The Dyslexia Checklist E-Book

Sandra F. Rief

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: J-B Ed: Checklist
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2009

Seitenzahl: 352

Beschreibung

Essential advice and resources for helping kids with dyslexia The Dyslexia Checklist is a valuable guide for parents and teachers that can help them better understand children and teenagers with dyslexia and other reading- and language-based disabilities. The book relays the most current research available and is filled with practical strategies, supports, and interventions. Using these tools teachers and parents can accommodate the needs and strengthen the skills of students with reading and writing disabilities across all age levels. The book is presented in a simple, concise, easy-to-read checklist format and is filled with useful advice and information on a wide range of topics. * Explains what we now know about dyslexia from decades of research * Contains games to strengthen a child's literacy and language skills * Provides important information for hooking in reluctant and struggling readers * Offers suggestions for enhancing skills in vocabulary, comprehension, composition and written expression, spelling, math, and more The book also provides information on the educational rights of students with dyslexia.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Praise

Jossey-Bass Teacher

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Acknowledgements

About The Authors

Introduction

Chapter 1 - BASIC INFORMATION ON DYSLEXIA

Introduction

1.1 Clarifying the Terms Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities

1.2 Important Facts and General Information About Dyslexia

1.3 Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia

1.4 Decades of Research: What We Now Know About Dyslexia

1.5 Other Common Problems

1.6 Common Strengths and Positive Characteristics of People with Dyslexia

1.7 Diagnosing Dyslexia

1.8 Research -Based Intervention Programs for Struggling Readers

1.9 What Children with Dyslexia Need from Parents and Teachers

1.10 Key Instructional Components and Interventions for Students with Dyslexia

1.11 Dual or Multiple Exceptionalities (Gifted and Dyslexic)

Resources

Chapter 2 - STRATEGIES FOR HELPING WITH READING, LANGUAGE, AND WRITING

Introduction

2.1 Phonological Awareness

2.2 Systematic Phonics

2.3 Decoding Strategies

2.4 Sight Word and Irregular Word Strategies

2.5 Fluency Strategies

2.6 Vocabulary Strategies

2.7 Comprehension Strategies

2.8 Spelling

2.9 Common Writing Difficulties for Children with Dyslexia

2.10 Strategies to Help with Prewriting: Planning and Organizing

2.11 Strategies for Teaching Composition and Written Expression

2.12 Strategies to Help with Revising and Editing

2.13 Assistive Technology to Support Reading and Writing

2.14 Accommodating Reading and Writing Difficulties

2.15 Games and Activities to Strengthen Literacy and Language Skills

2.16 The Basic Spelling Vocabulary List

Resources

Chapter 3 - CHECKLISTS FOR PARENTS

Introduction

3.1 Talking with Your Child About Dyslexia and Other Learning Differences

3.2 How to Advocate for Your Child

3.3 Finding a Tutor or Educational Therapist

3.4 Building and Nurturing Your Child’s Self-Esteem

3.5 How to Help Your Child with Homework

3.6 Reinforcing Reading Skills at Home

3.7 Helping Your Child with Organization and Time Management

3.8 Strategies for Building Your Child’s Study Skills

Resources

Chapter 4 - CHECKLISTS FOR TEACHERS

Introduction

4.1 Adaptations, Accommodations, and Modifications: What’s the Difference?

4.2 How Teachers Can Help Students with Homework

4.3 Differentiating Instruction

4.4 Adaptations and Modifications of Materials

4.5 Adaptations and Accommodations in Testing

4.6 Helping Students with Organization and Time Management

4.7 Strategies to Aid Memory

4.8 Strategies for Teaching Reading in the Content Areas

Resources

Chapter 5 - OTHER IMPORTANT CHECKLISTS FOR PARENTS AND TEACHERS

Introduction

5.1 High School Students with Dyslexia

5.2 College Students with Dyslexia

5.3 Response to Intervention

5.4 Special Education

5.5 Individualized Education Plans

5.6 Section 504

5.7 National Organizations and Resources That Address Disability Issues

Resources

Index

ALSO BY SANDRA RIEF

Praise forThe Dyslexia Checklist

“The authors have compiled a very comprehensive and current list of resources for parents, teachers, and clinicians involved with the prevention and remediation of dyslexia. This is a valuable and unique contribution to the field.”

—Louisa C. Moats, EdD, nationally known authority on literacy and author of Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers

“Comprehensive and accessible. . . . The Dyslexia Checklist presents a clear delineation of areas that must be addressed in literacy instruction. Each section describes the literacy component, provides useful background information—including a solid research base for each component—and lists helpful activities that can be used to teach skills and strategies to introduce lessons and strengthen learning. Classroom teachers, learning specialists, administrators, and parents will find this straightforward guide indispensable as a resource compendium and as a professional development tool.”

