Terpenoids: Recent Advances in Extraction, Biochemistry and Biotechnology E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Terpenoids are commercially important chemicals found in essential oils and other natural plant sources. They are used in solving issues that affect agricultural production, making them a key component of sustainable agronomy.
Terpenoids: Recent Advances in Extraction, Biochemistry and Biotechnology provides information about the varied use of terpenoids in the control of pests, microbial diseases, ticks, and weeds. Chapters have prioritized terpenoids produced by plants, endophytic fungi, propolis, and geopropolis. The book also provides focused information about the functions of terpenoids in plants, as well as their biosynthetic pathways of production.
The reference provides readers with a broad and diverse picture of the applications of terpenoids in plant safety, and creates an awareness of the possibilities for innovative biotechnological approaches for their extraction that make all the difference to agricultural production.
Professionals and scholars involved in chemical technology, biotechnology and agriculture will benefit from the information provided in the book. It also serves as a comprehensive update for general readers interested in terpenoids and their current impact on the agricultural industry.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2003
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PREFACE
Human inherited disorders have been the focus of attention for a long time. Various books have been written with a focus on classical genetic approaches, clinical diagnostic strategies, and counselling, management strategies. With the emergence of Next-generation techniques, a new era was started and lots of developments have occurred in Human Genetics. The perspective has also been widened with emerging OMICS technologies. An integrated approach is being used not only for diagnosis but also for management and therapeutic purposes. This book is an effort to highlight and compile various emerging areas of OMICS technology and its application in the diagnosis and management of human genetic disorders.
The book is planned with three areas of research and implementation i.e., Diagnosis covering conventional strategies to next-generation platforms. This section focuses on the role of Insilco analysis, databases and multi-omics of single-cell which will help in designing better management strategies. Section II covers management and therapeutic interventions starting with genetic counselling and then including more specific techniques such as pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine, gene editing techniques and their applications in gene therapies and regenerative medicine. Section III focuses on case studies and discusses the applications and success of all the above-mentioned strategies on selected human disorders.
List of Contributors
Biosynthesis of Terpenoids By Plants
Akemi L. Niitsu1,Elesandro Bornhofen2,Tábata Bergonci3,*Abstract
Terpenoids are a class of chemicals with over 50,000 individual compounds, highly diverse in chemical structure, founded in all kingdoms of life, and are the largest group of secondary plant metabolites. Also known as isoprenoids, their structure began to be elucidated between the 1940s and 1960s, when their basic isoprenoid building blocks were characterized. They play several basic and specialized physiological functions in plants through direct and indirect interactions. Terpenoids are essential to metabolic processes, including post-translational protein modifications, photosynthesis, and intracellular signaling. All terpenoids are built through C5 units condensed to prenyl diphosphate intermediates. The fusion of these C5 units generates short C15-C25, medium C30-C35, and long-chain C40-Cn terpenoids. Along with the extension of the chain, the introduction of functional groups, such as ketones, alcohol, esters and, ethers, forms the precursors to hormones, sterols, carotenoids, and ubiquinone synthesis. The biosynthesis of terpenoids is regulated by spatial, temporal, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional factors. This chapter gives an overview of terpenoid biosynthesis, focusing on both cytoplasmic and plastid pathways, and highlights recent advances in the regulation of its metabolic pathways.
INTRODUCTION
Terpenoids, also called isoprenoids, are the most diverse class of chemical groups produced by plants. They are the largest category of secondary metabolites derived from the universal 5-carbon compound, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP),
and its allylic isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) [1] (Fig. 1). The condensation of IPP and/or DMAPP units to prenyl diphosphate intermediates are used as precursors for the biosynthesis of terpenoids.
