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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This book highlights 3D-printed biopolymers' advancements and sustainability, exploring cutting-edge research and real-world applications.
Biopolymers have garnered global interest due to environmental concerns and are widely utilized in applications such as biomedicine, food, textiles, and cosmetics. Techniques like 3D printing have been extensively studied to fabricate reliable and efficient products, particularly in tissue engineering. These techniques enable the production of materials with complex structures and diverse functional groups.
The book provides a comprehensive account of contemporary advancements in 3D-printed biopolymers, emphasizing their role in promoting sustainability and supporting the circular economy. Featuring meticulously curated chapters by leading scientists, it integrates diverse disciplines, including green biopolymers, nanotechnology, functionalization techniques, and material synthesis, offering a holistic understanding of the field. Several chapters delve into 3D printing processing techniques and their applications in areas such as water purification, energy storage, and biomedical advancements. Additionally, the book addresses progress in biopolymer technology, exploring its challenges and future prospects.
Audience
This book is ideal for industrial manufacturers, environmental chemists, materials and biopolymer scientists, and researchers in industries such as biomedicine, food, textiles, packaging, and cosmetics.
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Seitenzahl: 392
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 The Framework of the Breakthroughs in the 3D Printing Technique
1.1 Outlook: From Cradle to Grave
1.2 Understanding 3D Printing
1.3 Fringe Benefits of 3D Printing Technology
1.4 Compendium of Materials Employed as Matrix
1.5 A Paradigm in 3D Printing Technology: Eminent Innovations for Mankind
1.6 Limitations of 3D Printing Innovation
1.7 Conclusion and the Way Forward
References
2 Delineating the Techniques Employed for the Fabrication of Sustainable Polymers
via
3D Printing Phenomena
2.1 Introduction
2.2 3D Printing Techniques
2.3 Conclusion
References
3 Potential Roadmap of Synthetic Polymers in 3D Printing and Their Diverse Application
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Synthetic Polymers in 3D Printing
3.3 Comparison of Properties and Benefits of Type of Synthetic Polymers
3.4 Discussion of Current Research and Development in Polymers for 3D Printing
3.5 Advancements in Synthetic Polymer for 3D Printing
3.6 Exploration of Potential Solutions and Future Development in Synthetic Polymers for 3D Printing
3.7 Diverse Applications of Synthetic Polymers in 3D Printing
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Nanotechnology-Derived 3D-Printed Applications: Opportunities and Challenges in Biopolymers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Principles of 3D Printing
4.3 Advantages of 3D Printing
4.4 Nanotechnology and Its Applications in 3D Printing
4.5 Polymers and Polymer Composites for 3D Printing
4.6 Biopolymers for 3D Printing
4.7 Applications of 3D-Printed Biopolymers
4.8 Challenges and Future Perspectives
References
5 Innovations in 3D Printing-Assisted Biopolymers for Biomedical Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Applications of 3D Printing Technology in Biomedicine
5.3 Biopolymers from Natural Sources
References
6 Innovations in 3D Printing-Assisted Biopolymer Composites for Aerospace Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview of Biocomposites
6.3 Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing with Biocomposites
6.4 Process of Filament Fabrication with Biocomposites
6.5 Use of Biocomposites for Aerospace Application
6.6 Limitations and Prospects
6.7 Conclusions
References
7 Innovations in 3D-Printing-Assisted Biopolymers for Electronic Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biopolymers for Electronic Applications
7.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
8 Recent Trends in 3D-Printed Biopolymers for Structural Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 3D-Printed Materials
8.3 3D-Printed Polymers
8.4 Assortment and Adaptation of 3D-Printed Polymers
8.5 Applications of 3D-Printed Biopolymers
8.6 Pros and Cons of 3D Printing
8.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9 Implementation of 3D-Printed Materials for Water Purification Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of 3D Printing Techniques
9.3 Applications of 3D Material for Water Purification
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Future Perspectives and Challenges in Employing 3D-Assisted Biopolymers
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principle of 3D Printing Technology
10.3 Biopolymers
10.4 Applications
10.5 Nanofibers for Chiral Resolution
10.6 Challenges
10.7 Opportunities and Future Perspectives
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Economic and Environmental Assessment of Sustainable Polymer-Based 3D Printing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Economic Assessment of Sustainable Polymers in 3D Printing
11.3 Environmental Assessment of Sustainable Polymers in 3D Printing
11.4 Future Outlook
11.5 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Depiction of characteristics of a range of materials employed for 3D...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Overview of established rapid 3D prototyping techniques.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Properties of some synthetic polymers used in 3D printing.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Basic properties of different natural fibers [19, 20].
Table 6.2 Thermal conductivity of composites made of polylactic acid with vari...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Different types of 3D printers available based on the printing proce...
Table 8.2 Different types of 3D printers available based on the printing proce...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Correlation between various 3D printing automations [3, 23, 24].
Table 9.2 Applications, techniques, and 3D materials used for water purificati...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Applications and merits of some common biopolymers.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Evolution of 3D printing.
