17 Optical images of the worn surfaces of the steel balls at a sliding velocity of 0.01 m s
−1
and a normal load of 4.9 N: (a) versus pure PA, (b) versus RBC 26 vol% composite, and (c) versus GB 26 vol% composite.
Chapter 8: Utilization of Waste Carbon as Reinforcement in Thermoset Composites
Figure 8.1 Molecular structures of cellulose and the (
β
1 → 4) glycoside bond.
Figure 8.2 A schematic representation of the hemicellulose backbone of arborescent plants.
Figure 8.3 The three phenyl propane monomers in lignin.
Figure 8.4 Basic unit of pectin: poly-α-(1-4)-d-galacturonic acid.
Figure 8.7 XRD analysis of coconut shell particulates.
Figure 8.5 Flow diagram of preparation of activated carbon black.
Figure 8.6 XRD analysis of wood apple shell particulates.
Figure 8.8 Wood apple shell particulates.
Figure 8.9 Coconut shell particulates.
Figure 8.10 SEM images of raw, carbon black at 800 °C and activated carbon black at 800 °C particulates of wood apple shell. (a) Raw wood apple shell particulates, (b) carbonized wood apple shell particulates at 800 °C, and (c) activated wood apple shell particulates at 800 °C.
Figure 8.11 SEM images of raw, carbon black at 800 °C and activated carbon black at 800 °C particulates of coconut shell. (a) Raw coconut shell particulates, (b) carbonized coconut shell particulates at 800 °C, and (c) activated coconut shell particulates at 800 °C.
Figure 8.12 Effect of filler content on tensile strength of (a) wood apple shell (b) coconut shell particulate polymer composite.
Figure 8.13 Effect of filler content on flexural strength of (a) wood apple shell (b) coconut shell particulate polymer composite.
Figure 8.14 Variation of erosion rate with different impact angle of (a) raw (b) 400 °C (c) 600 °C (d) 800 °C, and (e) activated (800 °C) wood apple shell particulate composites at impact velocity 48 m s
−1
.
Figure 8.15 Variation of erosion rate with different impact angles of (a) raw (b) 400 °C (c) 600 °C (d) 800 °C, and (e) activated (800 °C) coconut shell particulate composites at impact velocity 48 m s
−1
.
Chapter 9: Coconut-Shell-Based Fillers for Partial Eco-Composites
Figure 9.1 Photograph of a coconut.
Figure 9.2 (a) The coconut shell. (b) The fresh coconut shell particles (CSF). (c) The coconut shell ash (CSA) particles.
Figure 9.3 The tensile samples. (a) Unreinforced matrix and (b) reinforced epoxy matrix.
Figure 9.4 The bending and hardness test samples.
Figure 9.5 (a) XRD pattern of the coconut shell fresh particle (CSF). (b) XRD pattern of the coconut shell ash (CSA) particle. (c) SEM/EDS microstructure of the coconut shell fresh particles (CSF). (d) SEM/EDS microstructure of the coconut shell ash (CSA) particles.
Figure 9.6 Variation of density with weight percentage of coconut shell particles.
Figure 9.7 (a) SEM/EDS microstructure of the epoxy matrix. (b) SEM/EDS microstructure of the epoxy matrix reinforced with 5 wt%CSFp. (c) SEM/EDS microstructure of the epoxy matrix reinforced with 5 wt%CSAp. (d) SEM/EDS microstructure of the epoxy matrix reinforced with 15 wt%CSFp. (e) SEM/EDS microstructure of the epoxy matrix reinforced with 15 wt%CSAp.
Figure 9.8 (a) Variation of elastic modulus with weight percentage of coconut shell particles. (b) Variation of tensile strength with weight percentage of coconut shell particles. (c) Variation of flexure strength with weight percentage of coconut shell particles. (d) Variation of hardness values with weight percentage of coconut shell particles. (e) Variation of impact energy with weight percentage of coconut shell particles.
Figure 9.9 (a) DTA/TGA scan of the epoxy matrix. (b) DTA/TGA scan of the epoxy matrix/15 wt%CSFp. (c) DTA/TGA scan of the epoxy matrix/15 wt%CSAp.
Chapter 10: Biocomposites with Biopolyesters and Date Seed Powder
Figure Scheme 10.1 The design of eco-friendly composite materials.
Figure 10.1 (a) Light microscopy image of DSP; (b) TEM image of the particles; and (c–e) EDX analysis of the composition of DSP at three different locations on the TEM image.
Figure 10.2 (a) FT-IR spectrum of pure DSP; (b) DSC and (c) TGA (nitrogen) thermograms of pure DSP; and (d) TGA-MS analysis of powder in air environment.
