Sustainable Machining and Green Manufacturing E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 520

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

This book aims to be a source for understanding sustainable machining and green manufacturing. The goal is to gain new ideas and encourage readers to utilize fewer natural resources to reduce pollution. Some examples include cutting material needs, recycling and reusing materials, and promoting environmentally-friendly practices such as dry machining and eco-friendly cutting fluids. By reducing pollution and waste, more environmentally-friendly practices will help encourage a more environmentally conscious future. Ideas evaluated in this book * The investigating of synergy between natural fibers and epoxy composites that enhance mechanical properties * Explores the potential of sustainable reinforcements in polymer composites * Uncovers the critical role of manufacturing methods in determining the mechanical prowess of biofiber-reinforced composites * Details the importance of environmentally friendly conscious manufacturing processes * Discusses topics on precision machining, additive manufacturing, and optimizing manufacturing processes

Leseprobe

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Sustainable Machining and Green Manufacturing

Edited by

S. Thirumalai Kumaran

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research, India

and

Tae Jo Ko

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, South Korea

This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-19783-5

Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

In an era defined by rapid technological advancements and an increasing awareness of environmental sustainability, the intersection of science and industry takes on a new dimension. From within this context, we delve into the diverse and compelling world of composite materials and sustainable manufacturing. In the following chapters, we embark on a journey through the realms of innovation, exploring the pivotal role of science and technology in reshaping our industries and fostering a more sustainable future.

The chapters assembled herein are a testament to the dedication and ingenuity of researchers and professionals alike, who have tirelessly pursued groundbreaking discoveries and practical solutions to some of the most pressing challenges facing the manufacturing sector. These chapters are thoughtfully organized to highlight the profound impact of various materials, techniques, and processes on both the performance of products and the preservation of our planet.

Chapter 1 investigates the intriguing synergy between natural fibers and epoxy composites, shedding light on how filler materials can enhance mechanical properties. Chapter 2 explores the potential of sustainable reinforcements in polymer composites, demonstrating the adaptability of these materials for diverse applications. Chapter 3 uncovers the critical role that manufacturing methods play in determining the mechanical prowess of bio fiber-reinforced composites.

Chapter 4 takes us into the realm of biomedical manufacturing, where advanced composite materials are reshaping the future of medical devices. Chapter 5 underscores the importance of environmentally conscious manufacturing processes, proving that green practices can coexist with industrial production. Chapter 6 delves into the innovative world of additive manufacturing and highlights the intricacies of composite filament production.

Chapter 7 explores the delicate balance between material selection and joining techniques, with an emphasis on sustainability in the manufacturing process. Chapter 8 introduces us to the ingenious use of natural materials in addressing environmental challenges, highlighting the significance of sustainable wastewater treatment. Chapter 9 underscores the role of welding in sustainable manufacturing practices, bridging the gap between tradition and innovation.

Chapter 10 offers a glimpse into the future of robotics, where sustainability plays a central role in engineering design. Chapter 11 provides an insightful overview of green manufacturing practices in the automotive industry, a sector undergoing profound transformation. Chapter 12 takes us on a journey toward waste reduction, demonstrating how green principles can optimize manufacturing processes.

Chapter 13 explores the synergy between design and sustainability in additive manufacturing, illustrating the potential for minimizing waste and energy consumption. Chapter 14 delves into the intricacies of process optimization in additive manufacturing, emphasizing efficiency and precision. Chapter 15 brings us to the world of precision machining, where cutting-edge technologies are transforming the way we work with materials.

It is our hope that this collection will inspire you to join the ranks of those committed to a more sustainable, efficient, and environmentally conscious future in manufacturing. Each chapter stands as a testament to the transformative power of science, technology, and the human spirit.

In closing, we extend our heartfelt appreciation to each author whose research and insights have made this book possible. Thank you for sharing your knowledge and expertise with us and with the broader community. Finally, we offer our sincere thanks to the Scrivener and Wiley publishing teams for their help with this book.

