0,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: e-artnow
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
"The English Poetic Mind" by Charles Williams. Published by e-artnow. e-artnow publishes a wide range of titles that encompasses every genre. From well-known classics & literary fiction and non-fiction to forgotten−or yet undiscovered gems−of world literature, we issue the books that need to be read. Each e-artnow edition has been meticulously edited and formatted to boost readability for all e-readers and devices. Our goal is to produce eBooks that are user-friendly and accessible to everyone in a high-quality digital format.
Das E-Book können Sie in Legimi-Apps oder einer beliebigen App lesen, die das folgende Format unterstützen:
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
Ähnliche
The English Poetic Mind
Table of Contents
PREFACE
The following essays are based on two convictions: (1) that Troilus and Cressida is of a great deal more importance in a study of Shakespeare than has generally been allowed, (2) that the central crisis of Troilus is in direct poetic relation to the culminating crisis in Wordsworth’s account of his own history in the Prelude. From these convictions I went on to consider whether that crisis had any parallels in the work of the other English poets, and whether it might, not unreasonably, be related to the Satan of Milton, compared with the Nightingale of Keats, and contrasted with the Lancelot of Tennyson. Upon this subject it would have been possible to write a book either of five hundred or of two hundred pages; I chose two hundred with equal reluctance and decision.
I have called it the English Poetic Mind rather than the English Poetic Genius, because the word genius, in that context, might be supposed to have reference rather to ‘English’ than to ‘Poetic’; to allude to the feelings which (as Sir Arthur Quiller Couch has suggested) should be aroused in us when we stand by the tomb of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral rather than to those which are aroused by the reading of Henry V. With the patriotism of Shakespeare and Milton and the rest I have nothing to do; only with their poetry. But to omit the geographical limitation altogether would have been too bold; the present title sounds more like the tentative suggestion which the book is meant to offer.
Even so, all the English poets are not here: Chaucer, Spenser, Dryden, for example. I can only plead that two hundred pages are better than five hundred, and that to do more than is here done would have meant the five hundred: it would have had to be a full volume with notes and appendices and longer quotations and digressions and defences and explanations all complete. Aristotle on tragedy and De Quincey on power and Coleridge on poetry and everybody on Shakespeare and almost everybody on Keats would have had to come in. To the general critical intelligence of our own times I owe of course a profound debt, poorly as this study may seem to pay any of it; to the critical authority of the past a proper obedience. But on the central question of Troilus I am not conscious of owing any particular debt at all. Something of the possibility I tried to put into verse in my Myth of Shakespeare; it is here defined in prose.
Of one fact I am a little proud. The suggestions made here are quite unexclusive. Shakespeare, Milton, and Wordsworth may have been moved by any personal cause or aiming at any moral or metaphysical purpose conceivable—it does not matter, I have been concerned with the poetry only as it exists, and with its interrelation. Even the prose statements which the poets themselves made about their poetry are omitted. Criticism has done so much to illuminate the poets, and yet it seems, with a few exceptions, both of the past and the present, still not sufficiently to relate the poets to the poets, to explain poetry by poetry. Yet in the end what other criterion have we? Wordsworth’s poetry is vii likely to explain Shakespeare’s poetry much better than we can, because poetry is a thing sui generis. It explains itself by existing. There has been a great deal too much talking of what the poets mean. They also are mortal; they also express themselves badly sometimes; they also sometimes fail to discover quite finally the exact scope of their desire. We can enjoy ourselves talking about them, of course; the multitudinous printed chat of generations lies behind and around us. But criticism—is it being stupid to say that in the end the poets themselves must do that also for us? We know so little unless they tell us; we feel as they direct us; we are disordered and astray unless they govern us. Poetry is a good game—let us take it lightly. But it is also ‘liberty and power’—let us take it seriously. Ad maiorem poetarum gloriam—there is but one ascription more worthy than that, and in the tradition of Christendom it was amid a cloud of songs as well as of seraphs that the Divine Word accepted incarnation.
C. W.
I A NOTE ON GREAT POETRY
The word ‘poetry’ is generally used in one of two senses. It either means the whole mass of amusing and delightful stuff written in verse, or it is restricted to those greater lines, stanzas, or poems which are comparatively rare even in the work of the great poets. There is no certain method of deciding on these last, except by personal experience (which is not quite reliable) or by authority—the judgement of sensitive readers over many years. There is no way of discovering how the thing is done, nor exactly how a great line produces its effect. But it is to some extent possible to see what the difference is between the lesser kind of verse and the greater.