Figure 10.3 (a) Melting and (b) crystallization curves for PBAT and its composites with DSP.
Figure 10.4 (a) Melting (first heating cycle) and (b) crystallization curves for PLA and its composites with DSP. Melting (second heating cycle) and corresponding crystallization curves are shown in (c,d), respectively.
Figure 10.5 (a) Differential and (b) cumulative TGA thermograms of PBAT and composites.
Figure 10.6 (a) Differential and (b) cumulative TGA thermograms of PLA and composites.
Figure 10.7 Storage modulus of (a) PBAT and (b) PLA composites as a function of filler content.
Figure 10.8 Loss modulus of (a) PBAT and (b) PLA composites as a function of filler content.
Figure 10.9 Complex viscosity of (a) PBAT and (b) PLA composites with increasing amount of DSP.
Figure 10.10 van Gurp compatibility analysis for (a) PBAT and (b) PLA composites.
Figure 10.11 (a) Light microscopy and (b) TEM images of PBAT composite with 10% DSP content. (c,d) Correspond to light microscopy and TEM images of PBAT composite with 30% DSP content. The dark phase in these images represents the cross section of filler particles.
Figure 10.12 (a) Light microscopy and (b) TEM images of PLA composite with 10% DSP content. (c,d) Correspond to light microscopy and TEM images of PLA composite with 30% DSP content. The dark phase in these images represents the cross section of filler particles.
Figure 10.13 AFM height micrographs of PBAT composites with (a) 10% and (b) 30% DSP content; micrographs of the PLA composites with (c) 10% and (d) 30% DSP content.
Figure 10.14 Weight loss versus soil embedding time for PLA, PBAT, and composites. I: PLA; II: PLA + 20% DSP; III: PLA + 40% DSP; IV: PBAT; V: PBAT + 20% DSP; VI: PBAT + 40% DSP.
Figure 10.15 Optical micrographs of (a) PBAT and (b) PLA and their composites after embedding into natural soil for 120 days. The width of the images reads 100 µm.
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Nanoparticle- and Nanofiber-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Overview
Table 1.1 Filtration resistances of neat and Al
2
O
3
-doped PES membranes
Chapter 2: Fabrication and Surface Characterization of Spherical Fly Ash Particle–Reinforced Epoxy Resin
Table 2.1 Normal range of chemical composition of fly ash produced from different coal types [17]
Table 2.2 Percentages of fly ash and the epoxy in samples
Table 2.3 FA constituents with their percentage in the used fly ash
Table 2.4 Fly ash–epoxy composite at 10 wt%
Table 2.5 Fly ash–epoxy composite at 50 wt%
Chapter 3: Morphology, Structure, and Properties of Carbon Fiber–Polyamide Composites
Table 3.2 Composition of PA6/CF composites
Table 3.6 Composition of PA6/toughener/CF composites
Table 3.1 Nonisothermal crystallization parameters and subsequent melting parameters of PA/CF composites at various cooling rates
Table 3.3 Mechanical properties of PA6/CF composites
Table 3.4 Nonisothermal crystallization parameters of PA6 matrix and its composites at various cooling rates
Table 3.5 Melting parameters of PA6 matrix and its composites after nonisothermal crystallization
Table 3.7 Mechanical properties of PA/toughener/CF composites
Table 3.8 Nonisothermal crystalline parameters of PA6/toughener/CF composites at various cooling rates
Chapter 4: Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
Table 4.1 Production of biocomposites (WPC and NFC) in the European Union 2012 and forecast for 2020 [8]
Table 4.2 Comparison between common natural fibers and two synthetic fibers from economy, technical, and ecological points of view
Table 4.3 Chemical composition percentage (wt%) of common lignocellulosic fiber
Table 4.4 Physical and mechanical properties of plant fiber [29, 30]
Table 4.5 The three main stages of mass loss of natural fibers
Chapter 5: Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy and USP Resin Composites
Table 5.1 Fruit-fiber-reinforced thermoset polymer composites.
Table 5.7 Seed-fiber-reinforced thermoset polymer composites.