S. Thirumalai Kumaran

Tae Jo KoDecember 2023

1Effect of Granite Filler on Mechanical Properties and Free Damping of Silk-Sisal–Reinforced Epoxy Composites

K. Sripriyan1* and S. Karthick2

1School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

2School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, VIT Bhopal University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

Abstract

This paper discusses the effect of granite filler on the mechanical properties (flexural strength and impact strength), biodegradable characteristics, and damping behavior of silk-sisal composites. The hand layup method is used to fabricate the three layers of plain weave mat with varying weight percentages (2, 4, and 6 wt.%) of granite filler hybrid structure. According to the experimental results, the flexural strength value of the developed silk-sisal hybrid composites increases as the weight percentage of the granite filler content increases. In addition, adding 6 wt.% of granite filler content, which is approximately 75.8% higher damping than that of pure silk-sisal. The biodegradable behavior of silk-sisal hybrid composite has also been analyzed and well discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Silk-sisal fiber, granite filler, properties, damping characteristic, biodegradable

1.1 Introduction

Over the past 30 years, the development of materials to enhance the mechanical properties of low-carbon steels has been dominated by plastics, ceramics, and composites [1]. The quantity and variety of commercial applications for composite materials have grown consistently as the substance has aggressively entered and dominated recent markets. Modern hybrid composite materials make up a sizable portion of the market for engineered materials, and they are used in everything from straightforward everyday objects to intricate specialized applications. Even though composites have already shown their value as materials that reduce weight, the current challenge is to make them cost-effective [2]. The composite sector is currently utilizing a number of cutting-edge production methods created to produce economically appealing composite components [3]. Improvements in manufacturing technology alone cannot overcome the cost barrier, particularly for composites. Composites must go through a number of integrated steps, including design, material, process, tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even program management, in order to compete with metals [4, 5].

Natural fibers are resources that are reusable, affordable, and friendly to the environment and have gained popularity recently [6]. They have a history of being used as fundamental fillers in automobile parts. Natural fibers are increasingly being used in composite construction in place of other conventional materials because of environmental concerns [7, 8]. Due to their excellent mechanical properties, among other things, fibers like jute, silk, flax, banana, kenaf, sisal, and bagasse are frequently used in the fabrication of natural fiber–reinforced composites [9]. This proposed study aids in the creation of a hybrid composite made of silk and sisal to swap out conventional bumper materials.

Banana-coir-bagasse fibers were studied by Yan et al. [10] in hybrid composites. Among other things, they examined the amount of moisture, amount of ash and carbon, tensile strength, elemental analysis, and chemical analysis. Banana fiber had the highest levels of ash, carbon, and cellulose per the test results. Sanjeevi [11] studied the various research projects that researchers had been working on involving banana fiber composites. The majority of papers discussed the composition, mechanics, and metallurgy of reinforced fiber and banana composites.

Recent researchers were involved with the development of various hybrid composite structures, viz., silk-sisal fibers, banana-sisal, glass-bamboo, and glass-sisal. All of these composites pose better mechanical, chemical, and metallurgical properties [12, 13]. Still, there may be a gap to further enhance the damping prosperity in the silk-sisal composite.

In this present work, an experimental study has been conducted to fabricate the 3-mm composite structure. Silk and sisal fiber are selected as a constant length of 25 mm and weight percentages of 60:40. Furthermore, to enhance the mechanical and damping behavior, granite nanofillers were added at different weight percentages (2%, 4%, and 6 wt.%). The novelty of the work is the fabrication of 3-mm silk-sisal added with granite nanofiller by hand layered structure. Further, the paper addresses the fundamental findings of hardness, flexural, impact properties, and damping behavior.

1.2 Material and Preparation

1.2.1 Materials Involved

The epoxy-based resin (LY556 grade) and hardener (HY951 grade) used in the study’s matrix (10:1 blending ratio) are reinforced with silk-sisal. Silk is a very strong fiber, and it has a higher tensile strength of about 75%–85%. Its extensibility is about 15% when at the break [14]. Sisal is a plant fiber, and it has high strength and the ability to stretch, and it has an elongation of about 3.2% when at break [15]. Table 1.1 [16, 17] lists the characteristics of the hybrid composite made of silk, banana, and sisal fibers. The outcomes of the proposed silk-sisal hybrid composite are contrasted with those of the sisal-banana composition that has previously been studied [18].

