Surface and Thin Film Analysis E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 872

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Surveying and comparing all techniques relevant for practical applications in surface and thin film analysis, this second edition of a bestseller is a vital guide to this hot topic in nano- and surface technology. This new book has been revised and updated and is divided into four parts - electron, ion, and photon detection, as well as scanning probe microscopy. New chapters have been added to cover such techniques as SNOM, FIM, atom probe (AP),and sum frequency generation (SFG). Appendices with a summary and comparison of techniques and a list of equipment suppliers make this book a rapid reference for materials scientists, analytical chemists, and those working in the biotechnological industry.

From a Review of the First Edition (edited by Bubert and Jenett)
"... a useful resource..."
(Journal of the American Chemical Society)

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Related Titles

Title page

Copyright page

Preface to the First Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

List of Contributors

1 Introduction

Part One: Electron Detection

2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)

2.1 Principles

2.2 Instrumentation

2.3 Spectral Information and Chemical Shifts

2.4 Quantification, Depth Profiling, and Imaging

2.5 The Auger Parameter

2.6 Applications

2.7 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS)

3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)

3.1 Principles

3.2 Instrumentation

3.3 Spectral Information

3.4 Quantification and Depth Profiling

3.5 Applications

3.6 Scanning Auger Microscopy (SAM)

4 Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) and Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM)

4.1 Principles

4.2 Instrumentation

4.3 Qualitative Spectral Information

4.4 Quantification

4.5 Imaging of Element Distribution

4.6 Summary

5 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)

5.1 Principles and History

5.2 Instrumentation

5.3 Qualitative Information

5.4 Quantitative Structural Information

5.5 Low-Energy Electron Microscopy

6 Other Electron-Detecting Techniques

6.1 Ion (Excited) Auger Electron Spectroscopy (IAES)

6.2 Ion Neutralization Spectroscopy (INS)

6.3 Inelastic Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy (IETS)

Part Two: Ion Detection

7 Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SSIMS)

7.1 Principles

7.2 Instrumentation

7.3 Quantification

7.4 Spectral Information

7.5 Applications

8 Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

8.1 Principles

8.2 Instrumentation

8.3 Spectral Information

8.4 Quantification

8.5 Mass Spectra

8.6 Depth Profiles

8.7 Imaging

8.8 Three-Dimensional (3-D)-SIMS

8.9 Applications

9 Electron-Impact (EI) Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry (SNMS)

9.1 Introduction

9.2 General Principles of SNMS

9.3 Instrumentation and Methods

9.4 Spectral Information and Quantification

9.5 Element Depth Profiling

9.6 Applications

10 Laser Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry (Laser-SNMS)

10.1 Principles

10.2 Instrumentation

10.3 Spectral Information

10.4 Quantification

10.5 Applications

11 Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS)

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Principles

11.3 Instrumentation

11.4 Spectral Information

11.5 Quantification

11.6 Figures of Merit

11.7 Applications

11.8 Related Techniques

12 Low-Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS)

12.1 Principles

12.2 Instrumentation

12.3 LEIS Information

12.4 Quantification

12.5 Applications of LEIS

13 Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ERDA)

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Fundamentals

13.3 Particle Identification Methods

13.4 Equipment

13.5 Data Analysis

13.6 Sensitivity and Depth Resolution

13.7 Applications

14 Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA)

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Principles

14.3 Equipment and Depth Resolution

14.4 Applications

15 Field Ion Microscopy (FIM) and Atom Probe (AP)

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Principles and Instrumentation

15.3 Applications

16 Other Ion-Detecting Techniques

16.1 Desorption Methods

16.2 Glow-Discharge Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS)

16.3 Fast-Atom Bombardment Mass Spectroscopy (FABMS)

Part Three: Photon Detection

17 Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Analysis

17.1 Principles

17.2 Instrumentation

17.3 Spectral Information

17.4 Quantification

17.5 Applications

18 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDXS)

