Sustainable Mobility E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 422

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

This book is essential for anyone interested in understanding and implementing sustainable transportation practices, as it provides comprehensive insights into the challenges, advancements, and policies related to sustainable mobility.

Sustainable transportation refers to any means of transportation that is “green” and has a low impact on the environment. The goal of sustainable transportation is to balance our current and future needs. As per the United Nations Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987), sustainable mobility can be defined as “mobility that satisfies the needs of present generations without compromising future generations”, but in the modern era, we are compromising the needs of the next generation in terms of pollution, depletion of fossil fuels, global warming, poor air quality, and hazardous gases. The three main pillars of sustainability, economics, environment, and social issues, are crushed by modern development, so there is a need to shift from traditional means of transportation to sustainable transportation.

Under the vision of sustainable mobility, better infrastructure and services will be provided to support the movement of goods and people. This outcome will be achieved only if four goals are pursued simultaneously: developing the right policy, building awareness, developing intelligent transportation, and creating green vehicles. Sustainable Mobility: Policies, Challenges and Advancements will discuss transitions from conventional to sustainable mobility, infrastructure development challenges in this transition period, new vehicle policies, and the latest autonomous vehicles for intelligent transportation. The main highlights of the book are energy efficient technologies for transportation, accessibility and safety of the transport system, environmental footprint, health impacts, economic development, and social growth. Sustainable mobility is essential to economic and social development.

The environmental impacts of transport can be reduced by reducing the weight of vehicles, creating sustainable styles of driving, reducing the friction of tires, encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, improving the walking and cycling environment in cities, and enhancing the role of public transport, especially electric vehicles. Going green and sustainable is not only beneficial for the company, but it also maximizes the benefits of an environmental focus in the long term.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Aim and Scope

Preface

Acknowledgement

1 Sustainable Mobility: Clean Energy Integration with Electric Vehicle Technology

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Transportation and Carbon Emission

1.3 Transportation Electrification

1.4 Electric Vehicle Integration with Renewable Sources

1.5 Solar Energy

1.6 Wind Energy

1.7 Integration with the Grid

1.8 State-of-the-Art Methods

1.9 Opportunities and Challenges

1.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

2 Sustainable Mobility Policies in Developed and Developing Countries

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Pollution by Air and Effect of Greenhouse Gases

2.3 Promotion of Cycling and Walking

2.4 Sustainable Trade and Global Governance

2.5 Discussion

2.6 Conclusion

References

3 Transitions from IC Engine to EV and HEV: Current Status of EV in India

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Changing Electric Vehicles Trend

3.3 Case Study: Maruti Suzuki and EV Market

3.4 Numerous Downsides to Electric Cars

3.5 Zero Emissions is a Myth

3.6 Prolonged Charging Time

3.7 Carbon Footprints

3.8 Degrading Battery Performance from Fast Charging

3.9 Underdeveloped Charging Infrastructure

3.10 Impractical for Inner-City Inhabitants and Lack of Resale Value

3.11 Reasons Behind Slow Adoption of Electric Vehicles in India

3.12 Conclusion

References

4 Alternative Source Systems of In-Vehicle Electricity Production

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Electric Vehicles (EVs)