Wordsworth in the Prelude (1, 149-57), defines three things as necessary for the writing of poetry. They are (i) ‘the vital soul’, (ii) ‘general truths’, (iii) ‘external things—Forms, images’. With these possessions in himself he feels prepared for his own ‘arduous work’. The distinction exists for the reader as well. The third necessity (‘aids Of less regard’) is an obvious part of most poetry: it includes metaphors, similes, comparisons; even the story, and the persons in narrative or dramatic verse or the hypothetical speaker, the individual poet, in lyric. These things are ‘needful to build up a poet’s praise’, and at their most exquisite they play an important part in the whole. But the greatest poetry can exist without them. ‘A rose-red city, half as old as Time’ is a lovely line. It stops at being that.
‘General truths’—‘subordinate helpers of the living mind’—on the other hand, though more important, are less reliable aids: for they have a way of pretending to be the living mind, the ‘vital soul’ itself. Some of the poets—Longfellow, Tennyson, Wordsworth himself—appear occasionally to have thought they were writing poetry when they were merely communicating general truths, or what appeared to them to be so. The Excursion, as opposed to the Prelude, gives examples of this; although even the Excursion, if a reader will only accept the conditions it postulates, as he is ready to accept the plot of King Lear, may turn out to be a better poem than is often supposed. Perhaps, however, such a couplet as Hamlet’s yields the best example of general truths, which, adequately expressed, delight us almost as much by rational as by poetic strength—
Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay,
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away.
But what then is the ‘vital soul’, without which the forms and images and general truths lack something? It is ‘genius’; it is ‘poetry’. But that takes us no farther. It cannot be merely the relation of labials and gutturals, or the play of stresses and pauses. These are, in another shape, the ‘forms and images’. It cannot be the diction—however exact or unexpected; that is but a general truth. All such things are ‘subordinate helpers of the living mind’, which must itself use them for its own purpose. What does that mind do in Hyperion which it does not do in Horatius? why is Pope a greater poet than Prior or Praed?
Poetry, one way or another, is ‘about’ human experience; there is nothing else that it can be about. But to whatever particular human experience it alludes, it is not that experience. Love poetry is poetry, not love; patriotic poetry is poetry, not patriotism; religious poetry is poetry, not religion. But good poetry does something more than allude to its subject; it is related to it, and it relates us to it.
Through the sad heart of Ruth when, sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn:
those lines relate us to an experience of exile. They awake in us a sense of exile; more accurately, a realization of our own capacity for enduring exile.
Let this immortal life, where’er it comes,
Walk in a cloud of loves and martyrdoms;
that awakes in us—not certainly love and sacrifice, or love and sacrifice would be easier things than they seem to be. But it does awake a sense that we are capable of love and sacrifice. It reminds us of a certain experience, and by its style it awakes a certain faculty for that experience. We are told of a thing; we are made to feel as if that thing were possible to us; and we are so made to feel it—whatever the thing may be, joy or despair or what not—that our knowledge is an intense satisfaction to us; and this knowledge and this satisfaction are for some period of time complete and final; and this knowledge, satisfaction, and finality are all conveyed through the medium of words, the concord of which is itself a delight to the senses. This sensuous apprehension of our satisfied capacities for some experience or other is poetry of the finest kind.
Lesser verse does not do so much. It may remind us that we have some capacity or other, but it does not communicate a delighted sense of it, nor therefore can it join that sense to the equally delighted sense of words. The Armada is, in its way, an exciting and pleasing piece of writing. But it does not arouse in us a sense of our capacity for staunch patriotism; it excites by reminding us that there is a capacity for staunch patriotism.
Bolingbroke in Richard II talks very beautifully about exile. But we are much more inclined to think as we read, ‘That is how I should like to talk if I were ever exiled’; we are reminded of our capacity for beautifully expressing our grief at exile rather than of our capacity for suffering exile—that is with Ruth more than with Bolingbroke. Horatius confronting Lars Porsena, FitzJames confronting Roderick Dhu, do not convey a sense of man’s capacity for heroism; they at most remind us that man has a capacity for heroism.
Round turned he, as not deigning
Those heathen ranks to see;
Naught spake he to Lars Porsena,
To Sextus naught spake he.
How jolly to behave like that! The pretence of such behaviour is agreeably invoked by those admirable lines. For they are, in their degree, admirable; it is another, and a moral, question how far we allow them to deceive us: they do not try to. They thrill us, and thrills are good, only one cannot live by thrills. But
So spake the Seraph Abdiel, faithful found,
Among the faithless faithful only he;
Among innumerable false unmoved,
Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified.
