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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Highly comprehensive and detailed text on best possible sustainable approaches associated with the development, design, and origination of pharmaceuticals Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences enables readers to understand the best possible green approaches associated with the development, design, and origination of pharmaceuticals, including resources that may minimize the adverse effects associated with synthesis, isolation, and extraction. Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences covers a myriad of current topics, including mechanochemical improvements for API synthesis, as well as the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in the development and discovery of pharmaceuticals, along with recent developments in hydrogels which respond to triggered factors during topical drug delivery. Authored by experienced scientists from institutions across the world, other sample topics covered in Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences include: * Green technologies and benefits associated with them, white biotechnology, green chemistry, and eco-friendly approaches for designing active pharmaceutical ingredients * Impact of sustainable approaches in pharmaceutical industries regarding use of solvents, nanoparticles formulations, and antimicrobial bandages * Micro-extractive methods capable of generating high recovery values of the analytes and associated techniques, such as dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction * Benefits of the exploration of sustainable chemistry on a commercial scale, particularly in relation to bioresources, chemical manufacturing, and organic transformation Discussing both the foundational science and practicality of different approaches regarding human and environmental health, Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences is an essential resource for scientists, medical professionals, and industrial professionals working in the fields of sustainable technology and synthesis in pharmaceutical sciences, along with advanced level students.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences
Edited by
Kamal Shah Professor of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, India
Durgesh Nandini Chauhan Assistant Professor Columbia College of Pharmacy, Raipur, India
Nagendra Singh Chauhan Senior Scientific Officer Grade-2 Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhan Kendra, Government Ayurvedic College Campus, Raipur, India
This edition first published 2024
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Green and Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences
2 Green Approaches in Conventional Drug Synthesis
3 Modern Green Extraction Techniques
4 Impact of Green Approaches in Pharmaceutical Industries
5 Green Analytical Techniques Using Hydrotropy, Mixed Hydrotropy, and Mixed Solvency
6 Application of Artificial Intelligence in Drug Design and Development
7 Green Chemistry in the Development of Functionalised Hydrogels as Topical Drug-Delivery Systems
8 Advanced Approaches in Green Univariate Spectrophotometric Methods
9 Cyclodextrin-Based Molecular Inclusion by Grinding: Quality by Design in Green Chemistry
10 Synthesis of Graphitic Carbon Nitride Quantum Dots from Bulk Graphitic Carbon Nitride
11 Mechanochemistry for Sustainable Drug Design and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Synthesis
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 Summary of anticancer...
CHAPTER 03
Table 3.1 Modern applications of...
Table 3.2 Comparison between QuEChERS...
Table 3.3 Examples of solid...
Table 3.4 Some recent microextraction...
Table 3.5 Recent applications of...
CHAPTER 04
Table 4.1 The 12 principles...
Table 4.2 Green metrics, tools...
Table 4.3 Greener technologies...
Table 4.5 Unfavourable solvents and...
Table 4.6 Future scenario for...
CHAPTER 05
Table 5.1 Summary of hydrotropic...
Table 5.2 Summary of hydrotropic...
Table 5.3 Summary of simultaneous...
Table 5.4 Summary of mixed...
Table 5.5 Mixed hydrotropic solid...
Table 5.6 Summary of mixed...
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.1 Appearance, advantages, and...
Table 7.2 LD50 of commonly...
Table 7.3 Most common thermo...
Table 7.4 List of drug...
Table 7.5 Chemical structures of...
Table 7.6 Bio-cellulose hydrogels...
Table 7.7 Thermo-responsive hydrogels...
Table 7.8 Thermo-responsive hydrogel...
CHAPTER 08
Table 8.1 Application of green...
Table 8.2 A summary of...
Table 8.3 Limitations and outcomes...
Table 8.4 Advanced univariate spectrophotometric...
CHAPTER 09
Table 9.1 Preparation of inclusion...
Table 9.2 List of different...
Table 9.3 Identification of critical...
Table 9.4 Failure Mode and...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 Bulk graphitic carbon...
Table 10.2 Bottom-up techniques...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Potential advantages of...
Figure 1.2 Protein-based nanoparticles...
Figure 1.3 Conventional synthesis of...
Figure 1.4 Green synthesis of...
Figure 1.5 Conventional synthesis of...
Figure 1.6 Green synthesis of...
Figure 1.7 (a, b) Conventional...
Figure 1.8 Green synthesis of...
Figure 1.9 Green synthesis of...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Comparison visualisation of...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 Important components of...
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of...
Figure 3.3 Schematic illustration of...
Figure 3.4 Schematic representation of...
Figure 3.5 Microextraction by packed...
Figure 3.6 Polythiophene as adsorbent...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Green chemistry principles...
Figure 4.2 Traditional route of...
Figure 4.3 Hoechst (BHC) synthesis...
Figure 4.4 Traditional route of...
Figure 4.5 Greener route of...
Figure 4.6 Traditional route of...
Figure 4.7 Greener route of...
Figure 4.8 Traditional route of...
Figure 4.9 Greener route of...
Figure 4.10 Traditional route of...
Figure 4.11 Greener route of...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Hydrotropic agent...
Figure 7.2 Synthesis methods of...
Figure 7.3 Physical and chemical...
Figure 7.4 Hydrogels formed by...
Figure 7.5 Hydrogel classifications based...
Figure 7.6 Drug-release mechanisms...
Figure 7.7 Phase diagram of...
Figure 7.8 Typical drug-release...
Figure 7.9 The molecular structure...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 Structure of alpha...