4.3 Passenger Electric Vehicle

4.4 Integration of Different Renewable Energy Resources with Power System of In-Vehicle Electricity Production

4.5 Factors Affecting Adoption of Alternative Fuel Vehicles

4.6 Conclusion on Market Penetration of Alternative Fuel Vehicles

References

5 Autonomous Navigation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Using Reinforcement Learning

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Literature Review

5.3 Technology Used

5.4 Markov Decision Process (MDP)

5.5 Implementation: Flow of the Project Flow

5.6 Controller Design of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)

5.7 Results and Discussion

5.8 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

6 IoT-Based Automatic Vehicle Accident & Rash Driving Alert System

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Problem and Necessity

6.3 Need for the System

6.4 User Interface and Reporting

6.6 Implementation: Tools for Controlling & Processing

6.7 Hardware Setup

6.8 Applications

Bibliography

7 Mobile Edge Communication, Computing and Caching (MEC3) in Vehicle Communication

7.1 Introduction to MEC3 in Vehicle Communication

7.2 What is Mobile EDGE?

7.3 Mobile Edge Communication (MEC)

7.4 Mobile Edge Caching

7.5 Technology Description

7.6 Applications of MEC3

7.7 Conclusion

Bibliography

8 IoT-Based Automatic Vehicle Tracking and Accident Alert System

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Literature Review

8.3 Methodology

8.4 Programming Code

8.5 Results and Discussion

8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

9 Interfacing of GPS and GSM with the Help of NodeMCU for Vehicle Monitoring and Tracking

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Problem Statement

9.3 Literature Review

9.4 Monitoring and Tracking of Vehicles

9.5 Result and Discussion

9.6 Conclusion

References

10 A Comprehensive Analysis of Cell Balancing in BMS for Electric Vehicle

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Cell Balancing Methods

10.3 Proposed Topology

10.4 Conclusion

References

11 Analyzing and Testing of Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Battery Management System

11.3 System Setup

11.4 Simulations

11.5 Conclusion

References

12 Cyberattacks, Threats and Challenges of Cybersecurity: An Outline

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Background Work

12.3 Security Properties and CIA Triad

12.4 Types of Cyber Threats

12.5 Types of Cyberattacks

12.6 Challenges in Cybersecurity

12.7 Bibliometric Analysis and Discussion

12.8 Conclusion

References

13 Opportunities and Challenges of Data-Driven Cybersecurity for Smart Cities: Blockchain-Driven Approach

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Background Work

13.3 Attacks on the Layers of IoT-Enabled Smart City

13.4 Issues and Challenges in Smart Cities

13.5 Blockchain and its Types

13.6 Smart City Issues with Blockchain

13.7 Conclusion

References

14 On Renewable Energy Source Selection Problem Using

T

-Spherical Fuzzy Soft Dombi Aggregation Operators

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Preliminaries

14.3

T-

Spherical Fuzzy Soft Dombi Aggregation Operators

14.4 Application of

T

-Spherical Fuzzy Soft Dombi Aggregation Operators in Renewable Energy Source Selection

14.5 Conclusion and Scope for Future Work

References

15 Detection of Weather with Hypothesis Testing Performed Through VGG19 Model Utilizing Adam Optimizer

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Literature

15.3 Input Dataset

15.4 Data Validation

15.5 Weather Classification Using VGG19 Model

15.6 Results

15.7 Conclusion

References

16 Enhanced Ride-Through Capability of a Hybrid Microgrid Under Symmetric and Asymmetric Faults

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Design of the Hybrid Microgrid

16.3 HMG Inverter Control

16.4 Grid-Tied Inverter Control

16.5 Fault Analysis

16.6 LLG Fault (A-B-G)

16.7 LL Fault (A-B)

16.8 LLL and LLLG Faults

16.9 DC Bus Fault

16.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

About the Editors

Index

Also of Interest

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Comparison among ICEV, HEV and EVs [32, 33].

Table 1.2 State-of-the-art commercial hybrid and electric vehicles to be launc...

Table 1.3 Vision of sustainable mobility: Global leaders in EVs perspective.

Table 1.4 Number of public chargers for various vehicle segments.

Table 1.5 Major EV charging manufacturers in India and globally.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Type of electric vehicle with mode of charging [28].

Table 4.2 Type of plug-in hybrid and mode of drive [28].

Table 4.3 Benefits and drawbacks of battery electric vehicles.

Table 4.4 Benefits and drawbacks of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs, PHEVs).

Table 4.5 Benefits and drawbacks of fuel cell electric vehicles.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Performance comparison between Q and SARSA learning.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Comparison between active cell balancing vs. passive cell balancing...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Decision-matrix gven by experts for alternative X

1

Table 14.2 Decision-matrix given by experts for alternative

X

2

.

Table 14.3 Decision-matrix given by experts for alternative

X

3

.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Depiction of parameters at each layer.

Table 15.2 Training and validation loss and accuracy on adam optimizer.

Table 15.3 Classification report of dataset parameters on adam optimizer.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Type of shunt faults with probability of occurrence during system f...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Classification of EVs according to type and energy converters.

Figure 1.2 The motor power-based classifications of EVs.

Figure 1.3 Topology of BEV.

Figure 1.4 Energy transition from conventional to renewable resources.

Figure 1.5 Classification of potential vehicle technology.

Figure 1.6 Total primary energy supply.

Figure 1.7 Solar PV–based EV charging infrastructure.

Figure 1.8 The countries with high penetration of wind power.

Figure 1.9 Wind power-based EV charging infrastructure.

Figure 1.10 General overview of a micro-grid.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Sustainable development objectives/areas.

Figure 2.2 Smart city dimensions with related aspects of urban life and indica...

Figure 2.3 Sustainable trade and global governance.

Figure 2.4 Sustainable mobility and smart connectivity.

Figure 2.5 Sustainable development areas.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Quarterly sales of registered EVs in the financial year 2021

Figure 3.2 Yearly sales of registered EVs in the financial years 2019 to 2021

Figure 3.3 Sales in EV by state (India)

Figure 3.4 EV sales in India from Jan’22 to May’22.

Figure 3.5 Sales trend of electric two-wheelers in India (2019-2021)

Figure 3.6 Sales trend of electric three-wheelers in India.

Figure 3.7 Annual electric car sales around the globe

Figure 3.8 Public EV charging stations in India

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Battery-operated electrical vehicle.

Figure 4.2 Electric vehicle coupled with solar panel and wind turbine energy.

Figure 4.3 Electric vehicle coupled with solar panel.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Basic attributes of machine learning.

Figure 5.2 Agent-environment interaction.

Figure 5.3 SARSA algorithm.

Figure 5.4 Master-node communication.

Figure 5.5 Communication link between gazebo plugin and nodes.

Figure 5.6 Flow diagram of work.

Figure 5.7 Gazebo environment.

Figure 5.8 Propellers rotation of quadcopter.

Figure 5.9 PID controller.

Figure 5.10 Flow chart representation of Q-learning.

Figure 5.11 Flow chart representation of SARSA.

Figure 5.12 Path followed by UAV to reach goal.

Figure 5.13 Q-learning versus SARSA-learning.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of circuit.

Figure 6.2 Layout of process.

Figure 6.3 Electronic circuit diagram.

Figure 6.4 (a-c) Controller diagrams.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 A schematic representation of mobile EDGE.

Figure 7.2 Mobile edge communications.

Figure 7.3 Mobile edge computing.

Figure 7.4 Mobile edge caching.

Figure 7.5 Architecture of mobile edge network.