—Esther Klein Friedman, PhD, director, Academic Intervention Services, New York City Department of Education

“Contains the hottest topics and information for understanding, supporting, and teaching children with dyslexia. The authors’ knowledge, practical focus, and down-to-earth strategies make this book an essential read for educators and parents.”

—William N. Bender, PhD, coauthor, Reading Strategies for ElementaryStudents with Learning Difficulties, 2nd edition and Response to Intervention:A Practical Guide for Every Teacher

“Offers educators and parents a comprehensive overview of the skills a dyslexic needs for success, plus effective strategies and techniques to empower students.”

—Jone Bycel, MS, BCET, board-certified educational therapist

Jossey-Bass Teacher

Jossey-Bass Teacher provides educators and parents with practical knowledge and tools to create a positive and lifelong impact on student learning. We offer classroom-tested and research-based teaching resources for a variety of grade levels and subject areas. Whether you are a parent, teacher, or another professional working with children in grades K-12, we want to help you make every learning experience successful.

From ready-to-use learning activities to the latest teaching framework, our value-packed books provide insightful, practical, and comprehensive materials on the topics that matter most. We hope to become your trusted source for the best ideas from the most experienced and respected experts in the field.

Copyright © 2010 by Sandra F. Rief and Judith M. Stern. All rights reserved.

Published by Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741—www.josseybass.com

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax [phone], or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax [phone], or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Permission is given for individual classroom teachers to reproduce selected pages for classroom use. Reproduction of these materials for an entire school system is strictly forbidden.

Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rief, Sandra F.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

eISBN : 978-0-470-54984-1

1. Dyslexic children—Education—United States. 2. Learning disabled children—Education—United States. 3. Dyslexic children—Education—United States—Case studies. I. Stern, Judith M. II. Title.

LC4709.R44 2010

371.91’44—dc22

2009020131

To the students who have motivated us, thecolleagues who have shared with us, andthe parents who have inspired us

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank

• Our loving and supportive families:

• Itzik, Ariel, Jackie, Jason, Maya, Gil, Sharon, and Daniella (Sandra’s)

• Uzi, Talia, Naomi, and Emma (Judith’s)

• Margie McAneny, our editor at Jossey-Bass

• The researchers in the field of dyslexia who continue to advance our knowledge about reading disabilities, how children learn, and how we can best teach them

About The Authors

Sandra F. Rief, M.A., is an internationally known speaker, teacher trainer, educational consultant, and author on effective strategies and interventions for helping students with learning disabilities and ADHD. Sandra is a popular presenter of keynote addresses, workshops, and seminars for teachers, parents, and other professionals throughout the United States and internationally. Previously an award-winning special educator (California Resource Specialist of the Year) with more than twenty-three years of teaching experience in public schools, Sandra is the author of several highly regarded books, including How to Reach and Teach Children with ADD/ADHD (2nd ed.), The ADD/ADHD Checklist (2nd ed.), and How to Reach and Teach All Children in the Inclusive Classroom (2nd ed. coauthored with Julie Heimburge). Sandra has also developed and presented several acclaimed educational DVDs, including ADHD and LD: Powerful Teaching Strategies and Accommodations (with RTI); How to Help Your Child Succeed in School: Strategies and Guidance for Parents of Children with ADHD and/or Learning Disabilities; and Successful Classrooms: Effective Teaching Strategies for Raising Achievement in Reading and Writing (with Linda Fisher and Nancy Fetzer). For more information, visit her Web site at www.sandrarief.com.

Judith M. Stern, M.A., is a teacher and educational consultant in Rockville, Maryland. She works with children who have learning and attention problems, as well as their parents and teachers. She is an experienced learning disabilities specialist, reading specialist, and classroom teacher. She consults with parents and schools and speaks nationally on learning problems, attention deficit disorder, and children’s study skills. She conducts workshops for parents, educators, and mental health professionals. She is coauthor of four children’s books on ADHD and LD, including the best-selling Putting on the Brakes: Understanding and Taking Control of Your ADD or ADHD (2nd ed.), and Many Ways to Learn: Young People’s Guide to Learning Disabilities. More information is available at www.JudithSternEducationalConsultant.com.

Introduction

We have each been in the field of teaching students with learning disabilities for more than thirty years. During this time, we have worked with students in a variety of school settings and have been privileged to teach students at a wide range of grade levels, with and without special learning needs. Our own teaching experiences, training, and work with many gifted, dedicated colleagues have taught us much about helping students with reading difficulties. Along with other educators, we continue to seek new information about developments in the field and to strengthen our skill and understanding of how to best help children with reading disabilities. As good teachers know, there is always new research to consider and there are always new methods and techniques to learn in order to better reach and teach our students.