18.1 Principles

18.2 Practical Aspects of X-Ray Microanalysis and Instrumentation

18.3 Qualitative Spectral Information

18.4 Quantification

18.5 Imaging of Element Distribution

18.6 Summary

19 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Methods for Near-Surface Structural Studies

19.1 Principles

19.2 Experimental Techniques and Data Analysis

19.3 Applications

20 Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy (GD-OES)

20.1 Principles

20.2 Instrumentation

20.3 Spectral Information

20.4 Quantification

20.5 Depth Profiling

20.6 Applications

21 Surface Analysis by Laser Ablation

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Instrumentation

21.3 Depth Profiling

21.4 Near-Field Ablation

21.5 Conclusion

22 Ion Beam Spectrochemical Analysis (IBSCA)

22.1 Principles

22.2 Instrumentation

22.3 Spectral and Analytical Information

22.4 Quantitative Analysis by IBSCA

22.5 Applications

23 Reflection Absorption IR Spectroscopy (RAIRS)

23.1 Instrumentation

23.2 Principles

23.3 Applications

23.4 Related Techniques

24 Surface Raman Spectroscopy

24.1 Principles

24.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)

24.3 Instrumentation

24.4 Spectral Information

24.5 Quantification

24.6 Applications

24.7 Nonlinear Optical Spectroscopy

25 UV-VIS-IR Ellipsometry (ELL)

25.1 Principles

25.2 Instrumentation

25.3 Applications

26 Sum Frequency Generation (SFG) Spectroscopy

26.1 Introduction to SFG Spectroscopy

26.2 SFG Theory

26.3 SFG Instrumentation and Operation Modes

26.4 Applications of SFG Spectroscopy and Selected Case Studies

26.5 Conclusion

27 Other Photon-Detecting Techniques

27.1 Appearance Potential Methods

27.2 Inverse Photoemission Spectroscopy (IPES) and Bremsstrahlung Isochromat Spectroscopy (BIS)

Part Four: Scanning Probe Microscopy

28 Introduction

29 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

29.1 Principles

29.2 Further Modes of AFM Operation

29.3 Instrumentation

29.4 Applications

30 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)

30.1 Principles

30.2 Instrumentation

30.3 Lateral and Spectroscopic Information

30.4 Applications

31 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Instrumentation and Operation

31.3 SNOM Applications

31.4 Outlook

Appendices

Appendix A Summary and Comparison of Techniques

Appendix B Surface and Thin-Film Analytical Equipment Suppliers

Index

Related Titles

Watts, J. F., Wolstenholme, J.

An Introduction to SIMS for Surface and Thin Film Analysis

2011

ISBN: 978-0-470-09132-6

Guo, J. (ed.).

X-Rays in Nanoscience

Spectroscopy, Spectromicroscopy, and Scattering Techniques

2010

ISBN: 978-3-527-32288-6

Birkholz, M.

Thin Film Analysis by X-Ray Scattering

2006

ISBN: 978-3-527-31052-4

Bordo, V. G., Rubahn, H.-G.

Optics and Spectroscopy at Surfaces and Interfaces

2005

ISBN: 978-3-527-40560-2

The Editors

Prof. Dr. Gernot Friedbacher

Institute of Chemical Technology

and Analytics

Getreidemarkt 9 /164

1060 Vienna

Austria

Dr. Henning Bubert

Augsburger Weg 51

59439 Holzwickede

Germany

All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

ISBN: 978-3-527-32047-9

ISBN: 978-3-527-63693-8 (epub)

ISBN: 978-3-527-63695-2 (mobi)

Preface to the First Edition

The surface of a solid interacts with its environment. It may be changed by the surrounding medium either unintentionally (for example, by corrosion) or intentionally due to technological demands. Intentional changes are made in order to refine or protect surfaces, that is, to generate new surface properties. Such surface changes can be made, for instance, by ion implantation, deposition of thin films, epitaxially grown layers, and other procedures. In all these cases, it is necessary to analyze the surface, the layer or system of layers, the grain boundaries, or other interfaces in order to control the process which finally meets the technological requirements for a purposefully changed surface. A wealth of analytical methods is available to the analyst, and the choice of the method appropriate for the solution of his problem requires a basic knowledge on the methods, techniques, and procedures of surface and thin film analysis.