Figure 7.6 Systematics of MEC3.

Figure 7.7 Advantages of MEC3.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Schematic representation of methodology adopted.

Figure 8.2 (a-c) Designed model and display of results.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 The proposed system’s overall layout.

Figure 9.2 Diagram of ultrasonic sensor.

Figure 9.3 Diagram of MQ3 sensor.

Figure 9.4 Diagram of DHT11 sensor.

Figure 9.5 Diagram of temperature sensor.

Figure 9.6 Schematic representing NodeMCU.

Figure 9.7 Block diagram of system.

Figure 9.8 Experimental setup for monitoring and tracking.

Figure 9.9 Serial monitor.

Figure 9.10 (a-b) values shown on the local server page and the vehicle’s curr...

Figure 9.11 Email notifications about driver health.

Figure 9.12 Vehicle coordinates.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Passive cell balancing with bleeding resistors.

Figure 10.2 Passive cell balancing with bleeding resistors.

Figure 10.3 Passive cell balancing for three cells (Simulation MATLAB 2019b).

Figure 10.4 Passive cell balancing for three cell during charging.

Figure 10.5 Passive cell balancing for three cell during discharging.

Figure 10.6 Active cell balancing using single capacitor.

Figure 10.7 Active balancing for two cell using single inductor.

Figure 10.8 Switching stages of inductive-based active cell balancing.

Figure 10.9 Active balancing using balance inductor for even number of cells.

Figure 10.10 Inductive balancer a battery pack with three cells.

Figure 10.11 Mode-1, when switch

S

1

is closed, S

2

is closed.

Figure 10.12 Mode-2, when switch S

1

is open and

S

2

is open.

Figure 10.13 Flowchart for two-cell balancing algorithm.

Figure 10.14 Block diagram of active cell balancing with inductor.

Figure 10.15 Active balancing using balancing using inductive buck boost for t...

Figure 10.16 Active balancing using balancing for two cell during charging.

Figure 10.17 Active balancing using balancing for two cell during charging.

Figure 10.18 Active balancing using inductor-based buck boost for three cells ...

Figure 10.19 Active balancing using balancing for three cells during charging.

Figure 10.20 Active balancing using balancing for three cells during dischargi...

Figure 10.21 A block diagram of battery cells with battery management system.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Structure of fuel cell-battery HEV.

Figure 11.2 Structure of fuel cell-super capacitor battery HEV [12].

Figure 11.3 Block diagram of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV).

Figure 11.4 Systematic of different components used in EV.

Figure 11.5 Simulation diagram and how the system works.

Figure 11.6 Efficiency and continuous torque capability.

Figure 11.7 National renewable energy laboratory (NREL).

Figure 11.8 Speed vs. distance graph.

Figure 11.9 Power loss and regenerative braking used in the vehicle.

Figure 11.10 Combined diagram of velocity, state of charge, battery pack, emis...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Security triangle [12].

Figure 12.2 Some cybersecurity attacks.

Figure 12.3 Count of documents according to sources.

Figure 12.4 Tree map.

Figure 12.5 Dendrogram.

Figure 12.6 Three-field plot.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Smart city application [13].

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Different types of renewable energy sources.

Figure 14.2 Methodological steps for renewable energy source selection problem...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Sample image of (a) cloudy (b) foggy (c) rainy (d) shine (e) sunri...

Figure 15.2 Data validation of weather is used in the dataset.

Figure 15.3 VGG19 model architecture.

Figure 15.4 Sample image of (a) foggy (b) sunrise (c) rainy (d) shine (e) clou...

Figure 15.5 Confusion matrix comparison of five dataset parameters on Adam opt...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Hybrid microgrid topology with AC loads on AC bus and DC loads on ...

Figure 16.2 (a) RSC and DSMC control loops for current and voltage.

Figure 16.3 (b) Microgrid inverter control system.

Figure 16.4 RSC and DSMC control loops for current and voltage.

Figure 16.5 Grid side inverter control system.

Figure 16.6 Block diagram representation of control scheme.

Figure 16.7 Frequency response of the fundamental component.

Figure 16.8 Frequency response of third harmonic.

Figure 16.9 Reactive power during L-G fault ride-through.

Figure 16.10 Real power during L-G fault ride-through.

Figure 16.11 Load voltage during L-G fault ride-through.

Figure 16.12 Load current during L-G fault ride-through.

Figure 16.13 Real power during LLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.14 Load voltage during LLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.15 Load current during LLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.16 Reactive power during L-L fault ride-through.

Figure 16.17 Real power during L-L fault ride-through.

Figure 16.18 Load voltage during L-L fault ride-through.

Figure 16.19 Load current during L-L fault ride-through.

Figure 16.20 Reactive power during LLLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.21 Real power during LLLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.22 Fault voltage during LLLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.23 Fault current during LLLG fault ride-through.

Figure 16.24 Positive pole to ground fault ride-through in the DC bus.

Figure 16.25 Negative pole to ground fault ride-through in the DC bus.

Figure 16.26 Pole to pole fault ride-through in the DC bus.