Figure 9.2 Different structures of...
Figure 9.3 Inclusion complex formation...
Figure 9.4 Five steps involved...
Figure 9.5 Ishikawa fishbone diagram...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Types of carbon...
Figure 10.2 Triazine-based and...
Figure 10.3 The manufacture of...
Figure 10.4 Various methods of...
Figure 10.5 Strategy for the...
Figure 10.6 Synthesis of graphitic...
Figure 10.7 Other notable applications...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Mechanochemistry compliance with...
Figure 11.2 Schematic representation of...
Figure 11.3 (A, B) Mechanochemical...
Figure 11.4 (A–D Mechanochemical synthesis...
Figure 11.5 Enzyme-catalysed multicomponent...
Figure 11.6 Mechanoenzymatic resolution of...
Figure 11.7 Mechanochemical synthesis of...
Figure 11.8 Multistep mechanochemical synthesis...
Figure 11.9 Synthesis of phenytoin...
Figure 11.10 Mechanochemical synthesis of...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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List of Contributors
Dina A. Ahmed Analytical Chemistry Department Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University Cairo, Egypt
Imran Ali Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia Jamia Nagar, New Delhi, India
Maha Mohammad AL-Rajabi Faculty of Chemical Engineering & Technology and Centre of Excellence for Biomass Utilization (CoEBU) Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP) Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
Ashish Baldi Pharma Innovation Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University Bathinda, Punjab, India
Shiv Bahadur Institute of Pharmaceutical Research GLA University Mathura, UP, India
Muhammad Bilal School of Life Science and Food Engineering Huaiyin Institute of Technology Huaian, China
Martina Bonelli Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, Section of Legal Medicine University of Chieti–Pescara ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Chieti, Italy
Pedro Brandão Egas Moniz Center for Interdisciplinary Research (CiiEM) and Egas Moniz School of Health & Science Caparica, Portugal
Rishita J. Chauhan Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Quality Assurance L. M. College of Pharmacy Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Durgesh Nandini Chauhan Columbia College of Pharmacy Raipur, India
Nagendra Singh Chauhan Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhana Kendra Raipur, CG, India
Ugo de Grazia Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta Laboratory of Neurological Biochemistry and Neuropharmacology Milan, Italy
Cristian D’Ovidio Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, Section of Legal Medicine University of Chieti–Pescara ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Chieti, Italy
Tejas M. Dhameliya Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Quality Assurance L. M. College of Pharmacy Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Anuradha K. Gajjar Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Quality Assurance L. M. College of Pharmacy Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Taruna Grover Department of Chemistry Lovely Professional University Jalandhar-Delhi, Punjab, India Aarti Industries Research and Technology Center Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Nazim Hussain Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB) University of the Punjab Lahore, Pakistan
Jegam Noel Joseph Chemistry of Heterocycles and Natural Product Research Laboratory Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Abuzar Kabir International Forensic Research Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Florida International University Miami, FL, USA
Marcello Locatelli Department of Pharmacy University of Chieti–Pescara ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Chieti, Italy
Hayam M. Lotfy Analytical Chemistry Department Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University Cairo, Egypt
Rajesh K. Maheshwari Department of Pharmacy SGSITS Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India
Somdutt Mujwar Chitkara College of Pharmacy Chitkara University Rajpura, Punjab, India
Atish S. Mundada SNJBs SSDJ College of Pharmacy Neminagar, Chandwad Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Subh Naman Pharma Innovation Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University Bathinda, Punjab, India
Reem H. Obaydo Analytical Chemistry Department Faculty of Pharmacy Ebla Private University (EPU) Aleppo, Syria
Deepak D. Patil K.K. Wagh College of Pharmacy Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Marta Pineiro Coimbra Chemistry Centre (CQC)–Institute of Molecular Sciences (IMS) Department of Chemistry University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal
Radhika Institute of Pharmaceutical Research GLA University Mathura, UP, India
Hassan Rafique Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB) University of the Punjab Lahore, Pakistan
Selvaraj Mohana Roopan Chemistry of Heterocycles and Natural Product Research Laboratory Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Enrica Rosato Department of Pharmacy University of Chieti–Pescara ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Chieti, Italy
Yasmin Rostom Analytical Chemistry Department Faculty of Pharmacy Cairo University Cairo, Egypt
Muhammad Usama Saeed Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB) University of the Punjab Lahore, Pakistan
Sarah S. Saleh Analytical Chemistry Department Faculty of Pharmacy October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA) Giza, Egypt
Victoria Samanidou Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessaloniki, Greece
Fabio Savini Pharmatoxicology Laboratory Hospital ‘Santo Spirito’ Pescara, Italy
Joseph Selvin Chemistry of Heterocycles and Natural Product Research Laboratory Department of Chemistry, School of Advanced Sciences Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Kamal Shah Institute of Pharmaceutical Research GLA University Mathura, UP, India
Sanyam Sharma Pharma Innovation Lab, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University Bathinda, Punjab, India
Angela Tartaglia Department of Pharmacy University of Chieti–Pescara ‘G. d’Annunzio’ Chieti, Italy
Teow Yeit Haan Department of Chemical and Process Engineering and Research Centre for Sustainable Process Technology (CESPRO) Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Halil Ibrahim Ulusoy Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Cumhuriyet University Sivas, Turkey
Maulikkumar D. Vaja Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Saraswati Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Preface
This book is aimed at an audience of advanced-level students, experts, and scientists working in the design, synthesis, analysis, and isolation of pharmaceuticals using green approaches. The field of pharmaceutical sciences will always remain in demand. As was seen in the COVID-19 pandemic, medicine plays a vital role in society. The demand for it cannot be overlooked. This book consists of all the possible facets or resources that may minimise the adverse effects associated with synthesis, isolation, or extraction, so that these possible approaches will save human and environmental health. Readers from different fields (students, researchers, industrialists, scientists) will get all the best green approaches associated with the development, design, or origination of pharmaceuticals.