The inspiration for writing this book comes from our firm belief in children and their ability to succeed when provided with the proper instruction, intervention, and support, as well as the tenacity of committed parents and teachers to do what it takes to help students succeed. During our years in the classroom, we have watched students struggle with written words and suddenly make the exciting reading connection. We have seen children who adamantly avoided reading become avid readers. Parents have shared their worries and stories with us as they have continually looked for ways to help their children.

Technique and methodology are very important in teaching children with dyslexia. Humor, flexibility, and an understanding of each student’s unique strengths and weaknesses are also significant in effectively teaching children with learning challenges. Students with dyslexia need the encouragement of parents and teachers, along with interventions that will enable them to achieve academic success.

A wealth of information has come to light about how children learn and the nature of reading disabilities, thanks to the work of many dedicated scientists and researchers. Newly developed reading materials, modern technology, and ongoing research continue to help those who teach students with dyslexia.

It is an exciting time to be working with students who have dyslexia, but this work places many demands on educators and parents. In this book, we have created an easy-to-use, up-to-date reference for parents, teachers, and other professionals who work with dyslexic students. Our goal is to present practical information and collect useful ideas and resources in one place. Many topics in this book lend themselves to extensive explanations. We have attempted to present as much as we can on specific topics in a concise format while encouraging the reader to explore topics further by making use of the resources that are shared throughout the book and listed at the end of each section.

We hope that you find this book to be a valuable resource, and we wish you and your children with dyslexia much success as you meet the challenges ahead.

SANDRA F. RIEF AND JUDITH M. STERN

1

BASIC INFORMATION ON DYSLEXIA

Introduction

1.1. Clarifying the Terms Dyslexiaand Learning Disabilities

1.2. Important Facts and General Information About Dyslexia

1.3. Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia

1.4. Decades of Research: What We Now Know About Dyslexia

1.5. Other Common Problems

1.6. Common Strengths and Positive Characteristics of People with Dyslexia

1.7. Diagnosing Dyslexia

1.8. Research-Based Intervention Programs for Struggling Readers

1.9. What Children with Dyslexia Need from Parents and Teachers

1.10. Key Instructional Components and Interventions for Students with Dyslexia

1.11. Dual or Multiple Exceptionalities (Gifted and Dyslexic)

Resources

Introduction

Knowledge about dyslexia continues to be updated and clarified. Research, better assessment tools, professional training, and availability of effective intervention programs all contribute to a positive outlook for today’s students with dyslexia.

An understanding of both the diagnosis and the treatment of dyslexia will help parents and educators work together with students who have the disorder to maximize students ’ school success.

1.1 Clarifying the TermsDyslexiaandLearning Disabilities

Question: My fourth-grade child was diagnosed at school as having learning disabilities. He had great trouble learning the letters of the alphabet and their sounds when he was younger. Reading is a struggle. When he reads, it is slow and very frustrating for him. His spelling is so poor, it’s hard to decipher what he writes. My friend told me it sounds like dyslexia. Could this be?

• The answer to the preceding question is yes. Dyslexia refers to a language-based learning disability in basic reading skills and spelling. The problems of children with dyslexia most commonly stem from difficulty in processing speech sounds within words and making the connection between sounds and written symbols—letters and patterns of letter combinations—that represent sounds in words.

• Most school districts throughout the United States typically do not use the term dyslexia. Some states, like Texas, now do.

• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the federal special education law, there are thirteen categories of disabilities. “Specific learning disabilities” is one of those categories. Specific learning disabilities (SLD) or learning disabilities(LD) are the terms typically used in schools.

• Learning disabilities is an umbrella term that describes specific problems with processing information and learning skills. Dyslexia is one of the disabilities that is included in learning disabilities.

• Dyslexia is the most common learning disability. Approximately 80 percent of students identified as having learning disabilities who qualify for special education have reading disabilities (dyslexia).

Definition of Dyslexia

The International Dyslexia Association (2008a) defines dyslexia as “a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge ” (adopted by the board of the International Dyslexia Association, November 2002, and the National Institutes of Health, 2002).

Commonly Accepted Descriptions of Dyslexia

• Dyslexia is a Greek word meaning “poor language.”

• Dyslexia is a language-based disorder that involves weaknesses in phonological awareness, word decoding, and the ability to do rapid naming (quickly name common items or symbols such as colors, numbers, and familiar objects) and quick recall.

• Dyslexia is a brain-based disorder that causes difficulty in using and processing linguistic (speech) and symbolic (letter) codes—that is, letter-sound correspondence.