Epoxy resin (LY556) has several desirable characteristics, including high strength, minimal shrinkage, strong adhesion to a variety of substrates, efficient electrical insulation, chemical insolvency resistance, low cost, and low toxicity. High compression strength and long-lasting durability are among the resin’s attributes [1]. The hardener (HY 961) is an epoxy or fiberglass curing agent. The component that hardens the adhesive when combined with resin is known as a hardener, sometimes known as a catalyst, and epoxy resin must begin curing. The characteristics include excellent electrical qualities, better mechanical strength, and resistance to atmospheric and chemical deterioration [19].

Table 1.1 Silk, banana, and sisal fiber properties.

S. no.

Name of the composite

References

Tensile strength (MPa)

Flexural strength (MPa)

Impact strength (J)

Damping

1

Banana

4, 7

15.60

68.80

1.60

0.038

2

Sisal

6, 23

24.50

80.45

1.76

0.034

3

Sisal and banana

3, 5, 28

18.50

57.47

1.71

0.035

4

Silk

2, 23, 29

19.20

51.96

1.25

0.33

Figure 1.1 Steps involved in the preparation of the silk-sisal hybrid composite structure.

1.2.2 Composite Structure Preparation

The fibers are initially cleaned several times with regular water, then left to air-dry for a day. The fibers are soaked in the NaOH solution for a day in order to remove the excess debris. After washing with clean water, the clothes are dried in a hot oven for 3–4 hours at 70°C. For the purpose of molding the composites, the fibers are divided into 300-mm lengths. The composite (three-layer bidirectional fiber mat) structure is prepared using the manual hand layup open molding technique. Following that, weft yarns are woven over and beneath the warp yarns. According to Figure 1.1, the warp in this method of weaving fiber is equivalent to silk fiber, and the weft is equivalent to sisal fiber. Three layers of a unidirectional mat made of silk and sisal fibers are used to create the composite.

Bidirectional mats made of silk-sisal fiber have been laid out in a crosslay pattern, layering up in a 90° orientation. All of the reinforcement’s layers were covered with epoxy resin. In order to ensure an improved interaction between the reinforcement and the matrix, facilitate a uniform resin distribution, and achieve the required thickness of 3 mm, rollers are then manually used to roll over the wet composite. The hybrid composites are then allowed to cure in a typical atmosphere.

1.3 Result and Discussion

By using a hand layup technique, a hybrid silk-sisal composite structure (300 mm × 300 mm) was developed. To determine the significance, all samples are prepared in accordance with the ASTM standard for mechanical testing, specifically the flexural strength and impact strength. In addition, the degradation characteristics were discussed to explore the selection of one-time usable biodegradable materials. Finally, a morphological study was performed to understand the fracture behavior of the developed composite structure.

1.3.1 Silk-Sisal on Mechanical Properties

1.3.1.1 Flexural Strength

One of the testing techniques used to calculate the rupture behavior of a composite structure is flexural strength [7, 15]. Granite nanofillers on silk-sisal hybrid samples were made in accordance with ASTM: D790, and a maximum bending load of 5 mm/min was applied to the samples until they fractured or broke. Table 1.2 lists the average flexural and impact values of pure (silk and sisal) and hybrid (silk, sisal, and granite filler) composites.

Table 1.2 Properties of developed silk-sisal composite.

S. no.

Name of the composite

Weight %

No. of samples

Flexural strength (MPa)

Impact strength (J)

Damping

1

Silk-sisal reinforced composite

No filler

1

84.60

0.90

0.37

2

91.90

0.50

0.31

3

97.60

0.80

0.37

Average

91.37

0.733

0.033

2

2 wt.% of filler

1

117.90

0.70

0.04

2

102.80

0.80

0.03

3

81.64

0.90

0.03

Average

100.78

0.80

0.036

3

4 wt.% of filler

1

114.90

0.60

0.06

2

99.78

0.80

0.03

3

123.90

0.70

0.03

Average

112.86

0.70

0.043

4

6 wt.% of filler

1

101.5

0.60

0.03

2

99.25

0.90

0.03

3

97.28

0.70

0.40

Average

99.34

0.733

0.058

The variations in flexural strength of silk-sisal as a function of the weight percentage of granite nanofiller content are investigated, and the average value of pure silk-sisal is 91.37 MPa, whereas granite nanofiller weight percentages of 2, 4, and 6 on silk-sisal were found to result in 100.78 MPa, 112.86 MPa, and 90.63 MPa, respectively. Figure 1.2(a) displays the stressstrain curve’s reasonably responsible plot for each of the four compositions. It was noted that bell-shaped trends rather than increased flexural strength are represented by increasing the weight percentage of granite nanofillers.