The book has 11 chapters authored by scientists around the globe. Chapter 1 focuses on green technologies, the benefits associated with them, white biotechnology, and green chemistry. The impact of green approaches in the pharmaceutical industry is considered regarding the use of greener solvents, nanoparticle formulation, antimicrobial bandages, and green synthesis of drugs. This chapter will be useful for researchers, scientists, or industrialists who are working in the areas of green technologies or green chemistry.
Chapter 2 discusses green approaches to designing active pharmaceutical ingredients. This chapter narrates various ways like microwave irradiation technology, ultrasound-mediated synthesis, molecular sieving, and grinding and milling techniques. These methods are considered sustainable technologies and have become part of a valuable green protocol to produce pharmaceutically active drugs.
Chapter 3 covers the topic of microextractive methods capable of generating high recovery values for the analytes even from very complex matrices. The chapter includes techniques such as dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, microextraction by packed sorbent, liquid–liquid extraction, solid-phase microextraction, solid-phase extraction, and fabric-phase sportive extraction. These techniques have been widely applied in many fields including bioanalysis, ecology, food, natural compounds, forensic science, and toxicology. This chapter examines recent applications of these novel procedures, highlighting the main benefits and outcomes that have been reported in the literature. Special attention is given to green approaches and the development of innovative procedures that have been optimised in agreement with green analytical chemistry principles.
Chapter 4 considers the impact of green sustainable approaches in the pharmaceutical industry. This chapter adopts the concept of minimising the utilisation of hazardous material, an approach in which scientists are effectively working to the 12 principles applicable for the betterment of the chemical strategy adopted. The numerous benefits of the exploration of green chemistry on a commercial scale are discussed along with the bioresources, chemical manufacturing, and organic transformation that affect the industrial process. The principles of green chemistry are elaborated by giving various examples compared to conventional methods at the industrial level.
Chapter 5 describes techniques of analysis that involve the selection of an appropriate solvent so as to achieve the sustainability of a chemical production process. Green methods using hydrotropy, mixed hydrotropy, and mixed solvency are simple, cost-effective, and safe. Mixed hydrotropic solubilisation also overcomes the use of a large concentration of hydrotropic agents that are required in monohydrotropy. The mixed solvency approach renders green analytical methods utilisable in ultraviolet spectrophotometric analysis, titrimetric analysis, thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and also in formulation. A systematic approach to experimentation is lacking. The different blends used in mixed solvency have not received systematic development and a rational approach. The proper justification for the use of components in a blend is missing. It is an opportunity for researchers to systematically utilise a mixed solvency approach for spectrophotometric development and formulation.
Chapter 6 discusses the role of and need for artificial intelligence (AI) in drug targeting, drug design, identification, and prediction of probable mechanisms of action. The chapter also narrates the prediction of the biological behaviour of a newer molecule to know whether it is going to possess therapeutic potency or not and also to identify the associated problem that is supposed to be obstructing its pharmaceutical impact. The chapter shows the path of the AI-based drug discovery process over the traditional wet lab-based hit-and-miss methods, which is essentially utilised in the drug discovery regime prior to moving to experimental procedures.
Chapter 7 emphasises hydrogels as a topical drug-delivery system and the role of green chemistry in developing functionalised hydrogels for drug delivery. Green chemistry plays a critical role in functionalised hydrogels in the pharmaceutical industry for the formulation of effective and safe systems for drug delivery. Recent developments in hydrogels that respond to specific trigger factors during topical drug delivery are also outlined. Finally, the adoption of green chemistry in developing functionalised hydrogels is discussed.
Chapter 8 is based on advanced approaches in green univariate spectrophotometric methods based on basic mathematical techniques, such as subtraction, division, and multiplication, for assaying the components of multicomponent mixtures in their different pharmaceutical dosage forms utilising inexpensive, affordable, and ecofriendly facilities. The pharmaceutical industry and market has shown a tremendous evolution where different new pharmaceuticals and pharmaceutical combinations have been introduced in order to increase patient compliance and obtain the required outcomes. At the same time, this evolution has raised a challenge in the field of drug analysis, where new applicable methods of analysis need to be developed and validated to ensure that the right doses will reach patients free from any undesired compounds such as impurities, adulterants, or interfering substances that may lead to undesirable side effects.
Chapter 9 provides details about the basic mechanism of cyclodextrin inclusion complex formation by grinding, discussing various challenges associated with the grinding process and different techniques of grinding, with the identification of critical material attributes, critical process parameters, and critical quality attributes through an Ishikawa fishbone diagram and criticality assessment by quality risk management based on the quality target product profile. The insights into this green chemistry quality by design approach provide a case study for creating complex molecular structures through multicomponent reactions and solvent-free synthesis on an industrial scale with consistent quality.
Chapter 10 focuses on the production of carbon nitride quantum dots from bulk graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and their applications. The chapter outlines the synthesis of quantum dots, with bulk g-C3N4 serving as a major contributor and numerous top-down subsidiary methods being employed. The photon emission efficiency of the subtypes of methods that have been performed can be seen clearly in their quantum yields. Even though the technique has proven to be extremely useful, there are still a number of application fields that need to be explored where there is scope for improvement.