Chapter 6: Influence of Surface Treatment of Fillers on Mechanical, Surface, and Water Sorption Behavior of Natural-Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene Composites
Table 6.1 Percentage increase in tensile strength with varying treatment type and its amount for 30 wt% fiber-loaded composites compared to untreated composites
Table 6.2 Percentage decrease in water sorption with changing coupling agent for CE-, SD-, and WS-loaded composites
Chapter 7: Tribological Behavior of PA/Rice Bran and PA/Glass Bead Composites
Table 7.1 Mechanical properties of fillers
Table 7.2 Mechanical properties of pure PA and PA composites
Chapter 8: Utilization of Waste Carbon as Reinforcement in Thermoset Composites
Table 8.1 Composition of lignocellulosic fibers in several sources on dry basis
Table 8.2 Proximate analysis of activated raw wood apple and coconut shell particles based on impregnation ratio
Table 8.3 Survey Table on research carried out on various conditions of carbonization and activation processes with specific application
Table 8.4 Typical properties of some thermosetting resins
Table 8.5 Chemical composition of raw shell particles
Table 8.6 Proximate analysis of lignocellulosic particulates
Table 8.7 Ultimate analysis of lignocellulosic particulates
Chapter 10: Biocomposites with Biopolyesters and Date Seed Powder
Table 10.1 Assignment of the bands to the constituents of DSP [19]
Table 10.2 Calorimetric properties of PBAT and PLA composites.
a
Table 10.3 Mechanical properties of the PBAT-DSP composites (average of five measurements)
Table 10.4 Mechanical properties of the PLA-DSP composites (average of five measurements)
Edited by Vikas Mittal
Spherical and Fibrous Filler Composites
Editor
Dr. Vikas Mittal
Department of Chemical Engineering
The Petroleum Institute
Abu Dhabi
UAE
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List of Contributors
Samir Kumar Acharya
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Sector 1
769008 Rourkela
Odisha
India
Victor Sunday Aigbodion
University of Nigeria
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Nsukka 410001
Nigeria
Ulas Atikler
Department of Chemical Engineering
İzmir Institute of Technology
Gülbahçe Kampüsü
35430 Urla İzmir
Turkey
Sri Bandyopadhyay
University of New South Wales
School of Materials Science and Engineering
College Road
Kensington 2052
Sydney
Australia
Ali Usman Chaudhry
Department of Chemical Engineering
The Petroleum Institute
Abu Dhabi
UAE
Sujan Debnath
Curtin University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CDT 250
Miri 98009
Sarawak
Malaysia
Sheila Devasahayam
Federation University
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Australia
Kannaiyan Dinakaran
Thiruvalluvar University
Department of Chemistry
Serkadu
632115 Vellore
Tamilnadu
India
Suleiman Bolaji Hassan
University of Lagos
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Akoka Yaba 100001
Lagos State
Nigeria
Kazuo Hokkirigawa
Tohoku University
Graduate School of Engineering
Aramaki Aza Aoba 6-6-01
Aoba-ku 980-8579
Sendai
Japan
Shahad Ibraheem
University of New South Wales
School of Materials Science and Engineering
College Road
Kensington 2052
Sydney
Australia
Munusamy Kesava
Thiruvalluvar University
Department of Chemistry
Serkadu
632115 Vellore
Tamilnadu
India
Nadejda B. Matsko
Graz Centre for Electron Microscopy
Steyrergasse 17
8010 Graz
Austria
Vikas Mittal
Department of Chemical Engineering
The Petroleum Institute
Abu Dhabi
UAE
Omid Nabinejad
Curtin University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CDT 250
Miri 98009
Sarawak
Malaysia
Shakuntala Ojha
Talla Padmavathi Engineering College
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Warangal
Telangana
India
Gujjala Raghavendra
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Warangal
506004 Warangal
Telangana
India
Lin Sang
Dalian University of Technology
School of Automotive Engineering
Chemical Building
West Campus
No. 2 Linggong Road
Dalian 116024
China
Jacob Sarki
Department of Aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting Service
Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria
Ikeja 100001
Lagos
Nigeria
Kei Shibata
Tohoku University
Graduate School of Engineering
Aramaki Aza Aoba 6-6-01
Aoba-ku 980-8579
Sendai
Japan
Owen Standard
University of New South Wales
School of Materials Science and Engineering
College Road
Kensington 2052
Sydney
Australia
Funda Tihminlioglu
Department of Chemical Engineering
İzmir Institute of Technology
Gülbahçe Kampüsü
35430 Urla İzmir
Turkey
Muthukumaraswamy Rangaraj Vengatesan
Department of Chemical Engineering
The Petroleum Institute
Abu Dhabi
UAE
Zhiyong Wei
Dalian University of Technology
Department of Polymer Science and Materials
School of Chemical Engineering
Chemical Building
West Campus
No. 2 Linggong Road
Dalian 116024
China
Takeshi Yamaguchi
Tohoku University
Graduate School of Engineering
Aramaki Aza Aoba 6-6-01
Aoba-ku 980-8579
Sendai
Japan
Preface
Spherical and fibrous fillers are added to polymer matrices in order to enhance their mechanical, rheological, calorimetric, thermal, and flammability properties. Large varieties of spherical and fibrous fillers have been reported in the literature to achieve such enhanced properties. Uniform dispersion and distribution of fillers in polymer matrices are required for efficient performance, which depends on the processing conditions and composite constituents. This volume brings together a number of composite systems using different polymer matrices, different filler systems, and different processing conditions. Thus, it serves as a beneficial guide to the readers to select a particular set of processing conditions or composite constituents in order to enhance a particular set of properties. The volume also presents examples of micro- and macrocomposites along with their importance in different applications.