• Primary characteristics of dyslexia include

• Difficulty in decoding individual words

• Slow, inaccurate oral reading—poor reading fluency

• Spelling weaknesses

Often, dyslexia produces difficulties in other reading and language areas such as reading comprehension, vocabulary, and written language. Individuals with dyslexia exhibit these characteristics to varying degrees, but the characteristics frequently appear in some combination.

What Are Learning Disabilities?

The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD, 2009) defines a learning disability (LD) as “a neurological disorder that affects the brain’s ability to receive, process, store and respond to information. The term learning disability is used to describe the seeming unexplained difficulty a person of at least average intelligence has in acquiring basic academic skills. These skills are essential for success at school and work, and for coping with life in general. LD is not a single disorder. It is a term that refers to a group of disorders ” (n.p.).

• Learning disabilities are neurologically based problems with processing information. These affect one or more processes of input (taking in), integrating (organizing, sequencing, remembering), and output (expression) of the information.

• The problems associated with learning disabilities interfere with one or more of the following: learning reading, writing, or math, and may affect a person’s ability to speak, listen, reason, recall, or organize information.

• Children with learning disabilities have difficulties with learning and performing particular skills, and demonstrate underachievement in certain academic areas. For those with dyslexia, the particular skill deficits and underachievement are predominantly in reading and spelling.

• Learning disabilities (including dyslexia) are called hidden disabilities because they are not visible and are not physically obvious.

• Specific learning disabilities are unexpected in relation to a child’s age and cognitive and academic abilities. One would not expect the problems the child is experiencing in learning, given his or her average or above-average intellect and other skills and abilities.

• There are school districts that, in practice, do not require average or above-average measured intelligence in order to be classified as learning disabled.

• Federal special education law (IDEA, 2004) defines a specific learning disability as “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. . . .”

• The law’s definition also states that the term specific learning disability “does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage” (United States Code [20 U.S.C. §1401 (30)]).

1.2 Important Facts and General Information About Dyslexia

• Estimates of the number of people in the United States with dyslexia vary from 5 to 17 percent of the population.

• Approximately 3 to 4 percent of students in U.S. schools receive special education services for a reading disability. Far more children who have dyslexia do not receive special education.

• Dyslexia is not caused by

• Poor parenting or lack of educational opportunities

• Poor teaching or type of reading instruction

• Environmental factors

• Visual or hearing problems

• Lack of motivation

• Dyslexia affects people all over the world.

• Dyslexia is a lifelong condition. However, intervention can have a very positive impact on a person’s ability to read and write.

• Contrary to what many people believe, children with dyslexia do not see letters and words backward. Letter reversals (b/d, p/q), as well as errors in directionality and sequencing of letters within words (was/saw, on/no), are common in young children with and without dyslexia but may be symptomatic of dyslexia after the early grades.

• Dyslexia is found in both boys and girls in similar numbers, although it is more commonly diagnosed in boys.

• Many characteristics and areas of difficulty are commonly associated with dyslexia. (See Checklists 1.3 and 1.5.) However, each person has his or her own combination of strengths and weaknesses, and the areas of weakness may vary from mild to severe.

• Early identification and intervention (that is, when a child is in kindergarten through second grade) are most effective in preventing reading problems.

• Research shows that with appropriate early intervention, 75-90 percent of children who are at-risk readers can overcome many of their difficulties and increase their reading skills to an average level.

• Although early identification and intervention provide the greatest chances for success, most children with reading disabilities are not diagnosed until they are in the middle or upper elementary grades.

• Many children, teens, and adults with dyslexia go undiagnosed, particularly those with mild degrees of dyslexia. Many fall through the cracks of their school system and never receive the specialized instruction they need to build reading competency. Remediation is more difficult as a person gets older, when remediation must be more intensive in order to overcome years of reading failure. However, it is never too late to help almost anyone with dyslexia learn to read and improve skills.

• Students with dyslexia may have been evaluated at some point but did not meet the eligibility criteria at that time for special education and related services.

• Research tells us what type of instruction is necessary for students with dyslexia and what works best in teaching them to read. (See Checklist 1.10.)

• Dyslexia is not a developmental lag that will eventually go away. Waiting to intervene does not benefit a child.

• Children as young as four or five years old who are at risk for reading problems can be identified through reliable screening measures of phonological awareness and other language-based tasks. Once diagnosed, they can receive early intervention.

• Dyslexia and other learning disabilities may coexist with conditions or disorders, such as speech and language disorders or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), that require diagnosis and intervention. It is estimated that 20-40 percent of people with dyslexia also have ADHD.