Chapter 11 discusses mechanochemical approaches that have several advantages for active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) synthesis, from access to unexplored reactivity to high compliance with sustainability parameters and green chemistry principles. The wide variety of apparatus, the number of variables to optimise, and safety concerns regarding scale-up procedures remain some of the most relevant challenges in years to come in the field of mechanochemistry. The still fairly unexplored field of continuous manufacturing under mechanochemical conditions might open the door to new, safer, and cleaner API synthesis protocols, easily applied in the industrial setting. The chapter will inspire scientists, medical professionals, or industrialists to work on green technology or synthesis in the pharmaceutical sciences.
Last, but not least, we would like to express our earnest gratitude to all the authors who have taken time from their busy schedules to be part of this endeavour and offered impeccable chapters that added both magnitude and significance to this book. We welcome suggestions and criticisms from our readers. Special thanks are due to our families for their sustenance and inspiration. We express our acknowledgement to the publishing and production team, especially Bhavya Boopathi and her team, for their substantial, skilful, and motivating management.
Kamal Shah
Durgesh Nandini Chauhan
Nagendra Singh Chauhan
1 Green and Sustainable Approaches in Pharmaceutical Sciences
Shiv Bahadur1, Radhika1, Durgesh Nandini Chauhan2, Nagendra Singh Chauhan3 and Kamal Shah1
1 Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, UP, India 2 Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Raipur, CG, India 3 Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhana Kendra, Raipur, CG, India
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction,
1.2 Green Solvents,
1.3 Nanoparticle Formulations,
1.4 Antimicrobial Bandages,
1.5 Green Drug Synthesis,
1.6 Green Nanotechnology,
1.7 Benefits of Green Technologies,
1.8 White Biotechnology and Green Chemistry,
1.9 Conclusion,
1.1 Introduction
The pharmaceutical industry contributes around $1.27 trillion to the global economy, making it one of the world’s largest contributors. At the same time, these businesses emit around 1.9 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide each year. Environmental protection is a constant goal for the regulatory agencies that oversee various sectors across the world, including pharmaceuticals. Sadly, however, firms’ in-house systems are not as good as they should be. Several creative concepts for environmental protection have been developed, but most of them have failed because of a lack of engagement with the world’s largest pharmaceutical companies [1, 2].
New environmentally friendly, safe, and effective pharmaceuticals are the goal of all pharmaceutical firms. In order to achieve this goal, the industry must switch from synthetic to eco-friendly materials. Companies in a number of sectors have begun to use green chemistry techniques in an attempt to replace their old-fashioned ways of manufacturing [3]. Ecologically friendly green chemistry’s primary goals are to maximise energy efficiency, reduce waste, and employ renewable energy sources for power generation. Green chemistry may help limit the amount of waste products that are generated throughout the process of synthesis, such as solvents, contaminants, and exhausted reagents. Pharmaceutical corporations have broad influence in this area and could make significant contributions. As a result, it is important to investigate various green chemical methods and discover the gaps in their use [4].
In the pharmaceutical industry, green chemistry techniques are in great demand and have been developed in recent decades within a new approach that addresses issues such as pollution, limited environmental resources, and renewable sources of materials. The pharmaceutical industry is under increasing pressure to improve both its production efficiency and the implications of its products as environmental degradation and better testing procedures are becoming more widely known. Employing green chemistry practices does not necessarily equate to cost-effectiveness, however. Incorporating the concepts of green chemistry may be seen as an extra challenge, and the commercialisation of green technology is being thwarted by a lack of capital investment [5].
In order to implement green processes, various modifications must be made to the lengthy global supply chain. In addition to intellectual property and fail-fast requirements, challenges such as safety and the occupational health management of those participating in the process must be considered. Although green chemistry lessens the sector’s dependency on fossil fuels, there is still a dearth of real government subsidies for alternative energy resources and setting up pharmaceutical enterprises. New restrictions on environmental contamination of water sources, both from industrial waste and from the residues of medications and medicines discharged in water bodies as municipal liquid waste, are another issue facing pharmaceutical companies. Even at very low levels, research has shown that drugs and their metabolites damage lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. Fish and other benthic creatures are particularly vulnerable to the effects of large quantities of drugs. Pharmaceutical companies are generally aware of these issues and take them seriously, but the rules in place do not always benefit the industry [3].
The difficulty of obtaining readily available green feedstock materials has been cited as a fundamental obstacle to the widespread use of green synthesis. If such materials cannot be sourced, it is probably because they do not exist at the right degree of detail or simplicity. They may not be in a format that is easy to use or tailored to a particular industry.
A broad range of solutions are needed to deal with the issues that arise in the use of green and sustainable chemistry. As an example, green chemistry training that emphasises the fundamentals of process excellence in design, biocatalysis, and the selection of solvents and reagents is highly recommended. While reducing carbon emissions should be a priority, it is equally important to employ renewable energy resources wisely, manage water use efficiently, and reduce trash output [6]. However, although the scientific community has largely embraced the idea of green chemistry, the technological progress of green chemistry has yet to be achieved via education and awareness. Traditional chemical industries must undergo a major shift to become more sustainable. There must be collaboration between education, politics, and economics, as well as a multidisciplinary commitment to equality and metrics [2, 7].