Figure 1.2 Flowchart of the materials employed in the classification of 3D pri...
Figure 1.3 Outlining the classification of natural and synthetic biopolymers.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schemes of (a) fused deposition modeling (FDM), (b) laser-based ste...
Figure 2.2 Scheme of laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
Figure 2.3 Scheme of PolyJet printing.
Figure 2.4 Schemes of (a) powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing (3DP) and (b)...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Types of 3D printing with their printing process.
Figure 4.2 Papers published in biomedical fields.
Figure 4.3 Properties of an ideal nano bio-ink candidate for 3D printing.
Figure 4.4 Chitosan-containing bio-ink fabrication for 3D printing.
Figure 4.5 Applications of biopolymers in 3D printing technology.
Figure 4.6 3D printing linked with nanotechnology-based publications per year.
Figure 4.7 Photo-crosslinking approach for 3D-printed antibacterial wound dres...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Product cycle by 3D printing.
Figure 5.2 Industrial adoption of 3D printing.
Figure 5.3 Medical application for 3D printing.
Figure 5.4 Bio-based polymers from biomass.
Figure 5.5 3D printing process.
Figure 5.6 Common 3D printing methods.
Figure 5.7 Lactic acid became darker.
Figure 5.8 Solvent extraction by a separation funnel.
Figure 5.9 Solvent extraction by cold mixing separation.
Figure 5.10 Polymerization process.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Classifications of biocomposites [1].
Figure 6.2 Different sources of natural fibers [1].
Figure 6.3 Representation of a hybrid biocomposite [1].
Figure 6.4 (a) Fused deposition modeling machine (FDM) with dual extrusion noz...
Figure 6.5 3D printer filament fabrication with biocomposite [42].
Figure 6.6 Biobased 3D printer filament using ULTM [43].
Figure 6.7 Use of composite materials in aircraft construction [1].
Figure 6.8 3D-printed gearbox cover using ULTM filament [79].
Figure 6.9 An F-16 fighting falcon in eglin air force Base’s anechoic chamber ...
Figure 6.10 Radome as a cover of the weather radar at the nose section of an a...
Figure 6.11 Environmental control and life support systems of the Internationa...
Figure 6.12 Effect of moisture absorption on biopolymer composites [107].
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 3D printing sodium alginate-based biopolymer for batteries applicat...
Figure 7.2 3D printing to fabricate biopolymer-based electronic circuits (a) S...
Figure 7.3 3D-printed biopolymer antenna made from copper and graphene. [7, 16...
Figure 7.4 Biopolymer-based 3D printing LED materials.
Figure 7.5 Biopolymer-based 3D-printed wearable materials [12].
Figure 7.6 3D-printed biopolymer application in aerospace and automotive.
Figure 7.7 3D-printed conductive biopolymer for electric application.
Figure 7.8 3D-printed flexible biopolymer for electric application.
Figure 7.9 Bio-inspired 3D printing biopolymer using electronic devices.
Figure 7.10 3D-printing-derived protein energy harvesting device [49, 51]: (a)...
Figure 7.11 Alginate-based 3D printing inks in electric application. (a) Simpl...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Types of materials used in 3D printing.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Classification of 3D printing techniques.
Figure 9.2 Application of 3D-printed material for water purification.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Components of the electrospinning procedure.
Figure 10.2 Applications of 3D biomaterials in the healthcare sector.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Life cycle of sustainable polymers. Adapted from [15].
Figure 11.2 Midpoint result for the considered indicators. Figures (a-i) repre...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Sustainable 3D Printing for Innovative Biopolymer Production and Applications
Edited by
Bhasha Sharma
Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, India
Balaram Pani
Dean of Colleges at the University of Delhi, India
Shashank Shekhar
Department of Chemistry, Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi, India
and
Jude A. Okolie
St. Peter’s College, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-79171-3
Front cover images courtesy of Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
Biopolymers are vastly available for several applications such as biomedicine, food, textile, and cosmetics due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and wide range of chemical composition. Recently, there has been an interest in the use of sustainable biopolymers in place of conventional ones due to environmental concerns. Biopolymers have attracted worldwide interest due to the obnoxious situation created by traditional plastic wastes and to protect the environment from further destruction. Techniques such as 3D printing are capable of producing materials with complex structures and varying functional groups. Therefore, 3D printing has been extended to the production and applications of biopolymers. Keeping this point into consideration, this book will cover a broad range of biopolymers and their applications in diverse fields by utilizing 3D printing. 3D printing technology has been extensively studied to fabricate reliable and efficient products for applications in tissue engineering applications. This book will provide a robust overview of inherent 3D printing and its properties in enhancing the fabrication of novel materials. This book will contain several chapters which will be contributed by eminent scientists who are effectively involved in technological research based on 3D printed materials and their applications by delineating their impact on the circular economy. This book will contain recent ideas, the latest research, and progress in biopolymer technology with challenges and future prospects. The main emphasis of this book is sustainable polymers fabricated by 3D printing. This handbook will consist of meticulous chapters contributed by the scientific community who are veterans in the field of science and technology and working on 3D printed biopolymers and their applications while addressing their limitations and fringe benefits. This book will combine several interdisciplinary areas including green biopolymers, involving nanotechnology and its functionalization, synthesis, and properties. Several processing techniques employed in 3D printing technology will also be discussed. Some major applications like water purification, energy storage, and biomedical implications will be discussed. This book is designed to meet the needs of several scholars including researchers from universities, early career researchers, and those working in the biopolymer industry.