Causes

• Dyslexia is an inherited neurological condition that often runs in families because there seems to be a genetic basis for this disorder. Between one-third and one-half of children with dyslexia have a family member with dyslexia. A parent or older family member may have never been diagnosed, but the existence of dyslexia can be inferred from a lifelong history of struggle with basic reading and spelling skills.

• Research indicates that dyslexia is the result of a brain difference in the “wiring” of the neural pathways and parts of the brain that are related to language functioning and reading.

• Researchers have found that people with dyslexia may use different and less efficient parts of the brain when doing reading tasks. (See Checklist 1.4.)

Risk Factors

Reading disabilities are associated with a number of problems and risk factors:

• Academic failure and dropping out of school. (Without appropriate intervention, youth and adults with dyslexia are at much higher risk than the rest of the population.)

• Unemployment

• Underemployment (holding a job that is below a person ’s capabilities or aspirations)

• Emotional or mental health issues, such as depression, related to frustration and low self -esteem

• Other learning or social problems

• Altercations with the law. (A high number of juvenile offenders and prison inmates—60 to 80 percent—have reading problems.)

1.3 Signs and Symptoms of Dyslexia

Because children vary in their development, parents and teachers are not always sure about signs that may indicate the possibility of dyslexia. Rather than looking at individual symptoms, parents and teachers need to look for clusters of symptoms that may indicate the need for an evaluation for dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Children should be watched from early childhood on; identification and intervention at any age is preferable to no treatment at all.

Early risk factors for dyslexia include the following:

Genetics

• Family history of learning disabilities (history of reading problems in parents or siblings)

• Being adopted. (Adopted children have higher rates of learning disabilities.)

Infancy

• Low birth weight; prematurity

• Low Apgar score

• Frequent ear infections that may have affected hearing

Symptoms that may indicate the existence of a learning disability such as dyslexia include difficulties with these:

Motor or Perceptual Skills

• Fine motor skills (using scissors) or gross motor skills (hopping)

• Drawing

• Copying from board or book to paper

• Pencil grip

• Directionality (left and right, up and down)

• Recognizing differences in similar-looking letters, numerals, and words

Language Skills

• Language or speech development

• Receptive language (understanding language)

• Expressive language (ability to communicate thoughts and needs using words)

• Understanding directions

• Use of correct grammar and syntax

• Listening comprehension

• Understanding metaphors, idioms, or words with multiple meanings

• Word retrieval (ability to quickly and accurately pull words from memory)

• Fluency when expressing ideas

• Vocabulary

Early Literacy or Pre-reading Skills

• Understanding that sounds make words

• Rhyming

• Identifying the beginning, middle, and ending sounds in spoken words

• Recognizing, blending, and separating individual sounds within words

• Letter recognition (lowercase and capital)

• Learning the corresponding sounds for letters

• Awareness that we read from left to right and top to bottom of page

• Ability to read and write child’s own name

Reading

• Learning the sounds that correspond to letters and letter combinations

• Sounding out (decoding) words

• Differentiating between letters or words that look similar (p and q, there and three)

• Recognizing and remembering high frequency or sight words, words such as said, they,and she

• Accuracy (adding or omitting words or parts of words)

• Fluency (reading with ease, speed, and expression)

• Comprehension of text

• Maintaining place while reading

Writing

• Sequencing letters correctly within words

• Copying with accuracy

• Mechanics (correct use of capitalization and punctuation)

• Spelling

• Planning and organizing ideas for writing

• Expressing ideas in complete sentences

• Proofreading skills

• Legible handwriting and appropriate spacing of words

• Staying within the margins of a page and writing on the line

• Aligning numbers in columns when doing math problems

As children develop, symptoms may become more notable. With increased academic demands, problems tend to surface. Additional signs to look for include the following:

Preschool and Kindergarten

• Problems with pronouncing words correctly

• Delayed language and vocabulary development

• Difficulty in reciting the alphabet and days of the week sequentially

• Difficulty with quickly naming things (colors, shapes, familiar objects or animals) when shown pictures or objects

• Frustration with coloring, pasting, cutting with scissors

Grades 1-4

• Slowness in learning the connection between letters and sounds

• Letter reversals (b/d) and inversions (u/n)

• Lack of a systematic approach to sounding out words

• Difficulty in reading words (by sight and by decoding)

• Frustration with reading tasks

• Good comprehension of material that is read to the child as opposed to text that the child tries to read independently

• Problems with recalling facts

• Difficulty in learning math facts, especially multiplication tables

• Problems with math symbols (confuses signs of operation such as +, -)

• Problems with understanding time concepts (before, after; telling time)

• Problems in understanding directions

Grades 5-8

• Weak decoding skills; slowness in figuring out multisyllabic words

• Poor sight word vocabulary

• Difficulty in learning spelling strategies such as root words, affixes, spelling patterns

• Poor oral reading; lack of fluency

• Difficulty with word problems in math

• Problems with recalling facts

• Good self-expression orally, but not in writing

High School

• Poor spelling

• Poor written composition

• Avoidance of reading or writing assignments

• Incorrect reading of information

• Trouble with summarizing

• Poor memory skills

• Slow work speed

• Problems with organizing work and managing assignments

• Difficulty with performing in classes that have reading and writing demands

• Difficulty in learning a foreign language

See Checklist 1.5 for additional information on signs and symptoms of problems that are common in dyslexia and other learning disabilities.