However, adding granite nanofillers from 2 to 4 wt.%, which is about 10.7% higher, causes a drastic change in flexural strength, while changing from 4 to 6 wt.% causes a sharp decrease of about 19.6%. The experimental results evidenced that silk-sisal may be an alternative hybrid composite of banana-sisal to enhance the flexural strength, even without adding granite nanofillers. The current findings showed that pure silk-sisal had a 1.25 times lower flexural strength value exposed at a 4 wt.% content of granite nanofillers (without nanofillers). Similarly, for 2 and 6 wt.% of granite nanofiller content, respectively, flexural strength values are 1.1 times higher and remain unchanged. The desired flexural strength is found to be significantly influenced by the content of granite nanofillers, which is 4 wt.%.

1.3.1.2 Impact Strength

ASTM: D481 examines the impact competence of the unnotched hybrid composite under the unexpected applied load for four different sample compositions. Pure silk-sisal had an average impact strength of 0.75 J, while granite nanofillers with weight percentages of 2, 4, and 6 on silk-sisal had values of 0.83 J, 0.6 J, and 0.6 J, respectively. Figure 1.2(b) displays the relatively responsible plots for all four compositions.

Figure 1.2 Stress vs. strain curve (a) flexural strength, (b) impact strength.

However, adding granite nanofillers results in a significant variation in impact strength, which is about 27.7% less by adding 2 to 4 wt.% compared to no change when adding 4 to 6 wt.%. On the other hand, there has been an improvement in the bond between the fiber mat and the matrix (resin + granite nanofiller). The impact results showed that pure silk-sisal had 1.1 times lower impact strength value than granite nanofillers at 2 wt.% content (without nanofillers). Similarly, for 2 and 6 wt.% of granite nanofiller content, 0.99 times lower and the same impact strength values are observed.

1.3.2 Damping Response

According to a literature review, cantilever samples are made to the ASTM: E756 standard, which is 250 × 25 × 3 mm [20]. An accelerometer attached to the free end of the hybrid composite structure was used to continuously monitor and record the free vibration responses, and the damping ratio (Zeta) was calculated using the experimental systems’ logarithmic decrement [21]. The motion is based on Equation 1.1.

(1.1)

According to the aforementioned equation, the hybrid composite structure oscillates at a frequency of . Zeta being less than 1, ωd always being less than ωn. Where ζ is the ratio of two successive oscillations, is the damping factor that needs to be calculated, n is the natural frequency of the developed hybrid composite structure, X and φ are the amplitude and phase angle response at initial conditions. Equation 1.1 can be used to express free vibration, and Equation 1.2 can be used to determine the actual damping ratio.

(1.2)

The experimental test was carried out by providing an initial displacement and recording the ensuing response; more information is shown in Figure 1.3(a). Based on the aforementioned equation, the chosen peak with a constant time bound for all samples was highlighted in Figure 1.3(b) [8]. To reduce uncertainty, the average value was obtained from the three trails, and the damping ratio was calculated from the chosen two successive peaks. The time at which frequency enters the zero or negative region was shown in Figure 1.3(c).

Figure 1.3 Typical vibration response plot for pure silk-sisal (a) experimental data standardized to peak with time series, (b) selected successive peaks for damping factor, (c) time at which frequency gets zero or negative.

The weight percentage of the granite nanofiller increases, so does the damping factor on the silk-sisal hybrid composite. However, a higher damping factor was obtained by incorporating 6 wt.% of granite nanofiller content, which is roughly 1.77 times more than pure silk-sisal (without nanofillers). Similar outcomes with 1.09 times and 1.29 times higher damping values are obtained for granite nanofiller contents of 2 and 4 wt.%, respectively. As a result, it was found that damping was more affected by the granite nanofiller’s 6 wt.% content.

1.3.3 Fracture Morphology

The mechanical responses of flexural and impact strength of pure silk-sisal and different weight percentages of granite nanofiller compositions were studied and compared with previous research results on sisal-banana. Generally, sisal-banana compositions showed an improved tensile strength. Silk-sisal has clearly provided the ideal composition to replace sisal-banana. A clear trend was observed for silk-sisal composition to increase tensile strength than sisal-banana composition. The highest tensile breaking energy was also found in all granite nanofiller content compositions. Similarly, flexural strength was 1.59, 1.75, 1.98, and 1.73 times higher, while impact strength was 0.43, 0.79, 0.41, and 0.79 times lower. Based on the damping and mechanical responses of pure silk-sisal and 6% granite nanofiller compositions, the fracture morphology was discussed further.