The EditorsOctober 2024
1The Framework of the Breakthroughs in the 3D Printing Technique
Bhasha Sharma* and Shashank Shekhar
Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Abstract
A rapidly emerging 3D printing technology was poised to revolutionize research and manufacturing and has become an imperative tool in numerous fields. There is plenty of contrivances in the 3D printing world to be exhilarated about- it’s a veritable ferocious west of opportunities. The resolution, fabrication speed, and available matrix should be contemplated in the 3D printing process which depends on the end-use application. 3D printing has become unpretentiously dominant and is employed to refer to the combination of additive manufacturing techniques. This indagation will cast light on the evolution, development, and fundamentals of 3D printing technology. This exploration bestows elementary comprehension on novel 3D printing materials like ceramics, composites, biomaterials, polymers, and smart materials, etc. Nevertheless, this technology is an integral segment of the multi-process system to emulate the burgeoning of novel materials. 3D printing technology has consequently emanated in an enormous outburst of innovations in copious sectors. The world of tomorrow might be very feasible to be pioneered with 3D-printed, electronics, cars, drones, doorknobs, planes, and all categories of products we either never came across or were never affordable, available, and customizable.
Keywords: 3D printing, polymers, additive manufacturing, biopolymers
Acronyms
ABS
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
AM
Additive Manufacturing
CAD
Computer Aided Design
CNT
Carbon Nanotubes
FDA
Food Development Authority
FDM
Fused Deposition Modelling
RP
Rapid Prototyping
PE
Polyethylene
PEEK
Polyetheretheketone
PC
Polycarbonate
PCL
Polycaprolactone
PGA
Polyglycolic Acid
PLA
Polylactic Acid
PMMA
Poly Methyl Methacrylate
PP
Polypropylene
PVA
Poly (vinyl alcohol)
SFF
Solid Free Form
SLS
Selective Laser Printing
STL
Stereolithography
1.1 Outlook: From Cradle to Grave
Despite the colossal progression that has been made, the diminution nature of conventional manufacturing processes has diverse limitations that have eventually navigated an avant-garde paradigm in manufacturing, i.e., additive manufacturing (AM), now generally referred as 3D printing technology. 3D printing has turned into a broad amalgamation of additive-based technologies that operate on the credo of fabricating objects from layer by layer, bit by bit, bottom-up in comparison to top-down by removing excess material to attain the final product. The maneuvering of 3D printing technology for manufacturing and rapid tooling has harbingered to generate complex-geometry components based on computer designs. The 3D printing basic functions were first described in 1964 by Arthur C. Clarke (sci-fi author). It is also referred to as rapid prototyping (RP), additive manufacturing, and solid free form (SFF), which is a process of amalgamation of materials to produce objects from 3D model data through layer-by-layer deposition [1], described by Charles Hull in 1986 [2] displayed in Figure 1.1. Hideo Kodama in 1981 at Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute produced his functional rapid prototyping account employing photopolymers. The printed and solid material was fabricated in layers that correspond to the cross-sectional slice in a model. After 3 years, Charles Hull in 1984 invented stereolithography (history of 3D printing). Stereolithography generates 3D models by employing digital data which can be utilized to make tangible objects. In 1986, Hull established and developed the 3D systems. STL file format facilitates electronic handshake from computer-aided design (CAD) software by transferring files for printing of 3D components. Afterward, Hull and his team continued to innovate the first 3D printer system which was referred to as the “stereolithography apparatus” and the first 3D printer commercially available to the public which was SLA-250. In 1990, Scott crump at Stratasys developed and patented fused deposition modeling (FDM) [3]. The first apparatus in 1993 termed 3D printer patented by Michael Cima and Emanuel Sachs in MIT was able to print ceramics, metals, and plastics [4]. In 1999, the first 3D-printed organ in humans was implanted at Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine. Scientists printed a human bladder, a synthetic bladder which was coated with the patient’s cells. This regenerative tissue was implanted into the body with extremely no chances of rejection into the immune system due to the attachment of the patient’s body cells. Dr. Adrian Bowyer in 2005 launched an open-source project to produce a 3D printer which could fundamentally build itself or able to print most of its part. Presently, 3D printing is being employed in nearly every single industry, with innumerable applications in trade, food, toys art, implants, aircraft parts, fashion items, orbital transportation, etc. [5].
Figure 1.1 Evolution of 3D printing.