1.4 Decades of Research: What We Now Know About Dyslexia

During the past twenty-five years, scientists in the field of reading have done extensive research on how children learn to read, who is at risk of developing reading problems, and interventions for those who struggle with reading. The findings have helped shed light on some causes of dyslexia and have helped define effective instruction and programs for preventing and remediating reading impairment. As researchers learn more about how the brain functions during the reading process, they develop a better understanding of differences in the brains of people with dyslexia. From these findings have come important guidelines for teaching reading effectively to children with dyslexia.

Research sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Development is the source of much of what we now understand about reading acquisition and reading disabilities. Recent research on dyslexia that is of particular interest to parents and educators is presented here. Additional information and resources can be found at the end of this section.

• There is a neurological basis for dyslexia. Dyslexia is a brain-based disorder.

• The Connecticut Longitudinal Study, led by Sally Shaywitz, was begun in 1978 in order to study how children learn to read. The researchers looked at both good and poor readers. Shaywitz (2003, p. 28), in her book Overcoming Dyslexia, noted that the study helped point out that “reading difficulties occur along a continuum,” which is important to know in diagnosing children with dyslexia as well as delivering appropriate intervention services.

• Researchers now use a technology called functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI ) in order to look at the brain at work (for example, while a subject performs a reading task). Research shows that the brain’s left hemisphere is involved in most reading activity.

• In the brain’s left hemisphere, three regions function together during the reading process.

• In the front region, phonemes are processed.

• The region of the brain behind the front region is involved in connecting sounds to the letters that represent them.

• The third region is used to store words that have been read and learned so that they can later be recognized automatically, without needing to decode sound by sound.

• Brain imaging shows differences in brain activation among good readers compared with people with dyslexia. In good readers, the back of the brain is more activated than the front of the brain during reading.

• Skilled readers make more use of the region of the brain involved in the automatic recognition of words. In poor readers, this area appears to be underactivated, so that a person with dyslexia must work harder to decode each word.

• Researchers found that when people with dyslexia performed reading tasks, the lower front region of the brain was more activated, while the back of the brain was underactivated compared to people without dyslexia.

• In people with dyslexia, there is less activation in the region of the brain involved in the phonetic decoding of words.

• Fluent reading involves activation of the back part of the brain.

• A study by Bennett Shaywitz, Sally Shaywitz, and others (2002) looked at brain activation in children with and without dyslexia as they worked on reading skills such as saying names or sounds of letters, sounding out pseudo -words, and sounding out real words.

• Children without dyslexia had more activation in areas of the brain that are typically involved in reading than did children with dyslexia.

• Children who decoded words well had greater activation in areas of the left hemisphere that are important for reading than did those who had dyslexia.

• Teaching children phonological awareness skills as well as phonics and fluency strategies helps activate the region of the brain involved in automatic word recognition.

• Research has shown that instruction in phonemic awareness and reading skills that is intense, explicit, and systematic is considered to have an impact on helping to “rewire” the brain of a person with dyslexia.

• In evaluating instructional strategies that are effective in teaching reading, researchers concluded that teachers must use assorted strategies in order to meet the varied needs of students with dyslexia. Focusing on just one area of reading, one program, or one type of teaching is less effective in helping dyslexic students improve their reading skills.

• Children in kindergarten with weak skills in phonemic awareness are at greater risk for later reading problems than their peers.

• Early identification of dyslexia is important because the brains of young children are “much more plastic . . . and potentially more malleable for the rerouting of neural circuits ” (Shaywitz, 2003).

• Scientists have identified genetic markers for dyslexia. Genetic causes are believed to be linked to about half of the risk for reading disabilities.

• Students with dyslexia commonly have problems with phonological awareness. They have difficulty segmenting words into individual phonemes. Students need direct instruction in order to develop these skills. Emphasis on this type of instruction helps to compensate for a main deficit in regard to reading ability.

• Children who are taught to distinguish the separate phonemes that make up words show growth in their reading skills.