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Aim and Scope

Preface

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

About the Editors

Index

Also of Interest

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Sustainable Mobility

Policies, Challenges and Advancements

Edited by

Ashwani Kumar

Arbind Prasad

and

Gaurav Kumar

This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-16614-5

Front cover images supplied by Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson

Aim and Scope

Sustainable transportation refers to any means of transportation that is “green” and has low impact on the environment. Sustainable transportation is also about balancing our current and future needs, but in the modern era we are compromising the needs of the next generation in terms of pollution, depletion of fossil fuels, global warming, poor air quality and gases that create health hazards. The three main pillars of sustainability, i.e., economic, environmental, and social are crushed by modern development. There is therefore a need to shift from traditional means of transportation to sustainable transportation, which includes green vehicles and energy-efficient vehicles, as well as walking, cycling, transit, carpooling, and car sharing, etc.

The vision of sustainable mobility can be achieved only if four goals are pursued simultaneously: developing right policy, awareness, intelligent transportation and green vehicles. These four goals are the central theme of Sustainable Mobility: Policies, Challenges and Advancements. This book discusses transitions from conventional to fuel-efficient vehicles to green vehicles, challenges in this transition period, the aim of new vehicle policies, and the latest autonomous vehicles or intelligent transportation. The main highlights of the book are energy-efficient technologies for transportation, accessibility and safety of the transport system, environmental footprint, health impact, economic development and social growth. The environmental impacts of transport can be reduced by reducing the weight of vehicles, sustainable styles of driving, reducing the friction of tires, encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, improving the walking and cycling environment in cities, and by enhancing the role of public transport, especially electric vehicles. Going green and sustainable is not only beneficial for the company; it also maximizes the benefits from an environmental focus in the long term. Sustainable Mobility: Policies, Challenges and Advancements discusses all the above important issues and provides in-depth knowledge and inventory to all readers.

Editors

Dr. Ashwani Kumar

Dr. Arbind Prasad

Dr. Gaurav Kumar

Preface

The book Sustainable Mobility: Policies, Challenges and Advancements has sixteen chapters covering a range of issues, from an introduction to sustainable mobility to policies, to transition challenges from IC engines to EV and HEV. Also, this book includes autonomous navigation of unmanned aerial vehicles, vehicle communication, monitoring, tracking and alerting, and cell balancing in BMS for electric vehicles (EVs). In addition, the book covers fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles, cyberattacks, threats and challenges of cybersecurity in autonomous vehicles, data-driven cybersecurity for smart cities mobility infrastructure, and renewable energy source selection for EV charging infrastructure.

Chapter 1 discusses various opportunities to integrate electric vehicle technology with available renewable energy sources, its challenges, and the state-of-the-art methods available in the literature. More specifically, the article analyses the feasibility of electric vehicle technology and its integration with renewable resources to develop sustainable mobility. Chapter 2 highlights the policies and required conditions for enhancing sustainable mobility for developing countries. The development in mobility is a major factor with the increment in GDP in the same field. Mobility development is responsible for economic and social growth of developing countries. In continuation, Chapter 3 aims to answer these questions by examining the current state of the EV market, the challenges and opportunities it faces, and the factors that will determine the future of electric cars. Chapter 4 presents the alternative power source system in vehicle electricity production for sustainable mobility. Greenhouse gases are responsible for trapping heat and causing global warming. Reducing transportation-related CO2 emissions will be a key factor in combating climate change in the years ahead.

Chapter 5 highlights simulation of a drone and a drone environment using ROS and Gazebo. Q-learning algorithm and SARSA learning algorithm were used and the model was trained so that the drone was independently capable of making decisions in order to achieve the goal. The simulated results show that the drone is able to figure out an efficient path in a few iterations.

In continuation, Chapters 6-9 deal with vehicle communication, monitoring, tracking and alerting for safe mobility. The importance of vehicle tracking and monitoring extends across various fields and applications, supported by several key justifications. The implementation of a proficient vehicle tracking system further solidifies the advantages, employing a cost-effective and easily deployable solution.

Chapter 10 highlights how crucial cell balancing is in lithium-ion battery packs. Also, this chapter discusses the several cell balancing methods employed in the literature, covering both active and passive techniques, as well as the benefits and drawbacks of each. Also, the usefulness of applying active inductor-based cell balancing techniques as opposed to passive and capacitor-based ones is evaluated. Chapter 11 describes the various fuel-cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), Energy Management System (EMS) components and subcategories. An in-depth presentation of the multiple plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) models and controlling procedures developed through experimentation and the virtual world is provided to contribute rationale from the analysis of ideal management technique.

The latest developments in cybersecurity and emerging security trends, as well as security threats and challenges, are dissected in Chapter 12 and can be applied for autonomous vehicles network security. In continuation, Chapter 13 combines Blockchain and IoT for smart city growth, which is a strategy that works better together and is effective for sustainable mobility. It not only improves performance but also makes security stronger, creating a more dependable, open, and strong city infrastructure that is ready for long-term growth and new ideas of autonomous mobility.

Chapter 14 contributes to an integrated approach to model the selection problem framework for the site selection of renewable energy sources (RESs) out of some available sources on the basis of sustainability parameters. The optimised method can be used for renewable energy–based site selection to establish EV charging infrastructures. Chapter 15 deals with weather detection using Adam optimizer. The model can be used for autonomous vehicles for weather detection applications. Chapter 16 focuses on the fault ride-through capability by RSC and DSMC controllers to keep the voltage and current within a very safe limit for an enhanced ride through capability of the microgrid analyzing all short circuit fault scenarios in EMTDC and OPAL-RT.