Therefore, the goal of this book is to give the analyst – whether a newcomer wishing to acquaint with new methods or a materials analyst seeking information on methods that are not available in his own laboratory – a clue about the principles, instrumentation, and applications of the methods, techniques, and procedures of surface and thin film analysis. The first step into this direction was the chapter Surface and Thin Film Analysis of Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Vol. B6, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2002), in which practitioners give a brief outline of various important methods.

The present book is based on that chapter. It has essentially been extended by new sections dealing with electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), elastic recoil detection analysis (ERDA), nuclear reaction analysis (NRA), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), surface analysis by laser ablation (LA), and ion-beam spectrochemical analysis (IBSCA). Thus, the book now comprises the most important methods and should help the analyst to make decisions on the proper choice of methods for a given problem. Except for atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), microscopic methods, as essential as they are for the characterization of surfaces, are only briefly discussed when combined with a spectroscopic method. Methods of only limited importance for the solution of very special problems, or without availability of commercial equipment, are not considered or only briefly mentioned in the sections entitled Other Electron/Ion/Photon Detecting Techniques.

Furthermore, the objective was not to issue a voluminous book, but a clearly arranged one outlining the basic principles and major applications of important methods of surface and thin film analysis. For more detailed information on any of these topics, the reader is referred to the special literature given in the references.

The editors are gratefully indebted to all contributors who were ready to redirect time from their research, educational, and private activities in order to contribute to this book. They also wish to thank Mrs Silke Kittel for her tireless help in developing our editorial ideas.

Henning Bubert

Holger Jenett

Autumn 2001

Preface to the Second Edition

The first edition of this book was very well received on the market and, after becoming “out-of-print”, a variety of ideas was discussed to produce a second edition. It became clear to us very quickly that, instead of an unchanged reprint of the first edition, the opportunity should be taken to update the information in the book and to add new chapters based on feedback from our readers. Fortunately, all authors of the first edition immediately supported this idea, though some were no longer available to actively contribute to the revisions due to changes in their professional careers.

Almost all chapters of this book have been thoroughly revised, taking into consideration new developments on the described methods as well as valuable feedback from the First Edition. Although a complete collection of surface analytical techniques would be beyond the scope of a compendium such as this, new chapters on field ion microscopy (FIM) and atom probe (AP), sum frequency generation (SFG), and scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) have been added.

With regard to Appendix B the point must be addressed that, due to a rapidly changing market that is characterized by the frequent takeover of one company (or of their subsidiaries) by another, it became rather difficult to produce a compilation that was fully consistent with regard to the names of brands, branches, and company owners. However, the given internet addresses should serve to guide readers to the desired information and contacts to their local distributors.

The editors would like to thank all authors for revising and updating their chapters from the First Edition of the book, and all new authors for writing the new chapters and for revising some of the chapters already in existence. To those authors who were unable to revise their chapters themselves, we are certainly indebted that they agreed to a revision of their chapters by new authors. Without this consent between “old” and “new” authors the revision of this book would not have been possible.

Finally, we would like to thank Dr. Manfred Köhl and Mrs. Lesley Belfit from Wiley-VCH for their continued support to move this book project forward, as well as Mrs. Bernadette Cabo for the helpful and pleasant communication during the production process.