Fig. (1)) Isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) molecules structure.In plants, IPP and DMAPP are produced by two independent pathways: the mevalonate-dependent pathway, also known as mevalonic acid pathway (MVA), and the methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP). Both pathways are regulated at the transcript and protein level and by feedback. The enzyme IPP isomerase is the one responsible to convert IPP to DMAPP, the reaction occurring in both directions [2]. Subsequently, IPP and DMAPP fusion generate short, medium and long-chains of prenyl diphosphates, which then can be modified for many different enzymes downstream in the terpenoid biosynthetic pathways [3]. From the MVA pathway in the cytosol, many compounds are generated, such as brassinosteroid, cytokinin, and protein prenylation. From the MEP pathway in the plastids, we have the generation of carotenoids (and subsequently strigolactones and abscisic acid), gibberellins, cytokinin, ubiquinone, and chlorophyll.
Mevalonic Acid Pathway
The MVA pathway is primarily cytosolic and is present in most organisms, including animals, plants, archaebacteria and gram-positive bacteria, and yeasts [4]. It consists of six steps initiated with a condensation reaction of two molecules of acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA. This condensation is catalyzed by acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (AACT) (Fig. 2). The second step is catalyzed by hydroxymethy- glutaryl-CoA synthase (HMGS), where acetoacetyl-CoA is condensed with another acetyl-CoA molecule to form the C6-compound S-3-hydroxy-3- methylglutaryl-CoA (S-HMG-CoA). In the third step, hydroxymethyglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the conversation of S-HMG-CoA to mevalonate using two NADPH. Mevalonate is phosphorylated to mevalonate-5-phosphate in the 5-OH position in a reaction catalyzed by mevalonate kinase (MK). Mevalonate-5-phosphate produces mevalonate-diphosphate in a reaction catalyzed by phosphomevalonate kinase (PMK). In the last step of the mevalonic acid pathway, mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MPDC) catalyzes the decarboxylative elimination reaction of mevalonate-diphosphate to IPP. The three last steps use one ATP in each reaction.
Fig. (2)) Enzymatic steps of MVA pathway in terpenoid precursor biosynthesis.The first enzyme in the MVA pathway is AACT, a class II thiolase encoded by a small gene family in plants, with AACT1 localized in cytoplasm and peroxisome, and AACT2 localized only in cytoplasm (Table 1) [5]. In Arabidopsis thaliana, AACT1 gene has five alternatively spliced isoforms, and the AACT2 gene has two alternatively spliced isoforms. The second enzyme in the MVA pathway, HMGS, is encoded for gene paralogs in most plant species [6]. In A. thaliana, HMGS is encoded by only one gene, and HMGS mRNA produces two alternatively spliced variants. HMGS has its subcellular localization at the cytoplasm. In the majority of the plants, several paralog genes encoded the HMGR enzyme [7]. In A. thaliana, HMGR is encoded by two genes. HMGR binds to the endoplasmic reticulum with their catalytic site facing the cytosol. The MK enzyme is a cytosolic protein with three alternatively spliced variants in A. thaliana [8]. PMK enzyme resides in peroxisomes, encoded by one gene with two alternatively spliced variants in A. thaliana [9]. The last enzyme of the MVA pathway, MPDC, is encoded by a single gene in most plants. In A. thaliana, two paralogous genes encode the protein [10].
The regulation of MVA pathway in plants is more complex than in other organisms because plants have two terpenoid biosynthetic pathways in one cell, MVA and MEP. All genes in the MVA pathway are expressed when the demand for IPP/DMAPP is high. Light negatively regulates MVA pathway genes expression [11]. Several other signals regulate the transcriptions of MVA pathway genes, such as drought stress, low and high temperature, herbivory, and wounding [12].
HMGR appears to be the most regulated enzyme in the MVA pathway, with several factors affecting its expression. The phosphorylation of a conserved Ser-5777 in HMGR by a Sucrose nonfermenting1-related kinase 1 (SNRK1) negatively regulates the enzyme by inactivation of it [13]. Lovastatin insensitive 1 (LOI1), a mitochondrial protein participating in the respiration process, also negatively regulates HMGR enzyme [14].