The above short summary of each chapter shows the book’s nature, which makes it ideal for usage in interdisciplinary undergraduate and postgraduate curricula and also makes it useful for research and academic purposes. It is also beneficial for engineers, economists, and policy makers since it helps them comprehend the background, current situation, and prospective future of the subject under discussion.

Editors

Dr. Ashwani Kumar

Dr. Arbind Prasad

Dr. Gaurav Kumar

Acknowledgement

We express our gratitude to Wiley-Scrivener publishing and the editorial team for their suggestions and support during completion of this book. We are grateful to all contributors and reviewers for their illuminating views on each chapter presented in Sustainable Mobility: Policies, Challenges and Advancements.

This book is dedicated to all engineers, researchers, and academicians.

1Sustainable Mobility: Clean Energy Integration with Electric Vehicle Technology

Pranjal Barman1*, Lachit Dutta2, Sushanta Bordoloi3, Manash Pratim Sarma2, Anamika Kalita4, Swapna Bharali4 and Brian Azzopardi5

1Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati-TIDF Division, Amingaon,Guwahati, Assam, India

2Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Guwahati University, Guwahati, Assam, India

3Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology Mizoram, Chaltlang, Aizawl, Mizoram, India

4Physical Sciences Division, Institute of Advance Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India

5MCAST Energy Research Group, Institute of Engineering and Transport, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST), PLA, Paola, Malta

Abstract

With the escalating power crisis, burgeoning environmental awareness and harmful effects of climate change, several automotive industries are leading the way towards developing eco-friendly vehicular technologies that can curtail the carbon footprint. As a fruitful outcome, the research on pollution-free vehicle technology has taken on an unprecedented pace in academia and industry to accomplish these demands worldwide. This demand shifted from using conventional crude oil energy sources to alternative renewable power sources like solar photovoltaic, wind energy, bio-energies, etc. Moreover, a needed transition is indispensable with the emerging demand for viable clean energy technology. Furthermore, it is found that more than 14% of global greenhouse gas emission is from the transportation sector itself. Therefore, electrification of transportation and its integration with renewable resources opens up new possibilities to expand the research in several new directions. This paper discusses various opportunities to integrate Electric Vehicle technology with available renewable energy sources, its challenges, and the state-of-the-art methods available in the literature. More specifically, the article analyses the feasibility of Electric Vehicle technology and its integration with renewable resources to develop sustainable mobility.

Keywords: Electric vehicle, renewable resource, sustainable mobility, transportation

1.1 Introduction

With the continuous growth and development of countries in terms of infrastructure, automation, transportation and technology, an extensive quantity of harmful emissions is disseminated into the environment. Apart from the industrial pollutants, road transportation is also a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions that leads to global warming and climate change [1–5]. According to recent surveys, the transportation sector alone accounts for 25% of CO2 emission in European nations [6, 7]. In the United States, the figure is 32% [8]. The energy consumed in the transportation sector mostly comes from fossil fuel–based products. Consequently, the growing concern for environmental safety impacted the government’s policies for implementing low carbon measure resources [9]. This concern also led to massive capital investment in vehicular technology research and development. Several automotive industries are taking initiatives to manufacture eco-friendly vehicles, which may fulfill the requirements worldwide. These initiatives resulted in the deployment of intelligent transportation systems, advanced vehicular engineering and the utilization of alternative energy sources. The main objective behind using alternative sources is to enhance the decarbonization of the entire sector to achieve sustainable mobility [9].

Over the years, many research works have been devoted to adopting alternate fuel sources to reduce harmful emissions. The adoption of renewable resources as the primary energy source is one such measure. A significant concern is a power source that can replace Internal Combustion Engine–based Vehicles (ICEV) that use fossil fuel as a primary energy source. The technological shift towards Electric Vehicles (EVs) is booming in order to reduce the burden of emissions of ICEVs. Consequently, most developed nations have undertaken effective measures to curb the production of ICEVs and make a complete transition toward EVs [10]. All over the world, countries are adopting policies that encourage manufacturers to use alternative sources of power such as hydrogen, synthetic fuels, solar energy, bio-fuels, and, most preferably, lithium-ion batteries.

In the past decade, EVs have been gaining wide attention, mainly due to their negligible emission. However, the high penetration of EVs in transportation also creates an unprecedented rise in electricity demand, to be met by the power grid. With the ever-increasing EVs, there is a rise in the construction of charging stations, which on the other hand, might result in overloading the grid. Further, there is a wide variation in the total number of vehicles charging at any particular instant. This uncontrolled charge behavior creates a more significant strain on the power grid and will eventually damage the grid [11]. Precise charge management can be achieved by dint of strategic placement of the existing EV power stations, and a planned network for future charging stations [12, 13]. However, the continuous rise in the number of EVs and the sizeable geographical expansion of urban cities make it difficult for a single aggregator to optimize the scheduling process. Therefore, to achieve sustainable mobility, integrating renewable energy with technology could be considered an emerging movement in the modern-day transportation system. However, there is a gap in the existing literature about the integration of EVs with renewable resources and the charging infrastructure. Therefore, in this article, we try to bridge the gap by providing a systematic investigation of the EVs integrated with various promising renewable resources for sustainable mobility to reduce air pollution due to road transportation.