Gernot Friedbacher

Henning Bubert

April 2011

List of Contributors

Heinrich F. Arlinghaus

Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster

Physikalisches Institut

Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10

48149 Münster

Germany

Athula Bandara

University of Peradeniya

Department of Chemistry

Peradeniya (20400)

Sri Lanka

Peter Bauer

Johannes Kepler Universität Linz

Institut für Experimentalphysik

Altenbergerstr. 69

4020 Linz

Austria

Burkhard Beckhoff

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)

X-ray Spectrometry

Abbestr. 2-12

10587 Berlin

Germany

Oswald Benka

Johannes Kepler Universität Linz

Institut für Experimentalphysik

Altenbergerstr. 69

4040 Linz

Austria

Michail Bolshov

Russian Academy of Sciences

Institute of Spectroscopy

Fizicheskaja street 5

142092 Troitsk, Moscow Region

Russia

Henning Bubert

Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V.

Otto-Hahn-Str. 6b

44227 Dortmund

Germany

Volker Deckert

Friedrich Schiller Universität Jena

Institut für Physikalische Chemie

Helmholtzweg 4

07743 Jena

Germany

and

IPHT Institut für Photonische

Technologien e.V.

Albert-Einstein-Str. 9

07745 Jena

Germany

Wolfgang Drachsel

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Materialchemie

Getreidemarkt 9

1060 Wien

Austria

Laszlo Fabry

Wacker Chemie AG

Johannes-Hess-Str. 24

84489 Burghausen

Germany

Gernot Friedbacher

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Chemische Technologien und Analytik

Getreidemarkt 9/164-IAC

1060 Wien

Austria

P. Neil Gibson

European Commission – Joint Research Centre

Institute for Health and Consumer Protection

TP 500

21027 Ispra, VA

Italy

Bernd Gruska

SENTECH Instruments GmbH

Schwarzschildstr. 2

12489 Berlin

Germany

Georg Held

University of Reading

Department of Chemistry

Whiteknights

P.O. Box 224

Reading, Berkshire RG6 6AD

UK

Roland Hergenröder

Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V.

Otto-Hahn-Str. 6b

44227 Dortmund

Germany

Wieland Hill

LIOS Technology GmbH

Schanzenstr. 39

51063 Köln

Germany

Karsten Hinrichs

Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V.

Department Berlin

Albert-Einstein-Str. 9

12489 Berlin

Germany

Volker Hoffmann

Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung IFW

Institut für Komplexe Materialien

Helmholtzstr. 20

01069 Dresden

Germany

Herbert Hutter

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Chemische Technologien und Analytik

Getreidemarkt 9/164-IAC

1060 Wien

Austria

Holger Jenett

Albrecht-Dürer-Gymnasium

Heinitzstr. 73

58097 Hagen

Germany

Michael Kopnarski

Institut für Oberflächen- und Schichtanalytik IFOS GmbH

Trippstadter Str. 120

67663 Kaiserslautern

Germany

Bernhard Lendl

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Chemische Technologien und Analytik

Getreidemarkt 9/164-UPA

1060 Wien

Austria

Siegfried Pahlke

Analytical Consulting

Keltenstr. 7

84375 Kirchdorf am Inn

Germany

Leopold Palmetshofer

Johannes Kepler Universität Linz

Institut für Halbleiter- und Festkörperphysik

Altenbergerstr. 69

4040 Linz

Austria

Alfred Quentmeier

Zum Paradies 2a

34516 Vöhl

Germany

Marc Richter

IPHT Institut für Photonische Technologien e.V.

Albert-Einstein-Str. 9

07745 Jena

Germany

John C. Rivière

Oxford University

Begbroke Science Park (OUBSP)

Department of Materials

Sandy Lane

Yarnton

Kidlington OX5 1PF

UK

Volker Rupertus

SCHOTT AG

Corporate Research & Technology Development

Process Technology and Characterization

Hattenbergstr. 10

55122 Mainz

Germany

Günther Rupprechter

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Materialchemie

Getreidemarkt 9

1060 Wien

Austria

Reinhard Schneider

Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT)