Figure 1.4 Flexural fracture microstructure (a) pure silk-sisal, (b) 6 wt.% granite nanofiller on silk-sisal.

The study’s goal is to use existing research findings to replace sisal-banana in automobile applications. Flexural strength is an important factor in determining the functionality of any material. Flexural fractography images (pure silk-sisal and 6% granite nanofiller) are used for further analysis, as shown in Figure 1.4(a-b).

In general, silk and sisal have better adhesive properties with epoxy, and the silk-sisal composition has good mechanical properties. Crack propagation under the loading roller, on the other hand, could be associated with the flexural failure of pure silk-sisal and 6 wt.% granite nanofiller. Silk-sisal compositions with higher bending deformation and ductile failure nature are observed. Unbroken fibers and some broken silk fiber and voids were also observed.

1.3.4 Biodegradability

The samples were submerged in the soil for 144 hours while the weight and morphology of the films were continuously monitored. When the time spent in the soil was extended, it was discovered that the weight loss percentage of each silk-sisal fiber (with and without nanofillers) steadily increased, indicating the fiber’s biodegradable qualities (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Weight reduction in the percentage.

Microorganisms found in soil and on the cutting-edge surfaces attack gelatin as it degrades. The amount of the antibacterial compound affected how quickly the strength of the silk-sisal composite was lost. Every sample had a smooth surface prior to the biodegradation test. According to the roughness and hole formation on the film surface, which were caused by the enzymatic activity of the microorganisms in soil, the samples started to degrade after 144 hours of soil burial testing. In addition, the silk-sisal hybrid composite will be consumed as food by invertebrates and insects. Termites’, insects’, and rodents’ gnawing activities also cause mechanical damage.

1.4 Conclusions

On a silk-sisal hybrid composite, the impact of various granite nanofiller weight percentages is investigated. The conclusions are as follows:

The developed silk-sisal hybrid composite’s flexural strength increased as the weight percentage of granite nanofillers increased in comparison to pure silk-sisal. By adding 6 wt.% of granite nanofillers to silk-sisal, the flexural strength value was improved by about 9%.

In addition, adding granite nanofillers to silk-sisal does not change the impact behavior in an acceptable way; it responds similarly to pure silk-sisal hybrid composite. This is because the composition of silk and sisal has a higher stiffness value, which can reduce impact strength and control shearing behavior on fiber mats.

By adding 6 wt.% of granite nanofiller content—which is roughly 75.8% higher than pure silk-sisal—a higher damping factor was achieved. Similar percentages of 9% and 30%, respectively, for 2 wt.% and 4 wt.% of granite nanofiller content as a result, it was discovered that the granite nanofiller content of 6 wt.% had a greater impact on the structure of the silk-sisal hybrid composite.

Biodegradable tests were used to study the hybrid silk-sisal composite’s physical characteristics. The biodegradability test yielded acceptable degradation according to the results. Therefore, one of the better options to improve the damping properties is a developed silk-sisal hybrid composite added with granite nanofillers.

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Note

*

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

2Effect of Plastic Particulate Addition on Polymer Composite Reinforced with Prosopis juliflora Fiber

Sakthi Balan G.1, Aravind Raj S.1*, Jafrey Daniel James D.2 and Ramesh M.3

1Department of Manufacturing Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

2Department of Mechanical Engineering, K. Ramakrishnan College of Engineering, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

3SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Ramapuram Campus, Ramapuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract

The necessity of reusing waste products grows with each passing day. “Sustainability” is a term used in nearly all fields, particularly in the materials industry. Plastics are indispensable in the modern era, but the disposal of used plastics has the greatest impact on the environment. Recycling and reusing used plastic waste are one of the safest ways to address this problem. In this study, Prosopis juliflora fibers are used as reinforcement, while used plastic particles are used as filler in a polymer composite. The input factors that influence the composite’s mechanical properties are selected and varied to determine the optimal fiber and filler composition for getting the desired composite’s mechanical properties. The composites were evaluated for their water absorption, tensile, and hardness properties, and the responses were optimized using Plackett–Burman design and simple regression. The results indicate that the incorporation of recycled plastics affects the hardness and water absorption properties of composites while fibers enhance their tensile properties.