Chapter 1 outlines the synthetic methods for the generation of nanoparticles and fibrous nanomaterials along with the effect of size and dispersion of nanoparticles in polymer matrices on the nanocomposite thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. In addition, various applications of nanoparticle- and fiber-reinforced polymer nanocomposites such as coatings, microelectronics, and biomedical applications have been summarized. Chapter 2 provides details on the fabrication and surface characterization of spherical fly ash particles, which are used to reinforce epoxy resins. Chapter 3 reports the fabrication of polyamide/carbon fiber composites. The effect of the carbon fiber and toughened elastomers on the mechanical properties, crystallization behavior, morphology, crystal structure, and thermal stability has been quantified. Chapter 4 introduces natural-fiber-reinforced composites (NFCs) and discusses up-to-date research advancements in the development and characterization of NFCs. The benefits and challenges to the development and applications of lignocellulose-derived fillers are discussed in addition to their complete physicochemical characteristics including chemical compositions, thermal and mechanical properties, and response to surface treatment and modifications. More specifically, Chapter 5 describes natural-fiber-reinforced epoxy and USP resin composites. Chapter 6 focuses on the influence of surface treatment of fillers on the mechanical, surface, and water sorption behavior of natural-fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites, whereas the tribological behavior of PA/rice bran and PA/glass bead composites has been detailed in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 describes the routes for waste carbon utilization in thermoset materials. In Chapter 9, coconut-shell-filled recycled epoxy composites are described. Two set of composites were produced using coconut shell flour particles (CSF) and coconut shell ash particles (CSA). In Chapter 10, composites of date seed powder (DSP) with biopolyesters poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly-l-lactide (PLA) have been demonstrated.
Abu Dhabi November 2015
Vikas Mittal
Chapter 1Nanoparticle- and Nanofiber-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Overview
Muthukumaraswamy Rangaraj Vengatesan and Vikas Mittal
1.1 Introduction
Polymer nanocomposites are three-dimensional (3-D) materials generated by the combination of polymer matrix with different reinforcement materials, in which at least one of the filler dimensions is on the nanoscale level [1–3]. Generally, zero-dimensional (0-D), one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D), and 3-D nanomaterials are used as filler materials for the fabrication of polymer nanocomposites. Nanoscale materials possess a large surface area for a given volume [4–7]. It is also well known that the high aspect ratio of nanomaterials (especially fibers) provides superior nanoreinforcement effect on polymer nanocomposites properties. Predictably, the properties of polymer nanocomposites are significantly influenced by the size of the nanomaterial and the quality of interface between the matrix material and the filler material [8]. The nanomaterials can interact chemically or physically with polymer interfaces, thus, resulting in nanocomposites with superior properties compared to virgin polymer. As a result, the incorporation of even low weight percent of filler is observed to improve the mechanical properties, thermal stability, heat distortion temperature, chemical resistance, electrical conductivity, and optical clarity of the parent polymer systems significantly. The polymer nanocomposites are ideal candidate materials in many applications, including aerospace applications, automobile manufacturing, biomedical, coatings, and sensors [9]. Different types of nanoparticles and nanofibers have been employed in the literature to develop the polymer nanocomposites.
This review is focused on the fundamental synthetic methods and effect of the nanofillers such as spherical nanoparticles and nanofibers on the properties of the polymer matrices. The applications of nanoparticle- and nanofiber-based nanocomposites have also been summarized and discussed.
1.2 Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles (NPs) with sizes of 5–100 nm have gained significant attention from the perspective of both academic and industrial use in a wide range of applications (Figure 1.1) [10]. This study focuses on such nanoparticles in zero-dimensional (0-D) architecture with controllable size. A variety of metals and metal oxides have been adopted to fabricate the nanoparticles within a nanoscale level, for example, core–shell nanoparticles and nanodots. These nanoparticles exhibit the size- and surface-area-controllable properties such as optical, magnetic, electrical, and catalytic. These properties lead to the use of nanoparticles in different areas such as optical, biomedical, and sensors [11].
Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of differences in the sizes of particles and their resultant properties.
(Kim et al. [10]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
1.2.1 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
Different physical and chemical routes have been used to prepare the nanoparticles such as the following:
1.