Recently, a study showed that MVA pathway genes increased their expression in two folds when plants of Tripterygium wilfordii were treated with methyl jasmonate (MJ) [15]. The accumulation of celastrol, a triterpenoid quinone, is also significantly increased in plants treated with MJ.
Methylerythritol Phosphate Pathway
The MEP pathway (also known as non-mevalonate pathway and mevalonate-independent pathway) is used by green algae, gram-negative bacteria, cyanobacteria, and plants [4]. It was discovered in the 1990s and occurred in the plastids. It consists of seven enzymatic steps starting with the condensation of hydroxyethyl thiamine diphosphate, derived from pyruvate, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) in 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate (DXP) (Fig. 3) [16]. The condensation is catalyzed by 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) in an irreversible reaction that releases CO2. The reduction of DXP to MEP is catalyzed by 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR). Further, MEP is converted to 4-cystidine 5-diphospho-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME) by 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (MCT). CDP-ME is then phosphorylated by 4-cystidine 5-diphospho-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase (CMK) and converted to 2-phospho-4-cystidine-5-diphospho-2-C-methyl-D- erythritol (CDP-ME2P). CDP-ME2P is converted to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP), in a reaction catalyzed by 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (MDS). MEcPP is subsequently reduced by 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyldiphosphate synthase (HDS) to 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyldiphosphate (HMBPP). In the last step of the MEP pathway, HMBPP is converted into a mixture of IPP and DMAPP in a reaction catalyzed by 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyldiphosphate reductase (HDR) [17].
Fig. (3)) Enzymatic steps of MEP pathway in terpenoid precursor biosynthesis.All enzymes from MEP pathway reside in the stroma of the plastid (Table 2) [18]. A. thaliana has one DXS gene encoding a DXS enzyme, but in most plants, DXS is encoded by multiple gene paralogs [19]. The other enzymes of the MEP pathway are encoded by only one gene each in A. thaliana and other species. In A. thaliana, DXR and MDS genes have two alternatively spliced isoforms, and HDS gene has three alternatively spliced isoforms.
MEP pathway genes are regulated by light, and circadian rhythm, DXS and HDR genes are highly expressed during the day, decreasing their expression during the night [20]. The transcript factors from Phytochrome Interacting Factors (PIFs) family are responsible to regulate MEP pathway. PIFs act negatively regulating DXS gene expression in dark [21].
DXS is negatively regulated by mitochondrial respiration at a post-translational level via LOI1, similar to HMGR regulation in the MVA pathway [22]. HDR and HDS are also regulated at a post-translational level, being both enzymes’ substrates to thioredoxin, which reduces specific disulfide groups to increase their activity [23].
Recently, a study using Picea glauca showed that moderate drought treatment reduced photosynthetic rate by 70%, but metabolic flux thought the MEP pathway was reduced only by 37% [24]. The experiments also showed that DXS activity was not decreased even in severe drought, indicating the resilience of the MEP pathway under drought.
Isomerization of the C5 Building Blocks
In the MVA pathway, IPP needs to be converted to DMAPP by the activity of an isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (IPP isomerase) in a reversible Mg-dependent reaction (Fig. 4). In the MEP pathway, both IPP and DMAPP are produced in the reaction catalyzed by HDR (in an 85:15 ratio, IPP/DMAPP, respectively), but IPP isomerase is necessary to produce an optimal ratio of the two molecules [25]. The trafficking of the C5 building blocks between cytosol and plastids has been shown in many studies, although the mechanisms of how it occurs were not elucidated.
Fig. (4)) Trafficking of terpenoids precursors, IPP and DMAPP, between the cytosol and plastids.IPP isomerase is encoded by two paralogs genes in A. thaliana, and both of these genes have two alternatively spliced isoforms (Table 3). In plants, the isoforms are localized in peroxisomes, plastids, and mitochondria [26]. IPP isomerase activity is a limiting step in terpenoid biosynthesis, and the isomerase process regulates the terpenoid flux [27]. In A. thaliana, the double mutant ipp1ipp2 has 50% less ubiquinone than wild-type plants, and a decrease in the incorporation of sterols, showing that IPP is essential for the supply of proper levels of IPP and DMAPP in different subcellular compartments [28].