Box 1: History of additive manufacturing
The technique facilitates fabrication of structure layer by layer deposition process which is revolutionizing industry owing to its capability to acquire near net shape products with almost no material waste. A foremost key feature is based on solidification and melting is the elementary employment of elementary knowledge evolved by decades of research on welding technologies classified into laser and electron beam. The industrial applications utilize laser beam systems which produces parts with good dimensions, surface finish and precision under pertinent process control [6–8]. Nevertheless, electron beam systems tend to produce sound parts having remarkable mechanical properties as the process is evolved at a uniform high temperature under vacuum chamber which helps in decreasing the residual stresses formed during layer deposition process. Both laser and electron systems require high expensive costs. Therefore, additive manufacturing process with plasma and electric arc are allocated to produce manufacturing of large parts.
Additive manufacturing can be categorized into six diverse eras. The first era, i.e., late 1970s to early 1980s, is referred to frontrunner examples which could be defined as Proto Additive Manufacturing. The second era started in the middle of 1980s to 1990s which referred to the initial introduction and development of foundation 3D-printed technologies with the founding of the first 3D-printed technology which remains a major industry competitor until now. The third era, started from 1990 to 2005, designates the maturation of 3D printing within indigenous private firms, the conception of ancillary major 3D printing technologies together with tandem advancement and development of computational capabilities of 3D imaging. The fourth era (2005 to 2012) was not surprisingly aligned with the termination of original 3D printing patents, conventional acquisition of social media as well as initiation of maker movement which represents the beginning of 3D printing to be comprehensively introduced and adopted by spectators beyond the significant industrial players. The fifth era started from beginning of 2012 up to 2017 represents awakening of 3D printing. 3D-printable materials and novel additive technologies and even bioprinting begin to be acquired, being considerably funded, and prevailed, underpinned by prime federal government strive.
The ASTM Committee F42 in 2009 published a report containing standard terminologies of additive manufacturing. This acknowledged 3D printing as industrial manufacturing technology. The FDM patents expired in the same year with the production of the first low-cost 3D printer desktop by the RepRap project. Earlier, it costs $200,000 now all of a sudden and became available for less than $2,000. The adoption of 3D printing technology according to Wohlers kept proliferating. 3D desktop printers of more than 1 million have been accorded globally between 2015 to 2017, and it has been evinced that the industrial sale of metal printers get almost doubled in 2017 in contrary to the previous year. The locution “3D printing” is technically introduced as additive technology based on materials deposition. 3D printing of biomedical products has been turned omnipresent. The proliferation of advanced or novel biomaterials and biologics in addition to tissue and live cell bioprinting and associated fabrication technologies is a conception to be clinically broached. The prognostication of a future where 3D printing is not ordinarily employed to produce guides, models, or inert implants but also devilishly tissue regenerative and bioactive devices which assure the transformation of orthopedic medicine and healthcare immensely.
1.2 Understanding 3D Printing
3D printing is a technique of producing three-dimensional solid components from a digital file. The formation of a 3D-printed object is attained by employing additive processes. Here the object is formed through laying down successive layers of material. It is converse of subtracting manufacturing in which hollowing or cutting the piece of plastic or metal takes place through a milling machine. 3D printing circumscribes several materials and technologies as it is being employed in almost every industry one can contemplate. It is imperative to analyze it as a conglomerate of divergent industries with a myriad of fields—for instance, prosthetics, dental products, consumer products like furniture, eyewear, footwear, etc., replicating ancient artifacts, movie props, reconstructing fossils, industrial products (like prototypes, manufacturing tools, functional end-use parts), and in forensic pathology for evidence reconstruction. In this process, no specific tools are required like cutting tools with mold or geometries because the component is directly manufactured onto a layer-by-layer platform which facilitates a specific set of limitations and benefits. The procedure begins with the digital 3D model (blueprint of a physical object). The technique is sectioned by the printer software into two-dimensional or thin layers which turned into the set of instructions using machine language to execute for printing. Henceforth, the manner a 3D printer works differ by its procedures—for instance, desktop FDM printers which melt filaments of plastic and lay it down onto the printing platform via a nozzle (such as computer-controlled glue gum and high precision). Industrial SLS machines employ a laser to melt thin layers of plastic or metal. The materials available can be varied depending upon the process—for instance, plastics are the commonly employed materials, but metals are also considered for 3D printing. With regard to attributes to the size of the object and type of the printer, it has been analyzed that a print ordinarily takes 4 to 18 h for completion. Generally, parts of a 3D-printed item are hardly ready to use out of the machine though. They usually require post-processing methods to attain the desired level of the finished surface. The detailed section of different types of 3D printing technology will be discussed in Chapter 2. Currently, 3D printing has been employed for jewelry collections, artificial heart pumps, PGA rocket engines, steel bridges in Amsterdam, 3D-printed cornea, and other products in food as well as the aviation industry [9]. The acquisition of 3D printing technology will escalate the production speed while decreasing the cost. Simultaneously, consumers’ behest will have more supremacy over production. Consumers have considerable reverberations in the resultant product and can solicit to tailor it according to the specifications. The amenities of 3D printing technology will be allocated closer to the end-user, according to a more responsive and flexible manufacturing process as well as substantial quality control. Additionally, when utilizing 3D printing technology, the exigency for global transportation is remarkably reduced. This is due to the nearer location of manufacturing sites to the end destination which results in saving time and energy due to the distribution through fleet tracking technology. Ultimately, the acquisition of 3D printing technology can alter the logistics of the firm which regulates the entire process from start to finish and more comprehensive services [10]. Currently, 3D printing is broadly employed globally. It has been increasingly utilized for production or mass production of different types of open-source designs in healthcare, agriculture, aerospace, and automotive industries for printing prototypes of airplane and car ancillaries [11]. The 3D printing applications in the government and private defense industry have been expeditiously perceived. Numerous applications in fashion and agriculture have been also transpired.