Research institutions and universities have been working for years towards greener chemistry, which is now being used in numerous industries. There is still a lot of work to be done, not just in terms of research but also in terms of how we think about chemistry and synthesis and what it can do for our well-being and advancement in technology and society. There will come a point in the future when pharmaceutical chemists will no longer need to be taught about green chemistry since it will be included in the natural sequence of operations. Green chemistry is now gaining significance on a world scale. Not only does it help the environment, it also results in high-quality goods with few hazardous residues. If the current situation of the pharmaceutical sector and the difficulties it faces, such as environmental issues, high costs, and other challenges, are examined, it is clear that green chemistry offers a novel approach for improving living standards while reducing environmental problems [6]. Reductions in the use of harmful chemicals and solvents and the substitution of those materials with more environmentally friendly, renewable alternatives may lower emissions and save water. The pharmaceutical business and medicine production might be transformed in the future by green chemistry. It benefits the ecology and the economy at the same time. As a consequence, the conventional pharmaceutical industry will be transformed into one that is more environmentally friendly and sustainable [2, 7].
Even so, green chemistry ideas and practices have been effectively adopted by pharmaceutical companies in a number of countries [8]. Some of the successful end goods and technologies that have gained prominence in recent years are described in the rest of this chapter.
1.2 Green Solvents
Green solvents can be employed as an alternative to traditional solvents. In their green chemistry principles, Anastas and colleagues advocated the use of ‘safer solvents and auxiliaries’. Combustible organic solvents are used in various synthesis processes; nevertheless, these conventional solvents are damaging to the environment and poisonous. Thus, green solvents are currently replacing conventional solvents in numerous industries [9, 10]. There is a wide variety of solvents, and the choice of a suitable solvent for a particular reaction can be crucial to the success of a reaction technique. When choosing a solvent for a reaction, the qualities that should be considered are chemical compatibility with reagents and products; solubility of reagents; and procedure temperature [2, 7].
Sertraline hydrochloride, a greener solvent, was produced using chemical reagents such as toluene, hexane, tetrahydrofuran (THF), and metal salts such as titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4). When these solvents were substituted with water and the palladium on carbon (Pd/C) catalyst was removed, it provided a more selective and environmentally friendly method.
1.2.1 Water as a Solvent
The ever-increasing demand for a more sustainable approach in synthesis operations has led to a growing interest in using water as a solvent. The use of water as a solvent in chemical synthesis is one of the best ways to minimise the release of dangerous compounds into the environment, according to green chemistry. When using water as a solvent, reactions are frequently conducted under mild experimental conditions and consequently the catalysts are frequently reused, which reduces the overall price of the product [6].
1.2.2 Ionic Liquids
In the context of green solvents we can discuss ionic liquids, which, at least for a time, are considered not only as designer solvents but also as green solvents, primarily because they require negligible vapour pressure and do not contribute to the problem of volatile organic compounds [11]. Green technology involves the synthesis of biodiesel and bioethanol from transesterification of vegetable oil. During biodiesel production, a vast amount of the by-product glycerol is produced and discarded. This glycerol has tremendous potential for applications in the pharmaceuticals, food, and explosives sectors [12].
1.3 Nanoparticle Formulations
Nanoparticles are particles that range in size from 1 nm to 100 nm. The improved characteristics of nanoparticles are a result of their vast surface area. Historically, physical and chemical processes were used to create nanoparticles. The increased demand for nanoparticles resulted in their mass fabrication. Therefore, a commercial approach for synthesising metal nanoparticles was established. However, the actual technology utilised to create nanoparticles is environmentally harmful and poisonous, involving the use of hazardous solvents and large amounts of energy. Due to the existence of by-products, the colloidal solution is also contaminated by the classical synthesis technique.
To address this issue, green nanoparticle production was developed. Not only are these nanoparticles environmentally friendly, they are also cost-effective and may be employed for large-scale production [13, 14]. Synthesising nanoparticles using methods that are clean, non-toxic, and environmentally benign adheres to green chemistry principles such as prevention, less dangerous chemical synthesis, developing safer compounds, and real-time pollution prevention [15].
Nanotechnology in the field of pharmaceuticals is at the developmental stage [16]. Green nanoparticles are more biocompatible than their chemical counterparts. The three key advantages of employing green nanoparticles are as follows (Figures 1.1 and 1.2):
Figure 1.1 Potential advantages of green chemistry.
Figure 1.2 Protein-based nanoparticles.
They are environmentally friendly.
They are non-toxic.
Many microorganisms like yeast, fungi, bacteria, plants, etc. can be used for the synthesis of nanoparticles.
1.4 Antimicrobial Bandages
A bandage is a piece of material used to cover a wound or a wounded body part. It offers support to the wound and surrounding tissue. This adheres to the first and twelfth principles of green chemistry (see Chapter 2). Wound-healing dressings can be made by green nanoparticle synthesis, in which bandages are impregnated with nanoparticles [17]. For instance, silver nanoparticles were generated by impregnating a bandage with the weed species Tridax procumbens, which has demonstrated antibacterial action against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Nanoparticles have also been produced using Prosopis farctaand occasionally a time-saving, environmentally safe, and inexpensive synthesis of silver (Ag) and philosopher’s wool (zinc oxide, ZnO). On cultures of Acinetobacter baumannii and Bacteroides genus aeruginosa, the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of these Ag and ZnO nanoparticles as well as their mixture were determined. Cotton wound bandages were impregnated with nanoparticles of Ag and ZnO and mixed Ag/ZnO nanoparticles in the vicinity of the calculated MIC and their antimicrobial activity was evaluated in vitro; all nanoparticle types demonstrated a high medication activity for the bandages [18].
1.5 Green Drug Synthesis
To prevent the release of dangerous and toxic by-products into the environment, green techniques have been created for drug synthesis. Almost all of the green chemistry principles have been used in the same endeavour, for instance it is preventive and involves atomic economy, less hazardous chemical synthesis, safer solvents, catalysis, and so on [19].