It would not be so easy to behave like that. Our capacity for heroism is stirred—or at least our desire for, our recognition of, that capacity. But can we desire or recognize something of which we are entirely incapable? ‘Hadst thou not found me, thou couldst not be seeking me’, said Christ to one of the mystics; and the same thing is true of the faculties awakened by poetry.
Certainly this awakening, this communication, is rather a result than a motive. Tolstoy declared that art existed wherever there was a conscious communication of emotion. Tolstoy was a great man and a great novelist; but we must not stress that admirable definition as if the poet primarily, in the very definition of his work, demanded an audience. If it is so, then our sensation that the great things of poetry exist purely and simply in their own right, and independently of man, is false. It may be; sensations are doubtful things and prove nothing unless we choose that they shall. But, putting that choice aside, it is surely true that the chief impulse of a poet is, not to communicate a thing to others, but to shape a thing, to make an immortality for its own sake. He often writes from other motives, no doubt; Pope probably wished to communicate his emotions about Addison, and Shelley his about the death of Keats. But did Keats really want first of all to communicate his emotions about a Nightingale? or Shakespeare his about Macbeth? Did Shakespeare primarily want to make us feel what a murderer’s heart was like? It is inconceivable; he primarily wanted that heart to be.
Certainly if no one, no one ever, reads a poet, if no one cares for him, he may leave off writing. But that is the weakness of his nature, as Milton said. Fame is ‘the last infirmity of noble mind’. Infirmity. But a poet might be content to communicate anonymously? Even so, he wants his work to produce a social effect. Does the poet, qua poet, care whether his work has a social effect? Incredibile; nec crediderim nisi Tolstoy—and not even then.
But, leaving this dispute and returning to the nature of poetry, we come to a further division. If it is true that the minor poets describe heroism or love or exile or what not, and the major poets arouse in us an actual sense of our own faculties for heroism and love and exile, what of the greatest? If the Marlowes are greater than the Macaulays, why are the Miltons greater still? What is it that makes us instinctively introduce the idea of relative values?
In so far as the poets can be hierarchized, it can only be done by two classifications (i) quantity, (ii) quality. The smallest poet who has written one good line—say, Dean Burgon, with his ‘rose-red city’—is, so far, equal to any other poet who has written a good line—even Shakespeare. He arouses in us a capacity of enjoying a particular picture, by placing a picture before us which we do actually enjoy. It is delightful to have such a thing in our minds—and that is that. We are obliged—deeply obliged—by the Dean, but if he can only provide us with one picture whereas some other poet can provide us with twenty, we must regard the second poet as more important for us; unless we have a peculiar passion for rose-red cities.
But quality is more important, and the question of quality very soon becomes a question of complexity. Of the development of that poetic complexity this book is meant to be a small consideration, and there is no need to forestall it here. The rose-red city becomes inhabited by human emotions, and its poetry disappears under the stress of theirs. In turn the single poignant utterances give place to lines which sum up states of involved experience. Such lines may in themselves appear to draw nearer to or to pass farther from the complexity which they describe. But either way they are aware of it, whether in increase or decrease. The decrease is a decrease from something that has been. Neither increase nor decrease is better than the other; they are merely two poetic methods of dealing with very profound and almost universal apprehensions of our faculties of experience. ‘Absent thee from felicity awhile’ is a very great and complex line; it has two worlds of experience in it; it calls up the whole idea of, the whole of our capacity for, felicity only to meet it with our capacity for rejection, and it unifies, it prolongs, both ideas in the ‘awhile’. If Hamlet had been asking Horatio to reject felicity for ever, if he had wanted him to be quite final about it, we should have had a very different line, and one which implied a decrease of complexity. ‘Life is a tale... signifying nothing’ tends towards a decrease of complexity. But it must be allowed also that it implies the complexity it leaves behind; the word ‘signifying’ with its multitudinous associations does that. Compare the words ‘awhile’ and ‘nothing’ and you have the two different states towards which the 8 greatest poetry tends. Satan in Paradise Lost remains a highly charged and complex figure. But Lear is becoming a transmuted and simple figure.
Our capacities then for some sort of general experience of the world are awakened by the greater masters. As far as poetry is concerned it does not matter what that capacity is: Macbeth is as poetically effective as Samson. Both express our sense of a faculty for taking in many experiences as a whole, for knowing and enjoying them, for knowing and enjoying them in the exquisite sensuous delight of words. Anybody who can cause us to do that is a great poet.