1.2.1 The Fundamental Process of 3D Printing Technology
There are several 3D printing technologies, but this segment will bestow emphasis on the elementary process from designing to the final part of the product. While every method of 3D printing fabricates components differently, there are five essential steps that are persistent throughout the process, namely:
Creating a 3D fileThe first crucial step in the 3D printing process is producing a digital model. The most commonly employed method for creating a digital model is CAD. Reverse engineering can also be utilized to create a digital model through 3D scanning. There are several considerations of design that depend on features such as materials, geometry limitations, and escape hole requirements.
STL creation and manipulation of fileA CAD model must be transformed into a format by which the 3D printer is capable to interpret the format to print a component in 3D printing. In the initial step is the conversion of the CAD model into the STL (stereolithography) file, also known as the Standard Triangle Language file. 3DP or OBJ are also allowable 3D printing files, but they are generally not used. STL employs polygons (triangles) to delineate the object surface, basically deciphering the often CAD complex model. CAD programs are competent for exporting a model as an STL file. After the generation of the STL file, the same has been imported into the slicer program which is followed by slicing of design into the several layers that will be employed to build up the component. Afterward, the slicer program transforms the STL file into G-Code. (G-Code is referred to as the numerically controlled programming language employed in CAM to control automated machines such as 3D printers and CNC machines.) The slicer program facilitates the 3D printer operator to define the build parameters of the 3D printer by specifying the support location, part orientation, and layer height. Ordinarily, slicer programs are proprietary to each type of 3D printer, even though there are various slicer programs such as simplify 3D, Netfabb, and Slic3r. Designers generally provide 3D printer operators with an STL file. The operator of the 3D printer set the parameters to print and produce the G-Code file.
PrintingThe printing process in 3D printing technologies depends on different additive manufacturing parts which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 2
.
Print removalRemoving a print in some 3D printing technologies is as ordinary as splitting up the printed part from the build platform. In other 3D printing methods, the elimination of the printed part is an extremely technical process that involves the precise attraction of print while it is still attached to the build plate and encased in the build material. These processes generally require procedures of strict removal and machine operators who are highly skilled, together with controlled environments and safety equipment.
Post-processingThe procedures for post-processing depend on printing technology. Some technologies entail a component to cure before handling by keeping under UV, while other technologies allow components to be handled right away. Some technologies employ support, which is also eliminated at the post-processing stage.
1.3 Fringe Benefits of 3D Printing Technology
Low costIn traditional metal casting and injection molding processes, for each part, there is a requirement of a specific mold. These customized tools require high costing. To recuperate these costs, similar parts have been manufactured in thousands. 3D printing does not require any specialized tooling so there are fundamentally no start-up costs. The cost of a 3D printed component is dependent on the type of material utilized, time taken to print, and post-processing required to attain the desired product.
Complexities of geometry with no additional cost3D printing facilitates the effortless fabrication of intricate shapes which is usually arduous to produce by other manufacturing technologies. The additive characteristics of technology mean that the complexity of geometries does not proffer higher prices. Organic geometries and complex parts are optimized for performance costs.
Diverse range of materialsNowadays, the materials employed for 3D printing are plastic, whereas metal 3D printing discovers an escalating number of industrial applications. There is inclusion of specialty materials with characteristics for pallets of 3D printing tailored for discrete applications. The components obtained from 3D printing has excellent stiffness and strength, high heat resistance, and better biocompatibility. Fabrication of composites is generally common in 3D printing technology. The most common materials are carbon particles, carbon fibers, metals, plastics, wood, ceramics, etc. The reinforcement of these materials results in unique properties for specific applications.
Customization of componentsBy employing the traditional manufacturing process, it is unambiguously economical to create and sell uniform products to the consumers. Contrarily, 3D printing facilitates contented customization. The cost of starts-ups is very low, only one desideratum to meliorate the digital 3D model to form a custom object. As a result, every object can be tailored to encounter the specific needs of customers without influencing the cost of manufacturing.
Low-cost prototypingOne of the imperative employments of 3D printing today is prototyping—both for function and form. This is conducted at the fraction of cost of procedures and speeds that no other manufacturing processes can truffle with: the objects fabricated by 3D printer desktop which are ordinarily kept overnight and the orders placed through professional services with immense industrial machines followed by their delivery in 2 to 5 days. The prototyping speed greatly stimulates the cycle of design (design, analysis, improvement, re-design). The products which require a long time can be readily processed in 8 to 10 weeks.