Physical methods
a.
Thermal decomposition [12–15]
b.
Ball milling [16–18]
c.
Spray pyrolysis [19–21].
2.
Chemical methods
a.
Sol–gel synthesis [22–24]
b.
Precipitation [25, 26]
c.
Hydrothermal [27–29]
d.
Solvothermal [30–32].
1.3 Fibrous Nanomaterials
Fibrous nanomaterials consist of both nanofibers and nanowires in one-dimensional (1D) architecture with unique properties. These materials exhibit high surface area and porosity with a diameter ranging from 50 to 500 nm. Different types of fibrous materials are available such as naturally occurring nanofibers (natural sepiolite clay fibers, cellulose fibers, sisal fibers, etc.), carbon fibers (CFs), metal nanofibers/wires (silver (Ag) nanowires, gold (Au) nanowires, etc.), metal-oxide-based fibers (zinc oxide (ZnO) nanofibers, titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanofibers and wires, silica (SiO2) nanofibers, cerium dioxide (CeO2) nanofibers, copper oxide (CuO) nanowires, etc.), bionanofibers, and polymer nanofibers. Fibrous nanomaterials have been widely used in multiple applications such as composites, microelectronics, biosensors, sensors, biomedical, and coatings. Apart from the natural fibers, several approaches have been used to fabricate the fibrous nanomaterials. Among these, self-assembling and electrospinning techniques have been widely used for the preparation of nanofibers.
1.3.1 Self-Assembly Method
Self-assembly is one of the common techniques used to prepare fibrous nanomaterials via intermolecular noncovalent interactions, such as van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and ionic and coordinative interactions [33]. The nanofibrous materials are prepared in different physiochemical conditions such as solvothermal, hydrothermal via self-assembling mechanism. In this method, ionic liquids, biomolecules, surfactants, and block copolymers have been used as soft templates to prepare the nanofibers/wires. Jian et al. prepared Ag nanowires with a diameter in the range of 15–25 nm [34]. The Ag nanowires were grown in the presence of gemini surfactant 1,3-bis(cetyldimethylammonium) propane dibromide via solvothermal method [34]. Song et al. synthesized platinum nanowire networks by chemical reduction of a platinum complex using sodium borohydride in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)in a two-phase water–chloroform system as the soft template [35]. Chang et al. prepared thin and long Ag nanowires in the presence of ionic liquids, tetrapropylammonium chloride, and tetrapropylammonium bromide with a diameter of 40–50 nm. This method has been widely utilized for the fabrication of bio-based nanofibers in biomedical applications [36]. Zhou et al. synthesized net-like ZnO nanofibers via a surfactant-assisted hydrothermal method. The nanofibers were grown in the presence of polyethylene glycol (PEG) via self-assembling method [37]. Charbonneau et al. (2012) developed rutile TiO2 nanofibers via controlled forced hydrolysis of titanium tetrachloride solution [38]. Dong et al. [39] synthesized zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) nanowires via the solvothermal reaction of zirconium tetra-n-propoxide Zr (OPrn) with ethylene glycol and 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid at 160 °C [40]. Polymer nanofibers have been synthesized via self-assembling of block copolymers. The nanofibers exhibited a diameter of approximately 80 nm and the length was in the range of several hundred nanometers. These polymer nanofibers were used as template materials for the fabrication of carbon nanofibers (CNFs) (Figure 1.2) [41, 42]. Conducting metal wires have been prepared using bimolecular template via self-assembling method [43].
Figure 1.2 (a,b) Field-emission SEM images of the poly (cyclotriphosphazene-4,4′sulfonyldiphenol) (PZS) nanofibers. (c,d) HR-TEM images of the PZS nanofibers.