Keywords: Plackett–Burman, regression analysis, Prosopis juliflora, particulates of plastics, chemical treatment

2.1 Introduction

The population of the modern world is increasing daily. Due to the rise in population density, people must rely on nature to survive. The rate of depletion of nature’s resources is increasing. Modernization and industrialization have created a great deal of pollution, which has wreaked havoc on nature. As people become increasingly dependent on plastics, their use continues to rise. Even though developed countries are taking numerous steps to combat pollution, the pollution rate continues to rise. Used plastics are dumped as waste in the oceans and seas. In some locations, it is burned, causing severe air pollution and health issues. The only way to reduce this is to stop using plastics and to reuse and recycle the plastics that have already been produced. This causes the degradation of the planet and a disruption of the ecological cycle. Due to the escalating growth rate of Prosopis juliflora (PF) plants, the water table is decreasing in numerous locations [1]. The majority of the area is covered with PF plants, and the only feasible use for it is to provide fossil fuel to the villagers in the surrounding communities [2]. Aspect ratio and fiber loading influenced the mechanical characteristics of composites manufactured from Prosopis juliflora fiber reinforced in a phenol formaldehyde matrix. The incorporation of Prosopis juliflora into the matrix was seen to result in an improvement of the material’s mechanical properties [3]. Rice husk and PF fiber–reinforced biocomposites were developed to reveal their mechanical properties. Compared to an unreinforced composite, they discovered that the incorporation of rice husk improved the material’s mechanical qualities by 45% [4]. The raw and alkali treatment of the PF fibers were characterized, and the thermal, mechanical, morphological, and electrical properties of the PF fibers were reported [5]. The mechanical properties of a PF fiber–reinforced hybrid composite can be modified by making changes to both the chemical treatment and the loading of fibers. They discovered that the modified Prosopis Juliflora fibre (PJF) contributed to enhanced matrix-reinforcement adhesion. This improvement was found to be significant. This composite material, which is relatively lightweight, was suggested for use in the automotive industry due to the advantages it affords in that regard [6]. It was found that chemical treatment improves the mechanical properties of PF hybrid composites [7]. The hybrid composite’s mechanical properties were found to be suitable for structural applications. The hybrid composite is made up of PF and glass fiber that is reinforced in epoxy [8]. Fibers were extracted from mesquite plants, and it was revealed that these fibers might be utilized in the creation of composites, the manufacture of paper, and the textile sector [9]. The research on the moisture absorption characteristics of the jute fiber–reinforced composite filled with waste plastics found that the addition of waste plastic particles will enhance the material’s moisture resistance abilities [10].

To create polymer-based composites with the assistance of fillers and reinforced particles, the hand layup process is a common and widely utilized approach [11]. Researchers developed porous carbon and reported that this can be used for storage batteries as a surface coating and that this could be useful to boost the charge capacity [12]. Kenaf fiber and banana fiber–reinforced polyester composite properties were examined, and it was discovered that the NaOH and SLS-treated samples showed improved properties and strong interfacial bonding than the untreated samples [13]. Jute, sisal, flax, hemp, pineapple, cotton, kenaf, E-glass, and carbon are just some of the many types of fibers that have been employed as reinforcements in the development of a new class of polymer-based materials that are intended to replace other conventional materials [14, 15].

In light of the aforementioned research, the current work is to develop a polymer-based composite by reinforcing waste plastics with PF fibers. Additionally, it will investigate the water absorption, hardness, and tensile strength of the composites. Plackett–Burman design and regression analysis have been utilized in order to maximize the impact that input parameters have on outcomes.