Some examples have been given for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals by conventional and green methods.
1.5.1 Ibuprofen
See Figures 1.3 and 1.4.
Figure 1.3 Conventional synthesis of ibuprofen.
Figure 1.4 Green synthesis of ibuprofen.
During green synthesis of ibuprofen the number of steps was reduced. Green synthesis of ibuprofen utilises hydrogen fluoride as both solvent and catalyst and fewer by-products are formed during the reaction.
1.5.2 Sildenafil
See Figures 1.5 and 1.6.
Figure 1.5 Conventional synthesis of sildenafil.
Figure 1.6 Green synthesis of sildenafil.
The advantages of green synthesis of sildenafil are:
The proposed green method reduces waste production.
It enhances the yield.
There is less consumption of solvent: the 22 l of solvent previously used for production of 1 kg sildenafil is now reduced to 7 l.
1.5.3 Paroxetine
See Figures 1.7 and 1.8.
Figure 1.7 (a, b) Conventional synthesis of paroxetine.
Figure 1.8 Green synthesis of paroxetine.
1.5.3 Quinapril hydrochloride
See Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9 Green synthesis of quinapril hydrochloride.
The green synthesis has increased the yield from 58% to 90%. The method utilises fewer solvents and minimises the use of acetic acid, acetone, and toluene.
1.6 Green Nanotechnology
The major objective of nanotechnology includes the development of structures and devices of the required shape and size at a nanometer scale. Nanotechnology includes any biomedical devices whose structural features are less than 100 nm in size. These types of materials are known as nanoparticle aggregates, nanostructures, and nanocomposites. Nanomaterials have major features depending on size that are due to their optical and electrical properties, shape, and surface activity.
In the last few decades several nanomaterials have been invented that have multifunctional and intelligent properties and can be used in the pharmaceutical sciences, especially in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer [10, 20]. Other products that have been developed include electrodes in batteries, carbon nanotubes, and those used in cosmetic and food sciences. While synthetic nanomaterials have several benefits, they may have various hazardous effects on the environment. Hence, their applications have been limited due to the various side effects [21].
Currently many scientists are working in the search for safe and effective natural nanomaterials through green synthesis routes, most commonly known as green nanotechnology. Green nanotechnology-based products could be more environmentally friendly and may replace synthetic nanomaterials [22]. The different by-products formed in synthetic nanomaterials can be minimised through green nanotechnology and several limitations can be overcome. Now eco-nanotoxicological research has been widely considered in different areas of nanotechnology-based products. There are several advantages of green nanotechnology over synthetic technology, such as its cost-effectiveness and minimal environmental hazards. This technology can enhance sustainability by reducing various risk factors for toxicity and the safety of human beings. The use of green resources for the production of nanotechnology-based products could solve several environmental issues. For instance, green nanotechnology approaches based on magnetite nanoparticles (NPs) are used for the removal of toxicity from chlorinated organic solvents to eliminate arsenic from water [23].
Green nanotechnology-based sensors for coliform bacteria as pollutants may enhance the detection ability compared to existing methods. Furthermore, these approaches will be helpful in reducing greenhouse gases, weight, and the use of fossil fuels. Nanomembranes may also be produced through green nanotechnology that are used for the separation of individual components from a complex mixture more effectively than via nanocatalysts [10]. Green nanotechnology methods can also use water instead of synthetic solvents, which may reduce the toxicity of several products [24].
1.7 Benefits of Green Technologies
Green science-based approaches are a major area of research throughout the world and more than 1000 scientific papers have been published on green technologies-based products. Green technologies decrease the release of hazardous waste materials into the environment. Green science includes various research areas such as green solvents, alternative energy sciences, molecular designs, bio-based transformations, and catalyst designs to minimise various hazardous substances. The release of hazardous waste substances such as methyl isobutyl ketone, hydrochloric acid, and trichloroethylene may be minimised through green nanotechnology [25]. Furthermore, these green techniques have an important role in novel production methods for fuel cells, solar cells, and solar batteries for storing energy. Green methods minimise the environmental hazards in next-generation catalysts for the production of chemicals and promote the sustainable development of new technology. Nanotechnology is playing a key role in several industrial sectors for new developments towards sustainability. Green nanotechnology enhances the synthesis of environmentally friendly nanomaterials and nanoproducts in which no toxic ingredients are used [2].
Green nanotechnology has been applied in different areas of science and technology such as nanosensor membranes, nanoscale membranes, and nanocatalysts. This green technology produces eco-friendly materials that can be used for various purposes like water purification, cleaning of environmental pollutants, and hazardous waste sites. Further, these nanomaterials weigh less and thus are easier to transport. Nanotechnology helps in the development of fuel cells and light-emitting diodes, self-cleaning nanoscale surface coatings and batteries with enhanced life. All these environmentally friendly innovations are energy efficient, address recycling, safety, and health concerns, and involve renewable resources. Hence, these green nanotechnologies may be helpful in the production of materials as well as products that have several advantages over synthetic materials, such as improved safety and less toxicity along with being environmentally friendly. Industrial pollutants could be controlled to a significant extent, since green nanomaterials can be helpful in the monitoring and prevention of different kinds of industrial pollutants [10, 26].