The second main step in terpenoid biosynthesis is IPP and DMAPP fusion, which is catalyzed by isoprenyl diphosphate synthases, also called prenyltransferases, to form prenyl diphosphates. Prenyl diphosphates are the precursors of all terpenoids. The first reaction catalyzed by prenyltransferases is the condensation of IPP with DMAPP to produce a C10 allylic diphosphate molecule, with the elimination of pyrophosphate. Additional rounds of condensation reactions produce C15-Cn chains of prenyl diphosphate [29]. Some main precursors of the biosynthesis of terpenoids are C10-geranyl diphosphate, also called geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP), C15-farnesyl diphosphate, also known as farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), and C20-geranylgeranyl diphosphate, also called geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) (Fig. 5). DMAPP is a precursor for hemiterpenes and isoprenes. GPP is a precursor to monoterpenes. FPP is a precursor to sesquiterpenes and triterpenes. GGPP is a precursor to diterpenes and tetraterpenes.
Geranyl Pyrophosphate
GPP is the precursor of C10-monoterpenoids, and it is synthesized from IPP and DMAPP by the catalytic activity of geranyl pyrophosphate synthase (GPPS) enzymes, a type of prenyltransferases. GPPS are found in plants as homodimers and heterodimers. Although homodimers enzymes are found in gymnosperms and angiosperms, most studies are focusing on heterodimer GPPS in plants.
Heterodimers GPPS show one large and one small subunit (LSU and SSU, respectively), where LSU is responsible for catalytic activities and SSU is responsible for regulation [30]. The C10-monoterpenoids originate different indol alkaloids in plants, as such ibogaine, a psychoactive found in the Apocynaceae family, voacangine, an alkaloid found in the roots of Voacanga africana tree and other species, and vincamine, an alkaloid found in leaves of Vinca minor plants [31].
Fig. (5)) Overview of terpenoids biosynthesis from IPP and DMAPP.Farnesyl Pyrophosphate
FPP is the precursor for primary metabolites, specialized metabolites, and protein prenylation (Fig. 6). FPP is synthesized by the catalytic activity of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthases (FPPS), which are homodimer enzymes localized in cytosol and mitochondria [32]. They are encoded by a small gene family, and it has many different sizes depending on the gene splicing.
Squalene is one of the products in the FPP precursor pathway, and it is an intermediate compound in the synthesis of more than 200 triterpenes [33]. Two molecules of FPP are reduced to form squalene in a reaction catalyzed by the squalene synthase enzyme. Further, phytosterol is generated from the cyclization of squalene, which is catalyzed by cycloartenol synthase. Phytosterol is a key component in brassinosteroid biosynthesis and a substrate for many steps in the pathway [34].
FPP is also a precursor to protein prenylation, a post-translational modification where isoprenoid side chains are added to the carboxyl-terminal of the protein. In plants, several proteins are prenylated. Farnesyl transferase (FTase) is the enzyme that catalyzes the linkage of a farnesyl group to a cysteine residue in the C-terminal protein [35].
A loss of function in the β subunit of FTase enhances the sensitivity and the response of the plant to abscisic acid, leading to stomatal closure and a better drought stress response. Although none of the abscisic acid signaling transduction pathway enzymes are prenylated, a heat shock protein (HSP40) is targeted to FTase and could be involved in abscisic acid responses [35].
Fig. (6)) FPP precursor and its products in cytosol.In the brassinosteroid biosynthesis pathway, a prenylated cytochrome P450 protein catalysis the conversion of castasterone to brassinolide. Mutants lacking prenylation do not have a proper function, showing the importance of prenylation to maintain the normal metabolism in plants [35].