1.4 Compendium of Materials Employed as Matrix
Metals, ceramics, conventional thermoplastics, and graphene-based materials, a combination of hybrids or composites, are the most commonly employed materials that can be printed by 3D printing technology. 3D printing requires extortionate quality materials that encounter congruous specifications to fabricate consistent devices of high quality. The materials employed for 3D printing technology is categorized in metals, polymers, and ceramics which are discussed in Figure 1.2 as follows:
MetalsDue to numerous advantages proffered by the technology, 3D printing has soared countless recognition in biomedical, automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing industries [
12
]. 3D printing technology generally employs a powdered form of metals. Utilizing a variety of metallic powders, metal printing allows load-bearing, functional, and high-quality parts to be produced. Flowability, shape, and distribution of particle size are essential properties that regulate how to expropriate a metallic powder for 3D printing. Metal materials have remarkable physical properties, and the material is employed to fabricate complex manufacturers by printing aerospace parts to human organs—for instance, cobalt-based alloys [
13
], aluminum alloys [
9
], titanium alloys [
14
,
15
], stainless steel [
16
], and nickel-based alloys [
17
]. Additionally, 3D printing technology can fabricate nickel-based alloys used in aerospace applications. The components produced by using nickel-based alloys can be employed in a hazardous environment because it has high resistance toward corrosion and resistant to temperatures up to 1,200°C. Cobalt-based alloy is competent to be employed in 3D printing dental applications. The objects fabricated by titanium-based alloys have exclusive properties such as low density, oxidation resistance, good corrosion, and ductility. It is utilized in a high stress and high operating temperatures—for instance, biomedical industry and aerospace components (see
Table 1.1
).
Figure 1.2 Flowchart of the materials employed in the classification of 3D printing technology.
Polymers3D printing technologies are extensively employed for the production of polymeric matrix components through prototypes to functional structures with onerous geometries [
18
]. Thermoplastics materials such as PLA (polylactic acid), ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), PC (polycarbonate), and PA (polyamide) as well as thermosetting materials such as epoxy resins can be processed by 3D printing technology. To fabricate a 3D-printed product using FDM, the deposition of successive layers of a thermoplastic filament (extruded) takes place, e.g., PP (polypropylene), PE (polyethylene), ABS, and PLA. Recently, PEEK (polyetheretherketone) and PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) have higher melting temperatures employed as thermoplastic filaments employed as the materials in 3D printing technology. Primarily, the polymer materials played a significant role in medical device and biomaterial products. Since the employment of 3D printing technology in elementary, just designing and setting the statistics in the machine to generate 3D-printed objects ordinarily as inert materials by imparting to the potential functioning of devices as well as assisting mechanical reinforcement in various orthopedic implants. In the liquid state, 3D-printed polymers with a low melting point are enormously employed in the technology owing to their low weight, low cost, and flexibility. Despite being employed in structural components, most of the 3D-printed polymers have still been utilized as conceptual prototypes as pristine polymer products fabricated by 3D printing lack functionality and strength as fully load-bearing and functional parts. The SLA and material jetting phenomena utilize photopolymer thermosets which become hard on exposure to UV light or laser. Commonly, these thermoset products encompass high-temperature components and bowling balls such as knobs used on the stove. The progression of biocompatible materials recently has facilitated 3D bioprinting of functional living of tissues which can be implemented in regenerative medicines to inscribe the exigency for organ transplantation. Material selection is one of the imperative steps in the process of 3D printing. Usually, chitosan, alginate, PCL (polycaprolactone), acrylate-based polymers, sodium alginate, and modified diblock copolymers are the biocompatible polymers which can be employed for the 3D printing process.
Table 1.1 Depiction of characteristics of a range of materials employed for 3D printing technology.