Laboratorium für Elektronenmikroskopie

Engesserstr. 7

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Yuri Suchorski

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Materialchemie

Getreidemarkt 9

1060 Wien

Austria

Wolfgang S.M. Werner

Technische Universität Wien

Institut für Angewandte Physik

Wiedner Hauptstr. 8

1040 Wien

Austria

1

Introduction

John C. Rivière and Henning Bubert

Wherever the properties of a solid surface are important, it is also important to have the means to measure those properties. The surfaces of solids play an overriding part in a remarkably large number of processes, phenomena, and materials of technological importance. These include: catalysis; corrosion, passivation, and rusting; adhesion; tribology, friction, and wear; brittle fracture of metals and ceramics; microelectronics; composites; surface treatments of polymers and plastics; protective coatings; superconductors; and solid-surface reactions of all types with gases, liquids, or other solids. The surfaces in question are not always external; processes occurring at inner surfaces such as interfaces and grain boundaries are often just as critical to the behavior of the material. In all of the above examples, the nature of a process or of the behavior of a material can be understood completely only if information about both the surface composition (i.e., the types of atoms present and their concentrations) and the surface chemistry (i.e., the chemical states of the atoms) is available. Furthermore, knowledge of the arrangement of surface atoms (i.e., the surface structure) is also necessary.

First of all, what is meant by a solid surface? Ideally, the surface should be defined as the plane at which the solid terminates – that is, the last atom layer before the adjacent phase (vacuum, vapor, liquid, or another solid) begins. Unfortunately such a definition is impractical, because the effect of termination extends into the solid beyond the outermost atom layer. Indeed, the current definition is based on that knowledge, and the surface is thus regarded as consisting of that number of atom layers over which the effect of termination of the solid decays until bulk properties are reached. In practice, this decay distance is of the order of 5–20 nm.

By a fortunate coincidence, the depth into the solid from which information is provided by the techniques described here matches the above definition of a surface in many cases. These techniques are, therefore, surface-specific; in other words, the information they provide comes only from that very shallow depth of a few atom layers. Other techniques can be surface-sensitive, in that they would normally be regarded as techniques for bulk analysis, but have sufficient sensitivity for certain elements that can be analyzed only if they are present on the surface.

Why should surfaces be so important? The answer is twofold. First, the properties of surface atoms are usually different from those of the same atoms in the bulk; and second, because in any interaction of a solid with another phase the surface atoms are the first to be encountered. Even at the surface of a perfect single crystal the surface atoms behave differently from those in the bulk, simply because they do not have the same number of nearest neighbors; their electronic distributions are altered, and hence their reactivity. Their structural arrangement is often also different. When the surface of a polycrystalline or glassy multielemental solid is considered – such as that of an alloy or a chemical compound – the situation can be very complex. The processes of preparation or fabrication can produce a material, the surface composition of which is quite different from that of the bulk, in terms of both constituent and impurity elements. Subsequent treatment (e.g., thermal and chemical) will almost certainly change the surface composition to something different again. The surface is highly unlikely to be smooth, and roughness at both the micro and macro level can be present, leading to the likelihood that many surface atoms will be situated at corners and edges and on protuberances (i.e., in positions of increased reactivity). Surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, which include many of those of technological interest, will acquire a contaminant layer that is one to two atom layers thick, containing principally carbon and oxygen but also other impurities present in the local environment. Atmospheric exposure might also cause oxidation. Because of all these possibilities, the surface region must be considered as a separate entity, effectively a separate quasi-two-dimensional (2-D) phase overlaying the normal bulk phase. Analysis of the properties of such a quasi phase necessitates the use of techniques in which the information provided originates only or largely within the phase – that is, the surface-specific techniques described in this volume.