Geranylgeranyl Pyrophosphate
GGPP is a major precursor to terpenoids biosynthesis in primary and specialized metabolism, with many of the compound’s biosynthesis occurring in the plastid (Fig. 7). GGPP is synthesized by the catalytic activity of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthases (GGPPS). In A. thaliana, the GGPPS family has 12 paralogs genes, most of them being homodimers.
Fig. (7)) GGPP precursor and its products in plastid.In the gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis pathway, GGPP is converted to ent-copalyl diphosphate by ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase enzyme. Further, many steps catalyzed by ent-kaurene oxidase and ent-kaurene acid oxidase enzymes generate GA12. GA12 is then processed to the bioactive GA4 form, by catalytic activity of two enzymes: GA 20-oxidase and GA 3-oxidase [36].
In the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, the first step is the condensation of two molecules of GGPP to form phytoene, by the catalytic activity of phytoene synthase. Four more reactions generate lycopene, which is then processed by β and ε-cyclases to form α and β-carotene [37].
To form abscisic acid, β-carotene produces zeaxanthin by catalysis of carotene hydroxylases enzymes (BCH1 and BCH2). Zeaxanthin is then converted to violaxanthin by zeaxanthin epoxidase [38]. Three other steps occur in plastids and form xanthoxin, which is then transported to cytosol. Further, two other enzymes, AbscisisAcid2 and AbscisidAcid3 catalysis the last two steps in the production of abscisic acid.
In the strigolactones biosynthesis, β-carotene produces the precursor of strigolactones in the plastid, carlactone (CL) in three steps by catalysis of one isomerase and two dioxygenases’ enzymes [39]. CL is then exposed to the cytosol and suffers an oxidation reaction generating many different strigolactones molecules downstream in the pathway.
Chlorophylls, phylloquinone, and plastoquinone are other main compounds derived from GGPP precursor in the terpenoids biosynthesis, and many steps are involved in each of the pathways.
Cytokinin’s Biosynthesis
Cytokinin is a central hormone in plant metabolism, and it is produced in the cytosol, mitochondria, and plastids (Figs. 6 and 7). DMAPP is the precursor to cytokinin biosynthesis, and isopentenyl transferases catalyze the first step of the pathway, transferring the isoprenoid moiety to an adenine [40]. Further, the side chain is hydroxylated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, and, in the next step, cytokinin nucleotides are hydrolyzed to free bases.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Recent efforts have been made to elucidate the biosynthesis of terpenoids in both MVA and MEP pathways and their regulation. Additional works should be performed to clarify the subcellular localization of several enzymes in both pathways. Further, more efforts to understand the regulation of the biosynthetic terpenoid pathways enzymes will be important to elucidate the regulatory networks coordinating the many several routes in space and time.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
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Bot.,2011, 62(8), 2431-2452.[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err004] [PMID: 21321050]Green Extraction Techniques to Obtain Bioactive Concentrates Rich in Terpenoids
Ana Carolina de Aguiar1,*,Arthur Luiz Baião Dias1,Juliane Viganó2Abstract
Terpenoids, also called isoprenoids or terpenes, are a large class of natural products which display a wide range of biological activities. They are major constituents of essential oils produced by aromatic plants and tree resins. Due to their notable biological activities, these compounds have enormous economic importance, being widely used as bioactive ingredients in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. The growing demand from consumers and regulatory agencies to develop green sustainable industrial processes has resulted in the emergence of new technologies for obtaining bioactive compounds from natural sources. Thus, many works have been reported in the literature regarding the development and application of new methods for obtaining terpenoids from natural sources that meet the demands of green processes, with reduced consumption of solvent and energy, less waste generation, and use of non-toxic solvents. This chapter proposes to present the main methods of green extraction to obtain terpenoids-rich extracts, with an emphasis on low-pressure methods, such as microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE); and high-pressure methods (here considered as pressures greater than 5 bar), including extraction with supercritical fluids (SFE), subcritical water (SWE) and liquefied petroleum gas extraction (LPG). In addition, the future perspectives and the main challenges regarding the development of alternative methods for the recovery of terpenoids are presented and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Terpenoids, also called isoprenoids or terpenes, are a large class of natural compounds since over 60,000 structures have already been identified from natural sources [1, 2]. Terpenoids present an extensive range of biological activities, which is often assumed, for certain terpenoids, due to their lipophilicity and ability to partition into cellular membranes, interact with membrane-bounded proteins and disrupt membrane integrity [3]. Terpenoids are major constituents of essential oils produced by aromatic plants and tree resins. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes and their oxygenated derivatives are the most abundant groups of chemical substances in essential oils. Although their biological activities have been scientifically proven, many plants and terpenoid-rich extracts were already widely used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties [4-6]. Due to their notable sensory aspects and biological activities, these compounds have enormous economic importance, being widely used as bioactive ingredients in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
Bioactive compounds, including essential oils, carotenoids, fatty acids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids, were conventionally extracted by steam distillation, solvent extraction, Soxhlet extraction, pressing method, and hydro-distillation, mainly due to their equipment and operation simplicity. However, many drawbacks of conventional extraction methods have been recently recognized. For instance, for Soxhlet extraction, the main disadvantages comprise the long extraction time, the use of toxic solvents, usually in large amounts, the necessity of further evaporation or concentration operation to remove the excess of solvent, besides the possibility of thermal degradation of the targeted compounds due to the harsh extraction conditions (high temperature, long time, presence of oxygen and light, etc.) [7]. Most of these limitations also apply to other conventional extraction methods, especially a large amount of solvent required.
Regarding the extraction of terpenoids, thermal degradation is notably a major issue. Many terpenoids, such as α-pinene, limonene, camphor, citronellol, carvacrol, camphene, Δ3-carene, and γ-terpinene are thermolabile at temperatures above 100 ºC, under subcritical water conditions [8] and hot air [9]. Large-scale extraction of terpenoids commonly uses organic solvents such as methanol or 2-propanol, ethyl acetate, and light petroleum (1:1:1) at temperatures ranging from 40 ºC to 190 ºC [10].
The fact that many bioactive compounds are thermolabile, combined with the growing demand from consumers and regulatory agencies to develop green sustainable industrial processes, has resulted in the emergence of new technologies for obtaining bioactive compounds from natural sources [11]. Thus, innovative strategies to extract and isolate bioactive compounds from plant-based materials are gaining attention in the research and development domains.
According to Chemat, Vian and Cravotto [12], green extraction of natural products is based on the discovery and design of extraction processes that will reduce energy consumption, allow the use of alternative solvents and renewable natural products, and ensure a safe and high-quality extract/product. Therefore, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) [13-16], which are readily accessible and environmentally sustainable, can be considered green technologies. Many of these green sustainable extraction methods have already been used to recover different terpenoids from plant matrices. The results obtained so far have demonstrated excellent performance of these processes compared to conventional extraction methods.
In this chapter, we will present the main methods of green extraction techniques to obtain terpenoids-rich extracts, with an emphasis on low-pressure methods, such as MAE and UAE; and high-pressure methods, including SFE, subcritical water (SWE) and liquefied petroleum gas extraction (LPG). In addition, the future perspectives and the main challenges regarding the development of alternative methods for the recovery of terpenoids are presented and discussed.
LOW-PRESSURE EXTRACTION METHODS
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
Microwaves are radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging in frequency from 300 MHz (radio radiation) to 300 GHz. When applied in chemical processes, the frequencies of 2.45 GHz and 915 MHz are used for laboratory-scale and industrial-scale equipment, respectively [17].
The microwave photon energy corresponding to the frequency used in the microwave heating system (3.78x10-6 to 1.01x10-5 eV) cannot affect the molecular structure since it is lower than the typical ionization energies of chemical bonds (3–8 eV) and hydrogen bonds (0.04-0.44 eV) [18]. As microwave radiation is nonionized, the interaction with materials that absorb the microwave energy occurs by heating. Thus, the efficiency of microwave heating (at a given frequency and temperature) is a function of the capacity of the material to absorb electromagnetic energy and dissipate heat.