(Fu et al. [41]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
1.3.2 Electrospinning Method
Electrospinning is one of the most versatile processes for fabricating nanofibers. A variety of fibrous (fibers/wires) nanomaterials such as metals, metal oxides, polymers, and carbon have been fabricated using this method. The other physical methods such as hydrothermal and solvothermal have certain limitations for the large-scale production and uniform size of nanomaterials. However, electrospinning is a facile process to produce various nanofibers at larger scales. In this process, polymer solution or precursor of metal or metal oxide solution is filled in a pipette, which is held in between the two electrodes containing DC voltage supply in the kilovolts range. The repulsive force of the precursor solution should be higher than its surface tension. The solution drops from the tip of the pipette with high voltage, thus, generating a fibrous material. The size of the fibrous material mainly depends on the parameters such as solution viscosity, conductivity, applied voltage, spinneret tip-to-collector distance, and humidity. The electrospinning technology is widely used to prepare the polymer composite fiber material [44]. Shao et al. developed poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/silica (SiO2) composite thin fibers in the diameter of 200–400 nm via electrospinning method [45]. Dong et al. prepared polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-SiO2 composite nanofiber membrane via electrospinning method [46]. Bae et al. fabricated porous poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) nanofibers via electrospinning technique using a binary solvent system (8 : 2 dichloromethane: dimethylformamide) under controlled humidity (Figure 1.3) [47]. A number of electrospun polymer nanofibers have been utilized as template materials for the preparation of carbon, metal, and metal oxide nanofibrous materials. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a widely used polymer precursor for the preparation of CNFs via electrospinning method. Gu et al. prepared PAN nanofibers as precursors of CNFs with diameters in the range of 130–280 nm through electrospinning method [48]. Zhou et al. developed aligned CFs from the aligned PAN fibers via electrospinning method. The aligned CFs exhibited anisotropic electrical conductivities and good mechanical properties [49]. Park et al. fabricated hollow ZnO nanofibers from the electrospun polymer. The ZnO precursor deposited on the electrospun polymer and subsequent heat treatment resulted in the selective removal of the polymer template and the formation of hollow ZnO nanofibers [50]. Liu et al. fabricated TiO2 nanofibers with diameter ranging 600–700 nm via electrospinning technique using polylactic acid (PLA), tetrabutyl titanate, and hexafluoroisopropanol as a spinning solution [51]. Metal nanofibers/wires have been prepared by this method for use in microelectronics application. Wu et al. developed high-performance transparent electrodes with copper (Cu) nanofiber networks by a low-cost and scalable electrospinning process. The Cu nanofibers exhibited high transmittance with low shear rate [52]. Gries et al. prepared gold nanowires (AuNWs) using highly concentrated aqueous dispersions of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) by the electrospinning method in the presence of PVA and subsequent annealing at higher temperature [53].
Figure 1.3 Schematic representation of electrospinning chamber. (Bae et al. [47]. Reproduced with permission of Springer Publishing Company.)
1.3.3 Miscellaneous Methods
1.3.3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method (CVD)
1-D fibrous nanomaterials have also been synthesized via vapor phase method. In this method, vapor species are generated from the precursor via evaporation, chemical reduction, and gaseous reaction steps. Subsequently, the generated vapor species are condensed on the solid surface. Generally, the vapor-phase synthesis process is carried out at higher temperatures from 500 to 1500 °C and produces high-quality nanowires [54]. A variety of methods are involved in the preparation of nanowires on vapor-phase level. Among these, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is one of the techniques to fabricate the fibrous material on nanoscale level. Chang et al. synthesized ZnO nanowires via modified CVD method (Figure 1.4) [55]. CNFs have been synthesized in high yields (>70%) by CVD method in the presence of Co/LiF catalyst using acetylene as the carbon source [56]. Fu et al. prepared large quantities of silicon carbide (SiC) nanowires using CH3SiCl3 (methyl trichlorosilane (MTS)) and H2 as the precursors by CVD method. The SiC nanowires exhibited a single-crystal β-SiC structure, with diameters of about 70 nm [57].
Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of the CVD system with a horizontal quartz tube placed in a furnace. A small quartz vial inside the quartz tube is used to trap zinc vapor during the synthesis process.
(Chang et al. [55]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
1.3.3.2 Thermal Evaporation
Thermal evaporation is one of the physical deposition methods and is widely used to fabricate 1-D nanomaterials. The thermal evaporation process is more facile, flexible, and cheap. Many metal oxide fibrous nanomaterials have been synthesized using this method. For example, SnO2, TiO2, indium oxide (In2O3), ZnO, and SiO2 nanowires have been prepared by this method [58–62].
1.4 Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites
The molecular-level uniform dispersion of nanoparticles can lead to a large interfacial area in the polymer nanocomposites. Therefore, the strong interfacial interaction between the organic and inorganic phases creates a high impact on the properties of the polymer nanocomposites. A variety of nanoparticles have been utilized for the development of polymer nanocomposites, which result in materials with improved electrical, rheological, and tribological properties.