Nearly all these techniques involve interrogation of the surface with a particle probe. The function of the probe is to excite surface atoms into states giving rise to the emission of one or more of a variety of secondary particles such as electrons, photons, ions, and neutrals. Since the primary particles used in the probing beam can also be electrons or photons, or ions or neutrals, many separate techniques are possible, each based on a different primary–secondary particle combination. Most of these possibilities have now been established, but in fact not all the resulting techniques are of general application – some due to the restricted or specialized nature of the information obtained, and others due to difficult experimental requirements. In this book, therefore, most space is devoted to those surface analytical techniques that are widely applied and readily available commercially, whereas much briefer descriptions are provided of some others, the use of which is less common but which – under appropriate circumstances, particularly in basic research – can provide vital information.

Since the various types of particle can appear in both primary excitation and secondary emission, most authors and reviewers have found it convenient to group the techniques in a matrix, in which the rows refer to the nature of the exciting particle and the columns to the nature of the emitted particle. Such a matrix of techniques is provided in Table 1.1, which uses widely accepted acronyms. The meanings of the acronyms, together with some of the alternatives that have appeared in the literature, are provided in Listing 1.1.

Table 1.1 Surface-specific analytical techniques using particle or photon excitation. The acronyms (see Listing 1.1) printed in bold are those used for methods discussed in more detail in this book.

A few techniques cannot be classified according to the nature of the exciting particle, because they do not employ primary particles but depend instead on the application either of heat or a high electric field. These techniques are listed in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Surface-specific analytical techniques using non-particle excitation.

Listing 1.1. Meanings of the surface analysis acronyms, and their alternatives, that appear in Tables 1.1. and 1.2.

1.Electron Excitation

AES, Auger electron spectroscopy

BIS, Bremsstrahlung isochromat spectroscopy (or ILS, ionization loss spectroscopy)

EDXS, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

EELS, Electron energy loss spectroscopy

EFTEM, Energy-filtered transmission electron microscopy

ESD, Electron-stimulated desorption (or EID, electron-induced desorption)

ESDIAD, Electron-stimulated desorption ion angular distribution

IPES, Inverse photoemission spectroscopy

LEED, Low-energy electron diffraction

RHEED, Reflection high-energy electron diffraction

SXAPS, Soft X-ray appearance potential spectroscopy (or APS, appearance potential spectroscopy)

SAM, Scanning Auger microscopy

2.Ion Excitation

ERDA, Elastic recoil detection analysis

GDMS, Glow discharge mass spectrometry

GD-OES, Glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy

IAES, Ion (excited) Auger electron spectroscopy

IBSCA, Ion beam spectrochemical analysis (or SCANIIR, surface composition by analysis of neutral and ion impact radiation or BLE, bombardment-induced light emission)

INS, Ion neutralization spectroscopy

LEIS, Low-energy ion scattering (or ISS, Ion-scattering spectroscopy)

NRA, Nuclear reaction analysis

RBS, Rutherford back-scattering spectroscopy (or HEIS, high-energy ion scattering)

SIMS, Secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SSIMS, static secondary-ion mass spectrometry) (DSIMS, dynamic secondary-ion mass spectrometry)

SNMS, Secondary neutral mass spectrometry

3.Photon Excitation

ELL, Ellipsometry

LA, Laser ablation

LIBS, Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (or LIPS, Laser-induced plasma spectroscopy)

RAIRS, Reflection–absorption infrared spectroscopy (or IRRAS, infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy, or IRAS, infrared absorption spectroscopy, or ERIRS, external reflection infrared spectroscopy)

SERS, Surface-enhanced Raman scattering

SFG, Sum frequency generation

SHG, (optical) Second harmonic generation

SNOM, Scanning near-field optical microscopy

TXRF, Total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis

UPS, Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy

XPS, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (or ESCA, electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis)

XRD, X-ray diffraction

4.Neutral Excitation

FABMS, Fast-atom bombardment mass spectrometry

5.Thermal Excitation

TDS, Thermal desorption spectroscopy

6.High-Field Excitation

AP, Atom probe

FIM, Field ion microscopy

IETS, Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy

STM, Scanning tunneling microscopy

STS, Scanning tunneling spectroscopy

7.Mechanical Force

AFM, Atomic force microscopy