1.2 Transportation and Carbon Emission

The fundamental criteria of a sustainable transport ecosystem should be convenient, affordable, accessible, reliable and safe [14]. Transportation is key to the economic development of a country. It continuously grows with the advancement of urbanization and the ever-growing service sector. A country with a population as large as 1.3 billion provides tremendous market access around the globe. However, the penetrations of the vehicle are yet not mature, which is around 30 per 1,000 people [15]. Over the next few years, Indian mobility market share may become significant in the global market. The predominant commercial vehicle base in India is ICE technology [16]. Despite the advancement of fuel-efficient and cleaner vehicles, the government has adopted strict emission norms for the incremental improvement of environmental safety. In European nations, a significant one-fifth of the total CO2 emission is contributed by road transportation alone. Light-duty vehicles generate 15% of emissions, whereas heavy-duty vehicles account for 25% of the emission. These nations have planned to regulate the greenhouse gas concentration of vehicle fuels and initiated a transition towards transportation electrification [17, 18]. Germany also faced a similar threat from the transportation sector. As per the report obtained from the Federal Republic of Germany, the proportion of CO2 emissions is not less than 20%. Germany promoted electric mobility for diverse reasons [19]. Another country, Malta, has formulated a holistic approach to reach these objectives [20]. Furthermore, the continuous depletion of fossil fuel makes it more expensive. Moreover, by considering air pollution as the biggest concern, the electrification of the transport sector can improve environmental safety and establish sustainable mobility soon.

1.3 Transportation Electrification

The growth of the transportation industry has a crucial role in accelerating the socioeconomic growth of the world. Presently, ICEVs come up with a wide variety of models ranging from small-size personal cars to heavy-duty vehicles [21]. The modern ICEVs have emerged with excellent performance at a reasonable price range, making them the most attractive consumer product. As per the existing literature the efficiency of the combustion process to mechanical energy conversion is about 30% [22]. The combustion process’s effect is even worse as it releases the exhaust gases, primarily carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide is the main gas responsible for the greenhouse effect and some other adverse effects on the environment. Furthermore, the distribution of engine noise is another issue for ICEVs in big cities [23]. The biggest issue above all is the continuous depletion of fossil fuels of the limited reserve in the world. Therefore, unlike combustion engines, electric motors could perform much better in the propulsion of vehicles. The electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Consequently, this also resolves the issues of harmful gas emission and noise problems that ICEVs create. Electric vehicles emerged into public transport as early as the mid-19th century, even before gasoline-powered vehicles. More than 38% of commercial automobiles were electric-powered [22]. However, the invention of the starter motor, advancement of gas-powered vehicle manufacturing, and inconvenient battery issues made EVs obsolete quickly. Interestingly, more than 150 years later, the continuous depletion of fossil fuels and growing environmental concerns led to the resurgence of interest in EVs. Although, currently, the sale of EVs is very low compared to ICEVs, keeping in mind the growing concern of carbon emission, Battery EVs (BEV) and Hybrid EVs (HEVs) are made available to customers by the world’s largest car manufacturers [24]. The present-day vehicle market is slowly moving towards a transition from conventional vehicles to zero-emission vehicles.

A wide variety of EVs has appeared due to mass production, consumer demand, and ongoing research and developments. Several vehicle classifications are defined in the literature based on energy converter types and functionality [25]. Based on the energy converter types, the broadest classes are BEV and HEVs [26]. The BEVs are also known as pure EVs. In BEVs, the source of energy is batteries; the electrical power of the battery is converted to mechanical energy to run the electric motors [27, 28]. Unlike BEVs, HEVs are propelled by the combined action of ICE and electric motors. Figure 1.1 shows the classification of EVs based on different forms of energy converters and their combination. The HEVs are further categorized into four types based on their architectures: series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid and complex hybrid. In series hybrid architecture, another category is known as Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCV), in which fuel cell replaces the ICE. In FCVs, the electric motors are propelled by electricity generated due to hydrogen-based chemical reactions. However, the lack of hydrogen infrastructure, inadequate technological breakthroughs and costly production make FCVs less competitive than the other vehicles [29]. Nevertheless, FCVs could be a great alternative to ICEVs in the future market [30]. There is a second category for classifying HEVs based on motor power: micro-hybrid, mild hybrid and full hybrid. The motor power limits in this classification are illustrated in Figure 1.2. The micro-hybrid vehicles are dominant in city driving; they consist of low-power motors to help the ICE start and stop operations. However, they don’t significantly impact the oil dependency and reduction of pollution. The mild-hybrid vehicles are developed for overall energy saving of 20%-30%. The fuel economy in the mild-hybrid thus far has significantly increased, making it attractive to customers. Honda Civic and Honda Insight are the most popular commercial mild hybrid vehicles. The fully hybrid category uses high-power motors that yield an energy saving up to 50%. Despite the superiority in power, it comes up with complex control algorithms to maximize motor efficiency, and recuperation of energy in regenerative braking. Toyota Prius is a popular member of the fully hybrid category. Though full hybrids can be the best choice for the time being, their efficiency is much less than required to meet the ongoing challenges. There are some other classifications of HEVs available in the literature based on their cost and applicability. Still, the BEVs were found to have a significant role in resolving the problems of climate change. There are a wide variety of design blueprint and power train topologies adopted to develop highly efficient EVs. The various design processes are developed with a common goal of manufacturing energy-efficient EVs. Different modeling techniques comprise a varied source of energy and energy storage devices. These also exhibit diverse characteristics of hybridization rate, vehicle power efficiency and performance, maximum drivable range, safety and comfort of driving, manufacturing cost, and so on [24–31]. Table 1.1 compares the various vehicle types in terms of efficiency, price, maintenance and range.