II ‘THE GROWTH OF A POET’S MIND’
There is in English poetry only one long study of the poetic mind. That study is the Prelude or the Growth of a Poet’s Mind. ‘A Poet’ to most readers means Wordsworth; to Wordsworth himself it would certainly have meant Wordsworth. But in the course of that account he describes at least one crisis which has been treated, in a very different way, both by Shakespeare and Milton, which has been approached by other poets and avoided by yet others. It seems worth while, therefore, to note once more, very briefly, the chief points in that growth and development, in order that its most important moment may be kept clearly in mind. Most of the books upon the Prelude consider it in relation to Wordsworth, and Wordsworth too often in relation to Nature, the sensationalist philosophy, Godwinism, and mysticism. He is comparatively rarely considered as a poet whose value lies in, and only in, the poems he writes—not in what he means by them. The Prelude has yet to be fully considered in relation to general poetry, and that would probably best be done by an edition of the poem annotated for that purpose with parallel passages from other poets. The present quotations are rather reminders of themselves than evidence of any theory. Wordsworth wrote the Prelude as a prelude, an account of his own preparation for what he was about to do; it was to invigorate him, to ‘fix the wavering balance’ of his mind, to ‘spur’ him on. It is therefore largely 10 an account of his own experiences, and those experiences were for him ‘Nature’ and Man. He was inclined to stress the necessity of ‘Nature’ for poets; he sympathizes with Coleridge for not having had his own advantages, for being ‘debarred from Nature’s living images’, and regrets that his influence had not soothed Coleridge’s youthful unhappiness. But the times at which Wordsworth’s own personal opinions enter into the Prelude are fairly clear, and we need not take those periods too seriously. The authority of poetry is only present when great poetry is present; poetry in the Prelude is never far away, but it is not always active.
It is Wordsworth’s personal opinion—he offers it as his ‘best conjecture’—that the poetic spirit is natural to every man. The passage in the 1805-6 version is more metaphysical than in the 1850. There it is explained that the Babe, gathering ‘passion from his Mother’s eye’, is eager to combine ‘in one appearance’ all the apparently detached elements and parts of ‘the same object’. The baby, one gathers, having vaguely realized that his mother is unity, is anxious to recognize unity in every object. This ‘conjecture’ Wordsworth afterwards removed, but it remains of interest for it suggests how the sensational apprehension of completeness in one being excites the poetic mind to see such a completeness in other separate objects. Each one is separate, yet each is complete, each is a whole. This is the first small result of that power which works afterwards to create in poetry ‘Composure and ennobling Harmony’.
Secondly, from its sense of its mother, from its 11 ‘most apprehensive habitude’, and from the ‘sensations which have been derived’ from its knowledge of its mother—from all these the baby derives ‘a virtue which irradiates and exalts’ all other objects. Its mind already works ‘in alliance’ with the works which it beholds; it is at once creator and receiver. It is these two characteristics which mark the small poet—(a) its passion for unifying (b) its powers and quickness to co-operate with ‘the active universe’. But this ‘first poetic spirit’ is, in most, afterwards ‘abated or suppressed’; in some it is ‘pre-eminent till death’. These last presumably are the poets—the poets and the poetry to whom Wordsworth so often applies the words ‘Powers’ and ‘Power’. For example: of books and their writers (v. 218),
speak of them as Powers
For ever to be hallowed;
Of words in tuneful order (v. 556),
sweet
For their own sake, a passion, and a power;
Of the shell that was poetry (v. 107),
The other that was a god, yea, many gods,
Had voices more than all the winds, with power;
and so also (v. 595):
Visionary power
Attends the motions of the viewless winds,
Embodied in the mystery of words.
Of imagination (vi. 592)
here the Power so called,
Through sad incompetence of human speech,
That awful Power, rose from the mind’s abyss:
and there are other instances.
This Power, Wordsworth held, was of the first importance to man. He left the statement unaltered, or, if anything, slightly enforced, through all the modifications of the Prelude. Some things he unsaid, but that he never unsaid. In Book V is the vision of the Arab, carrying geometry and poetry, escaping on a camel from the deluge and the floods that are to destroy mankind; and to this vision Wordsworth says that he often deliberately returned, consciously changing the Arab to a ‘gentle dweller in the desert’, seized with a noble madness; consciously regarding him and his quest of salvation for poetry with reverence, and identifying himself with him. In such a madness, such a dream, is reason. There are enough people on earth to take in charge
Their wives, their children, and their virgin loves,
Or whatsoever else the heart holds dear.