Metal filled
Wood filled
Carbon fiber filled
PP
PC
Nylon
ABS
PVA
PLA
HIPS
PETG
ASA
Flexible
Density (g/cm
3
)
2–4
1.15–1.25
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.06–1.14
1.04
1.23
1.24
1.03–1.04
1.23
1.07
1.19–1.23
Stiffness
10
8
10
4
6
5
5
3
7.5
10
5
5
26
Ultimate strength (MPa)
20–30
46
45–48
32
72
40–85
40
78
65
32
53
55
26–43
Coefficient of thermal expansion (μm/m°C)
33.75
30.5
57.5
150
69
95
90
85
68
80
60
98
57
Printability
7
8
8
4
6
8
8
5
9
6
9
7
6
Maximum service temperature (°C)
52
52
52
100
121
80–95
98
75
52
100
73
90
60–74
Extruder temperature (°C)
190–220
190–220
220–270
220–250
260–310
220–270
220–250
185–200
190–220
230–245
230–250
235–255
225–245
Bed temperature (°C)
45–60
45–60
45–60
85–100
80–120
70–90
95–110
45–60
45–60
100–115
75–90
45–60
90–110
Recommended build surfaces
Glue stick, PEI, painter’s tape
Glue stick, PEI, painter’s tape
Glue stick, PEI, painter’s tape, glass plate
PP sheet, packing tape
PEI, glue stick, commercial adhesive
PEI, glue stick
ABS slurry, Kapton tape
Painter’s tape, PEI
Glue stick, PEI, painter’s tape, glass plate
Glue stick, glass plate, Kapton tape
Painter’s tape, glue stick
PEI, glue stick
Painter’s tape, PEI
Other hardware requirements
Part cooling fan, stainless steel or wearresistant nozzle
Part cooling fan
Part cooling fan
Part cooling fan, enclosure recommended, heated bed
Enclosure recommended, heated bed
Enclosure recommended, heated bed
Enclosure recommended, heated bed
Heated bed, part cooling fan
Part cooling fan
Enclosure recommended, heated bed
Heated bed, part cooling fan
Heated bed
Part cooling fan
Price (kg) ($)
50–120
25–55
30–80
60–120
40–75
25–65
10–40
40–110
10–40
24–32
20–60
38–40
30–70
Composites3D-printed polymers have a lack of mechanical strength, complex geometry, and functionality, which is a considerable challenge for their broad area of applications. Particle reinforcements are broadly employed to ameliorate properties of the polymer matrix. Composite materials have low weight, tailorable properties, and exceptional properties which have become a revolution in high-performance industries. Glass fiber- and carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites are the most studied examples of reinforced composites. Carbon fiber-based composites are widely employed in aerospace applications attributing to the excellent corrosion resistance, high specific stiffness, good fatigue performance, and stiffness. Concurrently, glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites have a low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity, which make it appropriate for applications in 3D printing technology as they are not affected by the curing temperature in the process of manufacturing [
19
,
20
]. Particles can mix with polymers either in liquid form for SLA or powder form for SLS which can be extruded into printable filaments in the FDM process. An innovation in particle reinforces nanocomposites of 3D printing to fabricate objects for structural applications employed for real-world applications. Nanomaterials include graphite, graphene, and CNTs (carbon nanotubes); metal oxides often exhibit idiosyncratic thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties. Therefore, the inclusion of nanoparticles into polymers for 3D printing technology could validate the formation of high-performance functional composites. The inclusion of reinforcement particles into polymers assists in addressing some perplex difficulties in the printing technique. One of the prime stumbling blocks in the FDM printing process is the decomposition of the end product which is produced by thermal expansion of polymers. Reinforcing the metal particles into a polymer matrix could be an efficient riposte to this nuisance.
CeramicsImportantly, ceramics and concrete are not appropriate for 3D printing as the pristine powder cannot be mixed by employing heat up to their melting point. Additionally, the high melting temperature of ceramics is the primary challenge in additive manufacturing technology. Presently, concrete and ceramics have been employed to fabricate 3D-printed objects without any cracks or artifacts that can be attained by optimizing parameters and enhancing mechanical properties [
21
]. Ceramics are durable, fire-resistant, and strong and can be implemented in any shape or geometry useful in building and constructions. Ceramic materials are also useful in aerospace and dental applications [
22
]—for instance, alumina, zirconia, and bioactive glasses [
23
–
25
]. Polymer materials filled with ceramics have enhanced wear resistance, which makes them potential material for tooling applications. STL printing propound ceramic powder filled with resin employed in the production of injection molds (high detail). Alumina has great curing complexity and formidable ceramic oxide with a broad myriad of applications comprising of chemicals, propulsion components, microelectronics, thermal protection systems, catalyst, and high technology industry [
26
]. STL machine was employed to fabricate bioactive and ceramic glass into dance props by improving the bending strength of these materials. The increased mechanical strength has the potential to be applied in pertinent clinical structures like bone and scaffold. Zirconia is the major constituent of construction materials used in nuclear power sectors applied in element tubing. The AM process which involves a single step is more pertinent to fabricate ceramic parts in a shortened time [
27
]. In a study, the low cost of raw material, manufacturing scalability, and powder-based technologies are the most economically viable AM process to create ceramic parts owing to the ease of parallel processing of multiple parts [
28
].
Box 2: Smart materials
Materials which have capabilities to alter the shape and geometry of the object are referred as smart materials [29]. These can be influenced by external conditions such as water and heat—for instance, 3D-printed components formed by employing smart materials are soft robotic systems and self-evolving structures. Smart materials can also be categorized as 4D printing materials—for instance, smart materials are shape memory polymers and shape memory alloys [30, 31]. Nevertheless, not all components produced by 3D printing processes, e.g., printed living hinges, are categorized as 4D printing as they do not have shape changing, self-actuating, and self-sensing properties [32]. Nickel-titanium, a category of shape memory alloy, is useful in bio-medical implants as micro-electromechanical device applications in which density, reproducibility of microstructures, and transformation temperatures are the essential parameters. By employing 3D printing technology, the complex shape of shape memory alloys could be favorable to produce. The assessment of the quality of material is performed based on part density, surface roughness, and dimensional accuracy.