2.2 Materials and Methods

The typical method of obtaining PF fibers involves removing the moisture from the bark of Prosopis juliflora plants, which is then followed by drying the bark in the sunlight. Since it is made of natural fibers, it needs to be processed before it can be set to use as a reinforcing material. Therefore, it is processed using various chemicals like alkalis and silanes [16]. The extracted fibers are immersed in NaOH 5% (w/v) [17] for 1 hour and washed with HCl solution to attain a neutral pH value. After having a portion of the fiber immersed for an hour in triethoxy vinyl silane solution with a concentration of 5% (v/v), the solution is then rinsed away with deionized water and heated in an oven [18–20]. The fibers are removed from the bark of the Prosopis juliflora trees, then subjected to a chemical treatment that enhances its mechanical properties, and finally, it is used to strengthen a polymer composite material [15]. After being collected, crushed, and processed into plastic particulates, the waste plastics are then put to use as a filler in the composite. As a filler material, polypropylenes were selected from the wide variety of polymers available because they are resistant to degradation. After being recovered from the waste plastics, the items manufactured of polypropylene are separated out into a separate pile, where they are then cleaned to eliminate the sand or other foreign matter. After that, the waste plastics are pulverized and reduced to short particles. It undergoes repeated crushing in order to keep the same particle size throughout the final product [21, 22]. Resin and hardener are combined in the proportions specified by the producer of the product.

There are a plethora of tools and techniques available for use in the production of composites. Many factors, such as the types of fibers and fillers employed, the orientation of the fibers, the fiber volume, the number of layers, the matrix material, and the curing period, dictated the production process employed. Polymer matrix composites are often fabricated via hand layup, spray layup, compression molding, resin transfer molding, autoclave molding, or other comparable techniques. Because the resin can cure at room temperature and we use fiber in addition to fillers, the traditional hand layup procedure was used to develop the composites. In addition to the hand layup method, a vibrating base was used as the substrate onto which the mold was positioned. The mold is placed into the vibrating base once the hand layup process has been finished, and the mold was then subjected to vibration. The hand layup procedure must be finished and then immediately followed by the vibration action. Because of the vibrations, the resin and the fillers, in addition to the fibers, will disperse and mix together in a uniform manner. The air that could have been trapped inside the composite during the layup process was allowed to escape when the mold is vibrated. This allows the composite to be free of defects and ensures that the thickness of the composite is kept consistently across all of its dimensions. According to the instructions provided by the manufacturer, the epoxy resin and the hardener are combined in a proportion of exactly 50:50 [23]. After the resin that has been mixed has been evenly distributed throughout the surface of the mold with the assistance of a roller, the fibers and the plastic fillers are next dispersed across the matrix. The technique was repeated as many times as necessary until the desired thickness was achieved. After the mold has been covered and vibrated for an extended amount of time, it was then allowed to cure out completely. After the curing process was complete, the composite will be removed from the mold, and the appropriate dimensions will be employed to cut the specimens.

The tensile test for polymer composites was carried out in accordance with the guidelines of ASTM D3039-76 [24, 25]. The sample was cut to adhere to the appropriate dimensions for the standards, which are depicted in Figure 2.1. The Tinius Olsen universal testing machine was utilized to perform the evaluation. Both the speed of the cross head and the strain rate are predetermined as per the standards.

Microhardness of the composites was measured using the Vickers microhardness tester in line with ASTM E92 [26, 27]. The specimen is subjected to a force of 10 kg by means of a diamond pyramid with a square base. The Vickers pyramid number was the average of the measurements taken along the indentation’s diagonals. In the region where the diamond pyramid rests on the specimen, there may be a filler, fiber, or matrix. The hardness of the specimens was measured in 10 different spots, and the average of those readings was recorded.

In order to conduct an effective water absorption test, specimens must be cut to exact specifications in line with ASTM D570 [23]. Prior to the examination, the specimens are weighed. Insulation tape was placed around the circumferences of the specimens to stop water from seeping inside. Once the samples are tagged, then dip them in water and leave them for 24 hours [22]. After 24 hours, the composites were taken out of the beakers and the excess water was cleaned out with a cotton cloth. In order to determine the proportion of water absorption, the specimens were reweighed, and the difference between the new and old weights was used to get the percentage of water absorption.

Figure 2.1 Experimental detail for the present work.

2.3 Results and Discussion

2.3.1 Influence of Process Parameters

The three most important factors within the scope of this study are the fiber composition, the waste plastic composition, and the chemical treatment given to the fibers. These three variables are considered at two different levels, and the specimens are developed in accordance with the structure provided by the Plackett–Burman experimental design [28–30]. Table 2.1 contains a list of the process parameters and their corresponding levels. The MINITAB software was used to perform the optimization. The results of the multiple tests are loaded into the software, and a regression equation was used to perform the analysis of the data. The outcomes of the experiment are presented in Table 2.2, as specified by the design.