1.4.1 Effect of Size and Dispersion of Nanoparticles in Polymer Matrices
The size and dispersion of the nanoparticles are important criteria for the reinforcement effect of the polymer nanocomposites. The size of nanoparticles affects the polymer dimensions in nanocomposites for the cases when the polymer radius of gyration (Rg) is larger or of the order of the nanoparticle radius (R). The quality of nanoparticle dispersion can have an important effect on the polymer chain dimensions, and this depends on the nanoparticle–polymer interactions, nanoparticle–polymer size ratio, size of nanoparticles, and nanoparticle volume fraction [63–65]. Recently, Karatrantos et al. investigated the effect of various spherical nanoparticles on chain dimensions in polymer melts for high nanoparticle loading, which was larger than the percolation threshold, using molecular dynamics simulations. The authors observed that the entanglement length decreases significantly with the volume fraction of nanoparticles. The addition of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix increases the counter path of the primitive path [66, 67]. The nanoparticles with a uniform size behave as highly isotropic materials; therefore, these can easily bind with the polymer matrix in melt state condition and can be easily processed via extrusion and injection molding. In addition, the nature of the nanoparticles (hydrophobic or hydrophilic) is the important phenomenon for the uniform dispersion in the polymer matrix. In general, most of nanoparticles are polar as well as hydrophilic and are incompatible with organic polymer matrices. In order to improve the dispersibility, the nanoparticles are further modified using surface functionalization methods [68]. Obviously, the nanoparticle feed ratio also influences the properties of the polymer matrix. The incorporation of volume fraction of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix has some threshold level, and above that level, it creates agglomeration in polymer nanocomposites, resulting in a reduction of polymer properties [69].
1.4.2 Influence of Nanoparticles on the Thermal Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites
The loading amount of the nanoparticles is an important parameter for the thermal properties of the polymer matrix. The surface modification of the nanoparticle is also an important factor for improving the interfacial adhesion between the nanoparticle and polymer matrices. An equal amount of surface-modified nanoparticles possess high degree of dispersion in the polymer matrix compared to unmodified nanoparticles dispersed in the polymer matrix. Hamming et al. studied the quality of dispersion and interfacial interaction between TiO2 nanoparticles and host polymer, along with the effect on glass transition temperature (Tg). The authors observed that the bulk properties of nanocomposites are highly sensitive to both the quality of the interfacial interaction and quality of dispersion of the nanoparticles and that these factors must be controlled to create the nanocomposites with specific and predictable behavior [70]. Mandhakini et al. studied the tribological properties of epoxy nanocomposites with the addition of different weight ratios of alumina nanoparticles. The authors observed that the addition of alumina content from 1 to 5 wt% increases the Tg of the polymer nanocomposites, which is attributed to decrease in the polymer–polymer interface and restricted chain mobility of polymer segments resulting from good adhesion between the nanoparticles and the surrounding polymer matrix. At a higher loading (10 wt%), a decrease in Tg was observed [71]. Rajamanikam et al. (2015) studied optical and thermomechanical behavior of benzoxazine functionalized ZnO-reinforced polybenzoxazine nanocomposites. The authors observed that the surface modification of ZnO strongly improves the interfacial adhesion with the polymer matrix. The higher loading of 10 wt% ZnO exhibited higherTg compared to pure polymer matrix [72]. The incorporation of nanoparticles in semicrystalline polymers tends to increase the rate of crystallization, which results in higher crystallinity, higher crystallization temperature, and smaller spherulites. The addition of nanoparticles induces the other forms of polymer crystalline phase due to the nucleation effect in the polymer matrix. For example, spherical calcium carbonate induces the β phase of the polypropylene (PP) and also increases crystallinity [73, 74]. Farhoodi et al. investigated the effect of TiO2 on the physical properties of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nanocomposites. The authors concluded that the addition of nanoparticle increases the crystallinity of PET up to 3 wt% and higher loading results in decrease in crystallinity due to the agglomeration of the nanoparticles [75]. Yu et al. studied the influence of ZnO nanoparticles on the crystallization behavior of electrospun poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) nanofibers. The authors observed decrease in crystallinity of PHBV with the addition of ZnO. This is due to the interaction of hydrogen bonds between ZnO NPs and PHBV, which hinders the crystallization at lower temperatures (Figure 1.5) [76]. The size of the nanoparticle influences the thermal stability of the polymer matrix. Gomez et al. developed PP nanocomposites using silica nanoparticles with 20–100 nm diameter. The authors concluded that the nanoparticles improved the thermal stability of PP through the adsorption of volatile compounds on the surface, where the smaller nanoparticles show the greatest stabilization [77]. Jin et al. developed epoxy nanocomposites with SiO2 nanoparticles. The authors observed that the addition of SiO2 nanoparticle improved the thermal stability of epoxy by 30% [78]. Isitman et al. studied the role of nanoparticle geometry in flame retardancy of polylactide nanocomposites containing aluminum phosphinate. Two-dimensional (2-D) nanomaterials possess better flame-retardant property compared to 0-D and 1-D nanomaterials [79].
Figure 1.5 Schematic representation of (a) pure PHBV and (b) composite ZnO NPs/PHBV fiber.