With the advent of 3D printing technology, sustainable materials are of utmost significance in the present scenario as the 3D printing market is proliferating at a rapid rate. Recycling the unwanted or excess material into new-fangled feedstock or unraveling novel methods for composting and degeneration of materials into innocuous building blocks in the ecosystem is crucial. Biomaterials have created a quest in replacing traditional polymers which have a detrimental impact on the ecosystems due to their promising solutions to mitigate plastic waste. The selection of material specifically in tissue engineering applications is dependent on innumerable factors such as processability, degradability, surface characteristics, mechanical properties, and biocompatibility [33]. Both natural and synthetic polymers have been employed in 3D printing techniques. Natural polymers like chitosan, polysaccharides, collagen, chitin, PLA, etc., are widely employed for biomedical applications. Synthetic polymers like PGA, PCL, PVA, and PLGA are the most commonly used polymers that can bestow utmost flexibility and better physicochemical properties [34–36].
Box 3: Bioprinting: The exigency for definitions
Biological printing facilitates the precise cell deposition in viscous biomaterial in a discrete spatial arrangement utilizing a computer aided printer. The progression of this technology from conventional 3D printing has entailed complex printing processes to facilitate the role of biological inks like proliferation and cell adhesion to be assisted in addition to the mechanical characteristics required for traditional 3D printing ink. In bioprinting, multimaterial structures encompass cells which can be printed along with inorganic or organic materials to create a fully functional scaffold.
The pursuit of biocompatible materials is the paramount challenge in translational bioprinting. The stipulation to refine a biomaterial transformed into bioink places further behest on the criteria for biomaterials. The biomaterial must facilitate extrusion as a liquid bioink and yet be able to perpetuate its shape in the post-printing process to capitulate viable organs, tissues, and biological materials. Figure 1.3 delineates the classification of biomaterials utilized in 3D printing technology.
Figure 1.3 Outlining the classification of natural and synthetic biopolymers.
1.5 A Paradigm in 3D Printing Technology: Eminent Innovations for Mankind
3D printers have soared beyond plastics as there are new-fangled printers that can process recycled materials—for instance, one inventor came up with a strategy to print wet paper fibers. The paper pulp printer is the first innovation of a 3D printer that utilizes sustainable materials. Due to its durability and strong characteristics, it imparts a solution to circumvent plastics. Furthermore, it is contemplated as a closed-loop recycling system to recycle 3D-printed objects again in the near future.
Ceramics is the material that 3D printing developers are presently forming waves with, i.e., woven ceramics which allow for objects and structures that have micro-pores employed of the circulation of air. Besides this, the aforementioned 3D-printed sculptures of ceramics are also dignitary of being allocated in the museum.
Steel, an efficient material being leveraged in the process of 3D printing phenomena—for instance, a 3D-printed steel bridge was constructed to manifest the dormancy of multiaxis 3D printing technology. As 3D printing technology persists to proliferate and evolve, organizations may be able to manufacture city infrastructure faster and precisely.
The healthcare industry is being revolutionized by the innovation of the recreation of the human heart by encapsulating fatty tissue employing genetic processes to transform them into heart cells. Ultimately, that biomaterial was converted into “bio-ink”. It manifested that bio-printing could one day print biological structures and human organs such as teeth. The scientists who worked on printing the human heart analyzed that the printed organ was biological to the patient as it is from the similar genetic material, so the sufferer would not require to medicate with immune-suppressants. This will assist in circumventing the life-threatening organ repudiation that some patients suffer.
Researchers are working on hair restoration procedures by developing “hair fam” which can be transplanted into a patient—for instance, strong and thick as bristles on a hairbrush and synthetic hair for a wig.
Spritam is an innovation of 3D-printed medication that is approved by the FDA. The advantage of this anti-seizure drug is to dissolve rapidly on the tongue (something conventional medications could not do).
Recently, Audi is adapting the 3D printer automotive parts efficiently which transforms the way their production and development are carried out. A prime advantage is to lessen the duration of the wait which customers experience while ordering intricate parts. By employing the SLS process, they can more affordably and efficiently create lighter parts with complex internal functions and geometry.
In a project called ICON, researchers produced a 3D-printed home out of cement. The scientists of the University of Nantes have fabricated a 3D printing system that is capable of building a polyurethane foam (fully insulated housing structure) in just 20 to 30 min by the robotic arm.
The scientists from the University of Minnesota created a prototype of an artificial type to overcome the barriers. This landmark research marks an imperative step towards developing a bionic eye which assists sighted or blind people to see better. Silver particles were printed on hemispherical glass dome, followed by the employment of semiconducting polymer to print photodiodes which transforms light into electrical signals that can be turned and processed into real images. Even though it may sound like science fiction, this 3D-printed bionic eye will soon become a reality, creating a new epoch in regenerative medicine.