Wordsworth himself, in such a catastrophe will, with his own dreamed fanatic, abandon everything else to save poetry.
This, for the solemn, the conventional, Wordsworth is pretty good going; and might make us wonder whether we have not overmuch subdued that violent young poet who wrote ‘we murder to dissect’. But it fits in very well with the continual use of the word ‘power’. It is in that power which is poetry that ‘darkness makes abode’; it is in poetry that ‘forms and substances’
through the turnings intricate of verse
Present themselves as objects recognized,
In flashes, and with glory not their own.
In the first version he had written ‘scarce their 13 own’; he gave to poetry in the last version a complete dominion. ‘Woods and rills’, ‘fountains, meadows, hills and groves’, are not to speak to us in poetry with their own authority. Wordsworth in fact was not ever writing a child’s primer of Nature-mysticism; he left that to his commentators. He was himself concerned with the Nature ‘that exists in works of mighty poets’, with glory not its own.
It is then to such a future that the baby (already
powerful in all sentiments of grief
Of exultation, fear and joy)
is introduced. In certain fortunate cases, in the poets, this ‘sensibility’ is augmented and sustained, and the two great fostering virtues are ‘beauty and fear’. These two themes run all through the Prelude, though for beauty is more often substituted the word joy. But it is a joy which is caused by beauty. And fear is, in Wordsworth, an emotion absolutely necessary to the poet’s development: he stresses it continually. When he is speaking of the modern child, whom he did not like, he complains that
natural or supernatural fear,
Unless it leap upon him in a dream,
Touches him not.
It is not a mere physical fear; it is indeed something which precludes this lesser terror. The example which he gives is his own experience, at the age of eight, when he saw the body of a dead man drawn up from Esthwaite Lake, ‘a spectre shape Of terror’. But he, whose ‘inner eye’ had often seen such things before, in fairy-tales and romances, was unsubdued, and beheld it patterned and harmonized, decorated 14 with ‘ideal grace’, and dignified as if already in poetry.
The kind of fear which he believed the young mind ought to undergo, and from which he thought modern education was separating it by over-anxious vigilance, protection, and instruction, is described in the two most famous passages of the First Book. The one tells how, after he had stolen a trapped bird from some one else’s snare, he heard
Low breathings coming after me, and sounds
Of undistinguishable motion, steps
Almost as silent as the turf they trod.
The second is when he had (again!) stolen some one else’s boat, rowed out on the lake, and seen the huge peak, ‘as if with voluntary power instinct’.
After I had seen
That spectacle, for many days, my brain
Worked with a dim and undetermined sense
Of unknown modes of being; o’er my thoughts
There hung a darkness, call it solitude
Or blank desertion. No familiar shapes
Remained, no pleasant images of trees,
Of sea or sky, no colours of green fields;
But huge and mighty forms, that do not live
Like living men, moved slowly through the mind
By day, and were a trouble to my dreams.
The second passage is an enlargement of the first, and they are both great poetry. The poetic mind is aware of ‘low breathings’, ‘sounds of undistinguishable motion’, ‘unknown modes of being’, ‘huge and mighty forms’. It is the pressure of the genius on the outer consciousness; this also perhaps is common to men.
But the poets are not content to leave it at that, as the rest of us largely have to do. An undetermined sense of unknown modes of being may be with them at their commencement, as with all of us. The difference in our developments is between those who lose that sense altogether (this is probably what is called ‘losing one’s early illusions’), those who keep it but cannot of themselves deal with it (among these are perhaps most of the readers of poetry), and those who are able to do something about it—and these are the poets. For their business is to discover and express, more and more exactly, more and more powerfully, those unknown modes of being. They work towards ‘the two great ends of Liberty and Power’. Between those two passages are lines which may well have a secondary relation to the growing poetic genius.
Dust as we are, the immortal spirit grows
Like harmony in music; there is a dark
Inscrutable workmanship that reconciles
Discordant elements, makes them cling together
In one society.
This is precisely the achievement of the great poets; in each of them discordant elements are united in one society by the inscrutable workmanship of their genius, and the society is the style.
But in the earlier period this unison is not yet consciously present. All things have the character ‘of danger or desire’.
The surface of the universal earth
With triumph and delight, with hope and fear,
works ‘like a sea’. For Wordsworth it was ‘the 16 Presence of Nature’ which brought this about, but it need not be only his kind of Nature to which such a disturbance is due; cities and men may produce it also.