Figures 2.2 and 2.3 show the results of the tensile test, while Figures 2.4 and 2.5 show the results of the hardness test and the water intake test. According to the findings of the tensile strength test, the 12th trial achieved the highest possible strength when compared to the findings of the other trials. In the 12th experiment, the percentage of fiber was increased to its maximum level, the quantity of plastic filler was decreased to its lowest level, and the fiber was treated with silane. It was clear from examining the other responses that the incorporation of the filler results in a reduction of the tensile strength of the composite.

When designing the composites, it was preferable to achieve a reduced hardness while simultaneously increasing the tensile strength. It was clear that in order to achieve the desired level of softness, the addition of plastic particles should be kept to a bare minimum, and the proportion of fiber, which had been treated with silane, should be increased to its maximum. The fifth experiment yielded the highest value of hardness, which was created with 10 weight percent of plastic fillers and 10 weight percent fiber additives. This result was observed for the fifth trial.

Table 2.1 Process parameters and their levels.

S. no.

Parameters

Levels

1

2

1

Inclusion of PF fibers (wt. %) (A)

10

20

2

Addition of plastic particulates (wt. %) (B)

5

10

3

Chemical treatment type (C)

NaOH (Alkali)

Triethoxy vinyl silane

Table 2.2 Experimental results for the Plackett–Burman design trials.

Trials

Input parameters

Output parameters

Fiber percentage (A)

Plastic percentage (B)

Chemical treatment (C)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Hardness (HV)

Water absorption (%)

1

20

5

Silane

76.65

30.45

1.67

2

10

5

NaOH

65.95

31.37

1.81

3

10

5

Silane

69.31

31.85

1.62

4

10

10

Silane

66.82

45.67

1.33

5

10

10

NaOH

60.38

46.59

1.53

6

20

10

Silane

71.41

40.13

1.59

7

20

10

NaOH

71.56

40.63

1.67

8

10

5

NaOH

66.34

32.67

1.84

9

20

5

NaOH

70.59

31.48

1.87

10

10

10

Silane

67.34

45.92

1.35

11

20

10

NaOH

70.82

43.28

1.61

12

20

5

Silane

76.77

30.97

1.74

Figure 2.2 Tensile strength results for 12 trials.

Figure 2.3 Microhardness results for 12 trials.

The fourth study reported the lowest proportion of water intake, which also included the lowest percentage of fiber and the highest amount of plastic particles. It was discovered that the incorporation of waste plastic particles reduced the amount of water that was absorbed. The water absorption percentage that was measured was highest for the ninth trial, which had a greater fiber percentage and a lower plastic filler percentage. When filler is added to polymer composites, the properties of the composites are altered to a greater extent [4, 31, 32].

Figure 2.4 Water intake responses for 12 trials.

Figure 2.5 Contribution levels of each factor on the output responses.

2.3.2 Regression Analysis

The composites were manufactured in accordance with the Plackett–Burman design, and they were examined and evaluated in accordance with the ASTM guidelines. The test results were once again entered into the MINITAB software in order to do a straightforward regression analysis and locate the values that were optimal. Table 2.3 contains a tabulation of the Fisher value that was derived from the ANOVA table for each of the output responses. The impact that each individual element had on the various outcomes was broken down and displayed in Figure 2.5. It is possible to demonstrate, using the Fisher values that correspond to each input parameter, how much of an influence that particular parameter has on the results. The amount of fiber has the biggest influence on tensile strength, the amount of plastic added has the biggest influence on the composite’s hardness, and the amount of plastic filler has the biggest influence on how much water the material absorbs.

Table 2.4 contains a summary of the models for each output factor. If a model’s regression coefficient value is larger than 90%, it can be inferred that the model is statistically significant. In order to simplify its presentation and make the regression coefficient more readily understandable, Figure 2.6 presents it as a bar chart.

Table 2.3 F-values from ANOVA table for the outputs.

Source

F-value

Tensile strength

Hardness

Water absorption

Fiber percentage

57.45

10.96

12.68

Plastic percentage

9.88

201.37

61.04

Chemical treatment

17

0.04

29.97

Table 2.4 Model summary for the various outputs.