Briefly, MAE uses microwave energy to heat solvents containing samples, thereby partitioning analytes from a sample matrix into the solvent. The main advantage of MAE is its capacity to rapidly heat the sample solvent mixture, resulting in its broad applicability for the accelerated extraction of analytes, including thermolabile compounds [19].
Fig. (1) shows a schematic diagram of a generic ultrasound-assisted extraction device, composed of a sample vessel, which contains the extraction solvent (although in many applications, the extraction process is conducted without solvents), which is inserted inside an ultrasound oven, and the sample vessel is coupled to a condenser.
Fig. (1)) Schematic diagram of the microwave-assisted extraction equipment.MAE methods can be classified into solvent-free extraction methods (usually for the recovery of volatile compounds) and solvent extraction methods (usually for the recovery of non-volatile compounds). Specifically, for the extraction of oils from natural substrates, the MAE has gained prominence due to its numerous advantages over the conventional heating methods, such as reducing the extraction time, the volume of solvent, and the amount of sample required, plus reaching higher extraction yields [20-22].
Specifically, for the extraction of oils from natural substrates, the MAE has gained prominence due to its numerous advantages over the conventional heating methods, such as reducing the extraction time, the volume of solvent and the amount of sample required, plus reaching higher extraction yields [20-22].
In these cases, the main factor related to the MAE's better performance is the interaction between the radiation and the matrix water: the microwaves release the essential oil, and the water in situ is transferred from the interior to the exterior portion of the vegetable tissue [23]. In addition to the intrinsic characteristics of the plant material, other process parameters affect the efficiency of the MAE, including (i) power level, (ii) duration of the microwave irradiation, (iii) type and volume of the solvent used for extraction (if used), (iv) solvent to feed ratio, and (v) extraction system capacity. Accordingly, the rational optimization of the MAE process parameters is an efficient strategy to achieve better process performance [24]. MAE was successfully applied to recover terpenoids from different plant materials, and in many cases, the response surface methodology was used as a powerful tool to optimize the parameters of the extraction process, as described below.
A green protocol for MAE of volatile oil terpenes from Pterodon emarginatus was developed by Vila Verde et al. [24]. The process was optimized using experimental design and response surface methodology by evaluating the effect of time, moisture and microwave power on the extraction yield. The MAE had superior performance compared to the conventional method (steam distillation), resulting in a shorter extraction time, and higher energy efficiency, in addition to lower solvent consumption and waste generation. Regarding the terpenes profile in the extracts, the application of the microwave increased the concentration of caryophyllene, γ-muurulene, and γ-elemeno, which have important biological activities (anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial). The results obtained confirmed the efficiency and bio-sustainability of the MAE process.
Response surface methodology was also used to optimize the extraction of essential oil using solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) from the aerial parts Limnophila aromatica [20]. The optimal extraction conditions for the essential oil recovery were 700 W and 25 min. The irradiation time was the most important variable influencing the extraction, followed by the microwave power. Monoterpene hydrocarbons were the major compounds present in oils, with considerable amounts of limonene, perillaldehyde, (E)-4-caranone, (Z)-4- caranone, and α-pinene.
Microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MAHD) was applied to extract essential oil from O. vulgare L. ssp. hirtum, and the results were compared to the conventional hydro-distillation process [21]. MAHD resulted in shorter extraction times, higher extraction yields and concentration of oxygenated compounds in the extracts, besides a lower electrical consumption, when compared to the conventional process. Regarding the essential oil composition, carvacrol was the major compound.
Both MAHD and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) processes were used to extract terpenoids-rich essential oil from Tunisian Rosmarinus officinalis L [22]. Results showed that the SFME was efficient to improve the quality of the essential oil since it provided the best results, that is, lower extraction time, less energy consumption, and better chemical composition of the extracts, mainly consisting of α-pinene (42.57-35.62%), eucalyptol (64.71%), camphor (20.4%), myrtenal (7.39%) and isoborneol (9.8%).