Furthermore, hazardous and toxic materials may be used to improve the ecosystem of the environment as part of the green nanotechnology-related remediation process. Energy generation and energy saving can be achieved through thermal discs and solar panels that use the sun as a heat source for the production of electrical energy in an environmentally friendly way. Sustainable and green chemical products including detergents, cleaning agents, and insecticides may be produced through environmentally safe and green reagents, such as orange coconut oil, peppermint, and glycerin, avoiding the use of any toxic or hazardous materials [27].
Currently most products are produced with materials that are not eco-friendly such as plastics, which are not biodegradable and can be toxic. Green technology uses sustainable and recyclable materials while developing products. Hence, green materials could be good for health as well as environmentally friendly.
1.8 White Biotechnology and Green Chemistry
At the start of the twentieth century, the relationship between industrial microbiology and technical chemistry proved beneficial to both fields. It is worth noting that during World War I, an anaerobic fermentation of glycerol and butanol was used as a feedstock for explosions and synthetic rubber. Biotechnological processes, on the other hand, had poor productivity and effluent issues that necessitated the development of more effective and ‘cleaner’ chemical technologies. Many novel ideas on the use of biofuel for bulk chemical synthesis were proposed as a result of the 1970s oil crisis. Anaerobic fermentation and dehydration processes provide the most commonly utilised petrochemicals [10]. To describe nations with a surplus of agricultural goods but few oil reserves, such as the United States, the term ‘biorefinery’ is employed. Chemicals, fuels, electricity, goods, and materials are produced in the ‘clusters of bio-based industries’ or the biorefinery.
The European chemical industry coined the term ‘white biotechnology’ to characterise the use of biotechnological ideas in chemistry. In contemporary biotechnology, white biotechnology serves industry by making use of living cells like moulds, yeasts, or bacteria as well as enzymes in order to generate products and services. White biotechnology is a potential component of green chemistry as described by Anastas and Warner in 1998 [28], which brings together chemistry, biology, and contemporary technology. In the design, production, and use of chemical products, green chemistry uses a set of principles that decrease or eliminate the usage or synthesis of hazardous compounds. In turn, white biotechnology procedures tend to focus on environmental considerations. Despite the fact that these features are seldom discussed in depth, they should always be present and active in current technology.
Some of the environmental implications of biotechnology and green chemistry include the use of renewable feedstock; novel high-performance microorganisms; online monitoring of substrates and products in bioreactors; optimisation of biotechnological processes by consideration of the complete process, including generation of feedstock, fermentation, and separation of the result; and sustainable socioeconomic and regional development [29].
1.9 Conclusion
Green chemistry is a subdiscipline of chemistry that puts an emphasis on durability, and is hence also known as sustainable chemistry. Sustainability in green chemistry is achieved by the employment of either a natural chemical moiety or a chemical synthesis technique that causes minimum harm to the environment. The significance of green chemistry and its industrial applications have been discussed in this chapter.
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2 Green Approaches in Conventional Drug Synthesis
Hassan Rafique1, Nazim Hussain1, Muhammad Usama Saeed1 and Muhammad Bilal2
1 Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan 2 School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian, China
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction,
2.2 Green Chemistry Perspective,
2.3 Green Approaches in Drug Synthesis,
2.4 Bio-fabricated Nanoparticles,
2.5 Green Approaches in Malaria Treatment,
2.6 Green Approaches in Dengue Treatment,
2.7 Green Synthesis of Different Drugs,
2.8 Conclusion,
2.1 Introduction
The outcomes of environmental changes and the necessity to decrease carbon footprints are the key concerns of today. Nevertheless, the devotion to reducing carbon emissions has already been in place in the public sector for a long time. The familiarity with anthropogenic and natural sources of environmental pollutants has appeared as a requirement that moves ahead of state boundaries to achieve a global aspect. Hence, several studies have pointed to the application of novel technologies in a variety of sustainable environmental programmes [1, 2]. These are green approaches that may reveal distinct environmentally friendly methods for sustainable administration and cleaning of the environment. Sustainable development has turned out to be a motto for both developing and developed countries.
The green synthesis approach can be defined as ‘an emerging area in the field of bio-nanotechnology that offers environmental and economic benefits as a substitute for physical and chemical methods’. In this approach, non-toxic reagents that are biosafe and ecofriendly are employed [3]. Green synthesis highlights techniques that follow a consistent and ecofriendly pathway with moderate reactions, using non-toxic precursors, and generating fewer wastes to safeguard a sustainable environment. As a result of this green approach, the design and production of new goods/drugs that are biodegradable, reusable, and safe are now taking place [4]. For instance, green synthesis uses microorganisms that are known as ‘bio-nanofactories’ because they are environmentally effective, cost-effective, fast, affordable, and exceptionally structured with a capacity for metal uptake while retaining security levels [5].
Even though we are living in the modern world of technology, the conventional use of chemotherapy such as antibiotics for bacterial infection is causing the problem of antibiotic resistance in persistent bacterial strains. Along with this comes the issue of non-targeted delivery effects of conventional chemicals and resistant drugs of the same family in a single bacterial strain. The repercussions are changes in drug dosages and intolerable toxicity of therapeutic agents [6]. The solution to this is greener synthesis in the field of nanoparticles, which exemplifies the progress over other approaches because it is modest, cost-efficient, and comparatively reproducible, and often results in more durable products. As has been mentioned, microorganisms can also be utilised to produce nanoparticles [7], but the synthesis is time-consuming and only a restricted number of shapes and sizes are suitable for the method compared to routes involving plant-based materials. Plants yield stable nanoparticles compared to other methods and it is undemanding to scale up. Bio-fabricated nanoparticles are being researched for their use in anticancerous, antimicrobial activities and in drug-delivery systems as well. Therefore, currently numerous scientists are diverting from synthetic methods to green approaches, because in green synthesis energy is not needed and there is lower requirement for high temperatures and pressures, or for toxic chemicals, and the contamination risk is also lower [8].