• The National Reading Panel was formed in 1997 in order to review the research that had been done on teaching reading. The panel reviewed thousands of studies. Their recommendations, based on research conclusions about how reading should be taught, and found in their report of April 2000, included these findings:

• Phonemic awareness and systematic phonics should be taught.

• Guided oral reading is an effective strategy for increasing reading fluency. Children receive guidance and feedback as they read aloud. The goal is to train children to read efficiently and fluently.

• Children need instruction in reading comprehension techniques and application of strategies so that they will be able to understand the material they read.

More findings and recommendations from the National Reading Panel can be found at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm, http://www.reading.org/downloads/resources/nrp_summary.pdf, and throughout the checklists in Section Two.

• Remedial work in reading with children who have dyslexia, using research-based programs, helps activate areas of the brain that are involved in reading. Training in reading skills can cause changes in how areas of the brain function.

• See Checklist 1.10 for a description of the criteria established by research to be effective in teaching children to read.

1.5 Other Common Problems

Children and adults with dyslexia often have other learning disabilities and weaknesses in addition to the core difficulties with phonological processing. It is common for people with dyslexia to have coexisting disorders (such as ADHD, dysgraphia, or speech-language problems) or other related problems (such as low self-esteem). Each individual has his or her own combination of strengths and weaknesses and to varying degrees. In addition to signs and symptoms described in Checklist 1.3, difficulties may exist in some of the following areas:

• Memory:the ability to hold information in mind long enough to work with it and act on it (working memory); the recall of information recently presented (short-term memory); and retrieving information that has been stored in long-term memory. Children with learning disabilities generally have memory problems to some degree (mild to severe), which can cause diffi culty with the following:

• Remembering words and names

• Learning rote information by heart (facts or other data for a test)

• Remembering reading reading and spelling words, especially phonetically irregular or “sight words” such as was, said, because. The child may approach these like new words each time they are seen.

• Remembering and following through on teacher instructions

• Keeping ideas in mind long enough to remember what one wants to say

• Learning and being able to quickly recall math facts, particularly multiplication tables

• Memorizing lines for a play or performance

• Remembering to bring materials needed for homework and turn in assignments

• Performing math problems that require juggling numbers and information mentally while working through problems

• Written composition—holding ideas in mind long enough to manipulate them mentally and get them down on paper

• Sequencing:the ability to perceive and control a series of information. Children with learning disabilities often have problems with learning or recalling at an automatic level a sequence of letters, sounds, numbers, and other information. Students with this weakness may have difficulty with the following:

• Reading words accurately with sounds in correct sequence

• Following a series of verbal directions

• Sequencing letters or syllables correctly in a word when spelling (for example, writing “gril” for “girl” or “aminal” for “animal”)

• Skip counting (3, 6, 9, 12)

• Learning sequences such as the alphabet, months of the year, counting forward or backward

• Confusing the order of events (for example, summarizing stories in the wrong order)

• Learning phone numbers and series of numerals

• Writing in sequence, for example, writing 319 instead of 931

• Following procedures that involve a sequence of steps and directional order (for example, long division)

• Writing letters and numbers without a model to refer to (recalling the sequence of pencil strokes needed to form letters or numerals correctly)

• Executive functioning: the management functions ( “overseers”) of the brain—self-directed actions individuals use to help maintain control of themselves and accomplish goal-directed behavior. Children and teens with developmental delays in executive functions often are developmentally immature in the following areas:

• Self-management and self-regulation skills

• Working memory

• Time awareness and time management

• Planning and organizing skills (particularly for long-term assignments and projects)

• Ability to get started (activate) and begin tasks that are not intrinsically motivating

• Ability to sustain the level of attention, effort, and motivation necessary to get through difficult tasks

• Metacognition (monitoring one’s own thinking processes and learning progress, and applying “fix-up” strategies when not doing well)

• Processing speed: the rate at which information is processed. Slower processing speed has nothing to do with intelligence. It is not that someone with this problem is a “slow learner,” but that he or she processes information at a slower speed, which may cause difficulties with the following:

• Automatic word recognition and reading fluency

• Keeping up with the pace of instruction

• Responding quickly to teacher questions

• Following along in class discussions

• Word retrieval (pulling up from memory the precise words one wants to use when speaking or writing)

• Naming things rapidly and automatically

• Completing work in a timely manner (class assignments and homework)

• Writing (letter formation and handwriting, spelling, getting ideas on paper, written composition)

Motor Skills and Coordination

• Gross motor skills:skills that use the large muscles in one’s arms and legs. Children with gross motor weaknesses often have difficulty with the following:

• Running, skipping, jumping

• Athletics

• Physical coordination (clumsiness)

• Rhythm and balance

• Social situations. (Other children may reject them in play situations.)