Figure 1.1 Classification of EVs according to type and energy converters.

Figure 1.2 The motor power-based classifications of EVs.

The simplest topology for BEVs is shown in Figure 1.3. The energy stored in the battery is transferred through a power converter to the electric motor; the motor converts the electrical energy to mechanical energy to drive the wheels via a gear mechanism. The wheels are coupled to the motor with some form of reduction gear and a mechanical differential system. The type of power converter used will depend upon the types of motors used. The power converters used commonly are DC-DC converters, DC-AC inverters and motor controllers. The bidirectional converters are used for the capability to recover energy back to the battery. However, most commonly available batteries are not fast enough to charge during a shorter period. Henceforth, supercapacitor or flywheel may be the other choices [31]. However, in the aforementioned design, the vehicle’s mass considerably increases; therefore, some alternative powertrain concepts were developed. One such configuration is distributed drive powertrain, where motors are independently coupled with the driving wheels. EVs with independent wheel drive configuration provide additional advantages in terms of flexibility, controllability and responsiveness [34, 35]. Moreover, the trade-off has to be made between simplicity in mechanical design and complex electronic control unit design. In the present day, owing to the limitations of battery range and slow charging, the pure EVs are still not getting enough attention from customers. Despite slow penetration in the market, India has come up with several electric and hybrid electric vehicles as presented in Table 1.2. Although various EVs have been launched worldwide, the enormous cost burden is a major issue regarding their acceptance by the public, especially in countries like India. However, some of the well-established car distributors in India mentioned in Table 1.2 have cost-effective designs to support sustainable mobility. The continuous development of the battery technology enhances the modern batteries with very high-energy density to achieve an extended driving range with a single charge [42–44]. Therefore, there is enough opportunity for mass manufacturing of pure EVs.

Table 1.1 Comparison among ICEV, HEV and EVs [32, 33].

Parameter

ICE vehicles

Hybrid vehicle

Electric vehicles

Efficiency

≈ 20%

≈ 40%

≈ 75%

Average Speed

200 kmph

180 kmph

150 kmph

Average Acceleration

0–97 kmph in 8.4 sec

0–97 kmph in 7 sec

0–97 kmph in 5 sec

Maintenance

High

High

Minimal

Average Mileage

480–500 km before refuelingTypically achieves 10–12 kmpl

Typically achieves 20–25 kmpl

Can travel 120–200 km before re charging

Average Cost

Euro 0.7-1.1 million

Euro 1.2-2 million

Euro 0.9-6 million

Figure 1.3 Topology of BEV.

The integration of EV stations with the power grid will prove a significant factor in combating the power crisis worldwide [45]. Nevertheless, zero-emission cars must be widely adopted to curtail vehicular pollution and quash the need for fossil fuels.

Table 1.2 State-of-the-art commercial hybrid and electric vehicles to be launched in India.

Name of the vehicle

Parent company

Mode

Features

Price

Honda City e:HEV

[36]

Honda

Two Motor Electric Hybrid

26.5 km/l fuel efficiency, Lithium-ion Battery

Moderate

AVINYA

[37]

Tata Motors

Pure EV

Still in Manufacturing Stage

Mercedes-Benz C-Class

[38]

Mercedes

Mild-Hybrid

-NA-

High

BMW i4

[39]

BMW

All Electric

83.9kWh battery pack, 335-536 hp, fast charging

High

Tata Nexon EV Long Range

[40]

Tata Motors

All Electric

312 Km range on full charge, 40kWh battery pack

Moderate

Hyundai IONIQ 5

[41]

Hyundai

All Electric

Charges from 10% to 80% in 18 minutes, 58kWh battery pack

High

1.4 Electric Vehicle Integration with Renewable Sources

Global energy consumption has grown exponentially since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The growth can be attributed to the energy demand to fulfill the need of the continuously increasing global population. Along with the development of various industries, mobility demands the significant consumption of energy resources. However, the consumption patterns are both physically and socially unstable. There has been a notable development in renewable energy technology [46]. These developments have led to progressive social development in a more sustainable way of generating and utilizing renewable resources. Several industries and independent research organizations are making a collective effort to set a global target by 2050. This development-initiated target to produce 50% of the primary energy needed for vehicle propulsion is from renewable energies [47]. This figure will be heading to 80% by 2050. Figure 1.4demonstrates the percentage usage of varied energy sources in the past, present and future [48]. Going into vision 2050 a well-built interconnection between energy production and propulsion technology could be visible in mobility, efficiency and performance. Present-day automakers believe that their long-term viability will be based on achieving sustainable mobility [49]. Present-day vehicle mass manufacturing is appropriate if it meets customer satisfaction. Furthermore, considering the energy diversity, new hybrid propulsion technology has emerged. The advancement in propulsion systems and availability of diverse fuel sources has led to the development of distinctive, sustainable vehicles. improving combustion, reduction of friction losses, use of bio-fuel, etc.

Figure 1.4 Energy transition from conventional to renewable resources.