2.2 Green Chemistry Perspective
The scientific question confronting the chemical sector while planning the future for Earth is: What are going to be the nature and production methods of the chemicals desirable for a sustainable civilisation? Chemistry has an extensive record of designing beneficial products and procedures with remarkable performance; nevertheless, this scientific progress has frequently been understood by considering a limited definition of function, where unfavourable outcomes are not justified. Likewise, the resultant chemical products are frequently planned for their intended use while depending on conditional controls to limit exposures to risks that have not been assessed, possibly owing to the significant lack of models, as demonstrated by the array of unintended unfriendly consequences [9]. Into this comes the concept of green chemistry, which is also acknowledged as sustainable chemistry. It is characterised as a methodology for chemistry that endeavours to decrease pollution. This basis also tries to enhance the output yield of chemical products by adjustment of the chemicals being devised, produced, and consumed. In 1991, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) initiated a research programme called ‘Alternative Synthetic Pathways for Pollution Prevention’ under the umbrella of Pollution Prevention Act 1990, which indicated a revolutionary departure from existing EPA initiatives in highlighting the elimination/reduction of the generation of toxic substances, as opposed to handling hazardous substances after they have been generated and circulated in the ecosystem. This idea was then extended to initiation of the production of safer chemicals and substances with greener methods. In 1996, ‘green chemistry’ was officially accepted as a term [10].
With the opening of green approaches and green chemistry, it is vital to acknowledge that the utility of such methods is a ‘double-edged sword’. Terms like ‘environmentally friendly’, ‘green’, and ‘sustainable’ have become hackneyed and lost their genuine meaning due to their unrestricted use in the mass media, commercials, and scientific discourse. In fact, there is a tangible scepticism among consumers related to ‘green’ goods, and sometimes these are perceived as a simple marketing trick. Thus, it is important that scepticism about the extensive misuse of the related terminology does not become an obstacle to green chemistry. The ethical outcomes of the objectives of green chemistry have resulted in ample consultation. Even though these debates are productive, we must be careful not to miss the decisive vision of green chemistry to create an infrastructure to permit the development of new methods that reduce the generation of hazardous products [11–14]. Regrettably, misrepresentations are perhaps the major obstacle to the adoption of a green approach in academia as well as at an industrial level.
Two common misunderstandings regarding green chemistry are:
It is a myth and is generated by industry as a promotional tool to market and make profits from possibly toxic products.
It is an ecological movement whose concerns force costly yet poor-performance products onto customers.
Though these opinions are far from reality, nevertheless for green chemistry to accomplish its objectives of pollution regulation and the dream of a sustainable environment, it must be commercially successful. For a product to be profitable, it must have exceptional performance at a reduced cost. It is obvious that customers will not consume or purchase substandard goods just because they are ‘green’ or have a ‘green’ label. Therefore, in order to have a genuine influence on social use, green technology has to be sustainable from both perspectives, cost as well as performance [15–18].
Paul Anastas (one of the pioneers of green chemistry) argued that the production of pollutants can be inhibited or reduced through improving the methodologies for producing chemicals. To explain in detail, the following 12 principles of green chemistry were devised in 1998 by Anastas and John Warner [19]:
Lower or absolutely prevent the production of derivatives.
Make use of renewable feedstocks.
Encourage the development of real-time analysis of chemical products before harmful substances can form.
Use safer auxiliaries and solvents in chemical processes.
Avoid waste generation wherever possible.
Promote the ‘atom economy’.
Employ appropriate catalysts.
Plan the production of less toxic and safer products.
Synthesise chemical by-products that are less hazardous.
Plan energy-efficient chemical manufacturing processes.
Create chemicals that break down into non-toxic products after their consumption.
Promote essentially safer chemistry to avoid accidents from taking place.
The atom economy, initially proposed by Barry Trost (an American chemist) in 1973, was developed as a key concept among researchers of green chemistry. It was devised to surmount the shortcomings of the conventional ‘yield’ concept that was used for determining the productivity of chemical reactions. In the past, chemists conventionally considered just the amount of primary chemical product they aimed to produce, to calculate the yield; that is, the target molecule and not the by-products, which might include materials that are not environmentally friendly. On the other hand, the atom economy considers all reactants and products, and therefore offers a more dependable statistic on whether the reaction yields unwanted by-products or not.
2.3 Green Approaches in Drug Synthesis
Every day thousands of people in the developing world die due to curable infections, in spite of considerable improvements in the treatment of those diseases [20]. This is because of the unavailability of drugs due to high cost. So we must consider both the cost of the product and its environmental impact when designing a sustainable ‘green’ product. Even though the barrier to treatment of these infections is not only economic, budgets do restrict access to medications in developing countries [20–22].
To formulate techniques to reduce the expense of anti-retroviral agents or other pharmaceutical agents, it is important to recognise the inherent correlation between the cost of the product and the retail price. For a standard drug that is well marketed at a dose of 100 mg, the cost can be broken down into three categories, with their percentage contributions to the market price [23–25]:
Active pharmaceutical ingredient (API): 65–75%.
Preparation and packaging cost: 10–20%.
Profit: 5–15%.
This cost fragmentation provides a variety of options for intervention. Thus, it can help to bring down the cost and can be split into two interconnected groups:
Cost reduction of the API.
Finding the optimum dose of the API with the optimum effect.