MAHD process was used to recover a volatile hydrodistillate (essential oil) rich in monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and a small quantity of phytocannabinoids from Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences by Gunjević et al. [25]. The optimized extraction procedure had superior performance on obtaining hydrodistillate, reaching 0.35% w/w (in relation to dry inflorescence mass), while the conventional hydrodistillation method yielded 0.12% w/w. Additionally, the hydrodistilled oil was extremely rich in the characteristic Cannabis terpenes: α-pinene, β-myrcene, β-ocimene, E-caryophyllene, α-humulene, caryophyllene oxide, and β-selinene. MAHD extraction kinetics showed a progressive enrichment in monoterpenes and a decrease in sesquiterpene. Thus, the MAHD process is a promising alternative for the recovery of active cannabis compounds.
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
Ultrasound is a crucial technology in achieving the objective of sustainable extraction. Ultrasound is well known to significantly affect the rate of various processes in the chemical and food industry. Several food components and nutraceuticals, such as aromas, pigments, antioxidants, and other organic compounds have been efficiently extracted from a variety of matrices [26, 27].
The ability of ultrasound to enhance the extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds is mainly due to the cavitation phenomenon produced in the solvent by the passage of an ultrasonic wave, which intensifies mass transfer and close interaction between the solvent and the plant matrix [26, 28]. The collapse of cavitation bubbles near tissue surfaces creates microjets, leading to tissue disruption and extensive solvent penetration into the tissue structure [29].
High-power ultrasound generally can be employed using two types of devices: probe-based ultrasound equipment and an ultrasonic bath. Both systems use a transducer as a source of ultrasound power, and the piezoelectric transducer is the most commonly used in ultrasonic equipment [30].
The ultrasonic bath is the most common type of ultrasonic device consisting of a tank with ultrasonic transducers typically operating at a 40 kHz frequency. The main advantages of these devices are their low cost, availability, and capacity for processing large numbers of samples simultaneously. However, the main drawbacks are the low efficiency in delivering power directly to the sample to be extracted and the low reproducibility compared with probe systems. Additionally, the delivered intensity can be attenuated by the water in the bath and the sample container wall.
High-power ultrasonic probes are more suitable for extraction applications. The probe system is more powerful due to an ultrasonic intensity delivered through a smaller surface (tip of the probe) compared to the ultrasonic bath. These systems generally operate at around 20 kHz. The transducer is bonded to the probe, which is immersed in the extraction vessel, resulting in direct delivery of ultrasound in the solution, minimizing ultrasonic energy loss. As the intensity of ultrasound delivered by the probe to the solution induces a temperature increase, a cooling system (usually a double jacket) is required to conduct the extraction [26]. A schematic diagram of probe-type UAE equipment is presented in Fig. (2).
Important UAE parameters to be optimized are the amount and polarity of the extraction solvent, sample mass and particle size, extraction temperature and pressure, sonication time, and the ultrasound source conditions, mainly ultrasound frequency and power [19].
Although methanol and ethanol are the usual extraction solvents, the optimal solvent depends on the chemical characteristic of the bioactive compounds and the extract application. For instance, for sustainable green extraction, toxic solvent as methanol is not allowed. The extraction efficiency can be optimized by using solvents containing 10% to 50% water, depending on the type and characteristics of the samples. Additionally, performing UAE at high temperatures can enhance the extraction process efficiency since high temperatures can increase the number of cavitation bubbles in the extraction media [30].
Fig. (2)) Schematic diagram of a probe-type ultrasound-assisted extraction equipment.UAE has been widely used for the inexpensive and effective extraction of bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, from natural matrices. Next, we will present and discuss some successful applications of the UAE process to extract terpenoids from plant matrices and their wastes (Table 1).