(Yu et al. [76]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
1.4.3 Influence of Nanoparticles on the Mechanical Properties of Polymers
The nanoparticle size, particle–matrix interface adhesion, and loading amount strongly influence the mechanical properties of nanoparticle-reinforced polymer composites. The nanoparticles readily enhance Young's modulus of polymer matrices, which is due to higher stiffness of nanoparticles as compared to pure polymer. The stress transfer mechanism plays an important role in the nanoparticle-reinforced polymer nanocomposites. The strength of the polymer nanocomposites mainly depends on the stress transfer between the polymer matrix and the nanoparticles. The strong interfacial adhesion effectively improves the stress transfer mechanism from particles to polymer matrix, resulting in an increase in strength of the polymer nanocomposites [80]. Many studies have shown that the rigid nanoparticles improved the fracture toughness of the thermoset polymers compared to thermoplastics; however, in contrast, the rigid calcium carbonate particles have been reported to enhance the fracture toughness of the PP [81, 82] and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) [83–85]. As the strong interfacial adhesion mechanism strongly improves the mechanical properties of the nanocomposites, thus, in order to achieve better interfacial adhesion, the surface of the nanoparticles needs to be modified with suitable coupling agents. Hussain et al. studied the effects of different coupling agents on the mechanical properties of the TiO2-particles-filled epoxy nanocomposites. It was observed that the titanate coupling agent treated TiO2 nanoparticles significantly improved Young's modulus and flexural strength of the epoxy composites compared to silane coupling agent treated TiO2 nanoparticles [86]. Yoshida et al. studied the effect of silane coupling agent on tensile and bending properties of silica-filled epoxy nanocomposites. The authors observed that the silane coupling agents improved the adhesion between epoxy resin and SiO2 nanoparticles in composite [87]. Ash et al. synthesized and studied the mechanical behavior of PMMA/Al2O3 nanocomposites using 38- and 17-nm-sized alumina nanoparticles. The authors observed a weak interface between the nanoparticles and polymer, which leads to brittle-to-ductile transition at room temperature. They also found that the brittle-to-ductile transition requires both the enhanced polymer chain mobility attributed to smaller particles and the ability to release the stress triaxiality by poorly bonded larger particles [88]. Jeziórska et al. developed low-density polyethylene (LDPE)/SiO2 nanocomposites via melt extrusion method and studied the mechanical properties of the composites with the effect of silica size, functionality, and compatibilizer. It was observed that the addition of modified silica and glycidyl-methacrylate-grafted ethylene/n-octene copolymer (EOR-g-GMA) enhanced the tensile strength, modulus, and impact strength due to better dispersion of SiO2 nanoparticles and increased compatibility between silica and the LDPE matrix [89]. Rao et al. studied the mechanical properties of copper oxide (CuO)-nanoparticles-filled PVA nanocomposites. The elastic modulus and toughness of the nanocomposites increased linearly up to lower wt% of CuO nanoparticles (2 wt%), whereas the higher content of CuO exhibited decrease in the mechanical properties of PVA due to the agglomeration [90]. Rithin Kumar et al. developed PVA composite films using ZnO and tungsten trioxide (WO3) nanoparticles via solution casting method and observed that the addition of ZnO and WO3 increased the tensile strength and Young's modulus up to 14 wt% [91]. Salehian and Jahromi studied the mechanical properties of vinyl-ester-based nanocomposites with effect of different weight ratio of TiO2 nanoparticles. They observed that the addition of small fraction of nanoparticles increased the mechanical properties of vinyl ester composites [92]. Liawthanyarat and Rimdusit developed polybenzoxazine nanocomposites with different-sized silica nanoparticles in fixed weight ratio (3 wt%). The authors observed that the small size of silica nanoparticles systematically increased the storage modulus of the polybenzoxazine nanocomposite and also resulted in greater barrier effect due to the larger surface area of the smaller particles [93].
1.4.4 Electrical Properties of Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites
Polymer nanocomposites with metal, metal oxides, carbon nanoparticles as reinforcements are widely used to fabricate the advanced devices in electronic and optoelectronic applications. The addition of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in the polymer matrices has gained a considerable attention due to their enhanced electrical properties [66]. Similar to the mechanical properties, the fundamental electrical properties of the polymer nanocomposites have been studied with effects of size, shape, and loading concentration of the fillers [94, 95]. The improvement of dielectric properties of nanocomposites mainly depends on the (i) the large surface area of nanoparticles, which creates large interaction with the polymer matrix; (ii) changing the polymer morphology due to the surface of nanoparticles; (iii) size effect; (iv) charge distribution between the nanoparticles and the matrix; and (v) scattering effect [67, 69]. The interface between the polymer and the particles has an important role in varying the dielectric properties