In Figure 1.5, a classification of the existing potential vehicle technologies is presented. Although ICEVs supporting a wide variety of energy sources like gasoline, diesel, ethanol-blended fuel, bio-fuel, and synthetic fuel are available commercially, neutral emission and zero environmental impact cannot be achieved by using such sources. The BEV technology allows for achieving oil-free technology, which could be the dominant transportation in the future market. In addition to that, the FCV technology can significantly contribute to the global projection of an environmentally safe transportation system soon. They can also benefit from emerging research in nanotechnology to develop the fuel cells for excellent performances [50]. Figure 1.6 depicts the world energy consumption by share of fuels in 2019 from the IEA [48]. This review mainly focuses on the research works dedicated to the development of EVs and technological advancement that led to the union of renewable resources and the power grid by considering the global demands. Major research groups have conducted their study of the smart grid and exploited the advantages of EVs to achieve mutual benefits to both power-grid and renewable resources [51, 52]. A power-grid deals with proper maintenance, storage and distribution of power; it achieves this by dint of communication control and distribution system, power electronics module and storage unit to sustain balanced production and consumption [53]. The EV will act either as a controllable load or as a storage unit in this chronology. This mechanism is called the vehicle to grid (V2G) [54].

Figure 1.5 Classification of potential vehicle technology.

Figure 1.6 Total primary energy supply.

1.5 Solar Energy

Due to the availability of many alternate solar power sources, compared to other renewable sources, much of the research work is dedicated to integrating EVs with solar power due to the availability of many alternate solar power sources. Solar energy is a never-ending clean resource for various electrical applications. Photovoltaic (PV) and Solar Thermal are major technologies that convert solar power to electricity [55, 56]. The energy produced from the PV system and dynamic charging associated with EVs brings new concepts of efficient charging from renewable resources [57]. In addition, a surcharge amount of electric energy is generated during the daytime as maximum solar energy is radiated, and the excess energy can be stored in the batteries for future use. Therefore, experts have acknowledged this active irradiation period as the most favorable period to maximize cost-efficiency. Since the power from PV is not available at night, there are also provisions to integrate the battery storage systems with the solar power charging stations. Besides that, the whole charging infrastructure is connected with the grid for any unavoidable power deficiencies from the PV panels. Moreover, the grid-connected PV system reduces the extra burden on the power grid. Researchers have come up with an idea to charge the EVs during hours of daylight when cars are in parking lots such as workplaces or public parking spots [58]. In addition to that, the newly emerging models, such as the solar to vehicle (S2V) approach, make the EVs recharge entirely during the active radiation period [59]. A simple layout diagram of the solar PV–based charging system is illustrated in Figure 1.7. The solar PV arrays are connected to the DC bus voltage which is specific for EV charging stations. The surplus amount of energy generated by the PV is delivered to a storage unit comprising batteries. A bi-directional DC-DC converter is used as the controlled circuitry to ensure proper maintenance of the charging and discharging operation of the battery storage.

Figure 1.7 Solar PV–based EV charging infrastructure.

Further, the AC grid is also interfaced with the DC bus via a controlled rectifier. The job of the controlled rectifier is to intake AC voltage and produce a rectified constant DC voltage. The PV-assisted charging stations will have a significant impact soon, specifically in countries where the geographical terrain and climate are suitable to harness the abundance of solar energy.

1.6 Wind Energy

Wind energy is converted into electrical energy by windmill blades when moving air turns them. However, it is a principle renewable energy source that is intermittent, like solar energy. In the USA, wind energy has been developed since 1850. In 1890, the steel blade was designed for windmills to pump groundwater. By the late 1970s, a few more advanced wind turbines were invented because of the oil price rise. In India, wind energy began in 1986 near the coastal area of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. India is said to have the fourth-largest installed wind turbine in the world. Until 2018, the total wind power capacity of existing wind turbines was about 5,91,549 MW. The wind power penetration in some developed countries reached up to 40% of stationary electricity production. Figure 1.8 shows the countries having highly penetrated wind power utilities.

Figure 1.8 The countries with high penetration of wind power.

The EV can be recharged when there is surplus energy from wind power [60]. Therefore, the flexible back up storage elements are essential to fulfilling consistent customer demand. Offshore wind has more potential for high-power generations than land wind. Moreover, ocean wind could generate more power for the turbine. The wind turbines are typically placed offshore, around 20 KM away from the land. Having the turbines near the seashore could eliminate the noise issue and get enough speed to produce more electricity. Installing them in isolated places could also lessen the visual disturbance to humans. Because of the offshore wind energy harvesting benefits, every country in the world has taken the initiative to invest capital in this renewable energy. The construction of wind turbines on small seashores is much cheaper than onshore wind turbines.

Despite having numerous advantages, there are some significant concerns related to the wind turbine on the environment, such as ecological disturbance, noise pollution, visual disturbance, flora and fauna safety, electromagnetic interference and local climate change. However, the scientific community is trying to mitigate these issues with extensive research on wind energy harvesting technology. The requirement for expensive storage technologies, however, can be mitigated by matching the variability of generation and energy expenditure in EVs. Previous studies reveal that integrating energy storage units with the electricity grid may be the best approach to put an end to the intermittency, randomness, and power fluctuations and provide a stable and uninterrupted energy supply from renewable sources [61]. A wind power generation system with EV charging infrastructure is illustrated in Figure 1.9. Here the EVs are coupling to their charging stations from the grid. The grid is connected to renewable wind power sources. The surplus power generated from the wind turbines is stored in battery storage systems and distributed through the grid.

Figure 1.9 Wind power-based EV charging infrastructure.

1.7 Integration with the Grid