• Fine motor skills:skills that use small muscles in the hands and fingers. Children with fine motor weaknesses often have difficulty with:

• Buttoning, zipping

• Holding and manipulating a pencil

• Handwriting

Emotional Functioning

The academic and learning struggles that a child, teen, or adult with learning disabilities faces every day take an emotional toll. It is common for individuals with dyslexia to have problems with the following:

• Low self-esteem (see Checklist 3.5)

• Low tolerance for frustration

• Stress

• Anxiety

• Acting out. (Some children would rather appear “bad” in the eyes of their peers than “dumb.”)

Common Coexisting Disorders

Many children with dyslexia have coexisting disorders that need additional intervention. Three common coexisting disorders are as follows:

• Speech disorders.Speech therapy can help remediate difficulties with:

• Articulation (pronouncing sounds in words correctly)

• Fluency (rate and rhythm of speech)

• Voice (pitch, loudness, vocal quality)

• Dysgraphia.Dysgraphia is a writing disability characterized by poor handwriting and inconsistent spacing of words on the page, difficulty writing on and within the lines and margins, awkward pencil grip and letter formation, and inconsistencies (in size, use of uppercase and lowercase letters, print and cursive), often within a single word or sentence. The physical task of handwriting becomes tedious and frustrating for individuals with dysgraphia. Children with dysgraphia may benefit from occupational therapy or school accommodations.

• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.ADHD is characterized by significant, developmentally inappropriate degrees of inattention, impulsivity, and, in some cases, hyperactivity. Children with ADHD also have executive function deficits, which is a key factor that affects school performance. They often benefit from medical or behavioral intervention as well as school supports and accommodations.

Note:We have each authored a number of books and other resources on ADHD. Visit our Web sites at www.sandrarief.com and www.JudithSternEducationalConsultant.com.

1.6 Common Strengths and Positive Characteristics of People with Dyslexia

In spite of their difficulties, children and adults with dyslexia have many strengths and positive attributes. Knowing that accomplished, highly successful dyslexic adults work in every profession and inhabit every walk of life may motivate children with dyslexia to work hard to reach their goals.

• People with dyslexia may be gifted and talented in various areas—for example, music, arts, athletics, or intellectual pursuits.

• Dyslexic individuals may show special aptitude in visual-spatial thinking or three -dimensional awareness and in professions requiring those abilities (for example, design, architecture, engineering, photography).

• Individuals with dyslexia may have strong technical and mechanical aptitude.

• People with dyslexia may have had to put extra effort into learning and managing well in life; therefore, they may be accustomed to trying hard and fighting barriers in order to achieve success.

See Checklist 1.11 on dual exceptionalities for information on how to meet the needs of children who are gifted and have dyslexia or another disability.

A number of positive characteristics are found in people with dyslexia. Individuals with dyslexia may be

• Persistent

• Innovative

• Imaginative

• Creative

• Inquisitive

• Resourceful

• Resilient

• I nventive

• Good at seeing the big picture

• Problem solvers

• “Out of the box ” thinkers with unique points of view

• Strong verbal communicators

1.7 Diagnosing Dyslexia

Determining whether a child or adult has dyslexia requires a formal evaluation (assessment) and diagnosis. This can be done privately through a qualified specialist. The school would provide an evaluation to determine if a child has a reading disability that requires special education and related services.

To be considered eligible for special education and related services in the public schools, students undergo a diagnostic process. Many public school systems are currently using a procedure called Response to Intervention to identify students with learning disabilities (see Checklists 5.3 and 5.4). When a student is found to have reading difficulties, intervention would be provided and monitored by the school. If after receiving ongoing intensive, research-based reading instruction at school, the student does not respond with improvement in reading skills, a diagnosis of specific learning disability (which includes dyslexia) may be made.

In young children, evaluating phonological processing has been found to be effective in determining who is at risk for reading and spelling problems. Students with deficits in phonological processing are seen as good candidates for intensive early intervention reading programs.

If a more complete profile of a student is needed, schools may decide to perform a psychoeducational evaluation by administering a full battery of tests. Or parents may hire a private professional to perform an evaluation outside of school.

The goal of this type of evaluation is to look closely at the various learning and cognitive issues that are present. A psychoeducational evaluation provides information about a child’s strengths and weaknesses and helps determine whether other difficulties or disabilities exist (for example, other learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, or emotional disorders). Information is collected from a variety of sources as well as from standardized testing administered individually to the child. The advantage of this type of evaluation is that it enables parents and educators to look at the overall picture in trying to understand what a child needs in both learning and home environments. Parents and educators are then able to design an intervention plan that meets the specific needs of the student.

Evaluations for learning disabilities