The Handbook of Applied Communication Research E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Handbooks in Communication and Media
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2900

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

An authoritative survey of different contexts, methodologies, and theories of applied communication

The field of Applied Communication Research (ACR) has made substantial progress over the past five decades in studying communication problems, and in making contributions to help solve them. Changes in society, human relationships, climate and the environment, and digital media have presented myriad contexts in which to apply communication theory. The Handbook of Applied Communication Research addresses a wide array of contemporary communication issues, their research implications in various contexts, and the challenges and opportunities for using communication to manage problems. This innovative work brings together the diverse perspectives of a team of notable international scholars from across disciplines.

The Handbook of Applied Communication Research includes discussion and analysis spread across two comprehensive volumes. Volume one introduces ACR, explores what is possible in the field, and examines theoretical perspectives, organizational communication, risk and crisis communication, and media, data, design, and technology. The second volume focuses on real-world communication topics such as health and education communication, legal, ethical, and policy issues, and volunteerism, social justice, and communication activism. Each chapter addresses a specific issue or concern, and discusses the choices faced by participants in the communication process. This important contribution to communication research:

• Explores how various communication contexts are best approached
• Addresses balancing scientific findings with social and cultural issues
• Discusses how and to what extent media can mitigate the effects of adverse events
• Features original findings from ongoing research programs and original communication models and frameworks
• Presents the best available research and insights on where current research and best practices should move in the future

A major addition to the body of knowledge in the field, The Handbook of Applied Communication Research is an invaluable work for advanced undergraduate students, graduate students, and scholars.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Volume 1

List of Contributors

The Promise of Applied Communication Research

Viewpoints

An Eclectic Perspective on ACR

Applied Communication Research—Practice

Goal of the Book

References

Part 1: Theoretical Perspectives

1 Inoculation Theory as a Strategic Tool

Introduction

Overview of Inoculation Theory

Contextual Application

Inoculation Message Design

Conclusion

References

2 Addressing Life Transitions of Aging

Indigenous Theory: Kaumātua Mana Motuhake

Communication (and Related) Theory

The Tuakana‐Teina/Peer Educator Program

Implications and Future Directions

References

3 Connecting Attitudes and Motivating Behavior

Vested Interest Theory

Recent Theoretical Developments

VIT in Applied Contexts

Future Directions in Theory Development

Conclusion

References

4 A Comparative Analysis of Theoretical Propositions Focusing on Apologia

Situational Crisis Communication Theory

Image Repair/Image Restoration

SCCT and Image Repair Applied

Future Directions

References

5 Applying Social Marketing Strategy to Social Change Campaigns

Introduction

Overview of Social Marketing and Definition

Contextual Application

Designing and Implementing a Social Marketing Campaign Strategy

Conclusion

References

6 Engaged Communication Scholarship

Engaged Communication Inquiry

References

7 The Role of Negative Emotions in Applied Communication Research

Fundamentals of Emotion

Theories of Affect

Anger

Fear

Guilt

Conclusion

References

Part 2: Media, Data, Design, and Technology

8 Adventures in “Big Data” Application in Strategic Applied Communication Research, Theory, and Method

Introduction

What Are Data?

Data Sets

Problems Associated with HDBD and CGBD Data Sets

HDBD and CGBD Case Studies

Addressing Applied Communication CGBD

Review

References

9 Serious Games as Communicative Tools for Attitudinal and Behavioral Change

Introduction

Games as Communicative Tools for Intervention and Change

Mechanisms Underlying the Effects of Serious Games

Considerations for the Design and Evaluations of Serious Games

Conclusion

References

10 Leveraging Social Media for Applied Problems

Social Media and Big Data

Surveillance Dashboards for Data Analytics

SMART Case Studies

Conclusions

References

11 Exploring Applied Practices in Entertainment Marketing

Product Placements: An Overview

Concluding Remarks

References

12 Enhancing Public Resistance to “Fake News”

Defining and Understanding “Fake News”

Motivations and Dimensions of “Fake News”

Impact of “Fake News”

Public Susceptibility

Efforts to Combat “Fake News”

Inoculation as Antidote to “Fake News”

Conclusion

References

13 Data Visualization for Health and Risk Communication

Introduction

Research on Data Visualization

Relevant Theoretical Frameworks

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

14 Visual Communication as Knowledge Management in Design Thinking

What Is Design Thinking?

Design Thinking in Reality

Knowledge Management within Design Thinking

Visual Communication within Design Thinking Tools

Conclusion

References

Part 3: Organizational Communication

15 Communication Technology and Organizational Life

Theories Guiding Applied Technology and Work Research

Workers and Communication Technology Use at Work

Applied Communication and Big Data in Organizations

Future Directions

References

16 Understanding Maxcers

Academic Research: From Opinion Leaders to Maxcers

Industry Work: How Are Influencers Identified in the Real World?

Strategies for Using Influencer Feedback in Marketing Research

The Maxcer Strategy for Identifying Key Influencers

Maxcer Pilot Study

Conclusion

References

17 The Intersections of Organizations, Health, and Safety

High Reliability Organizations

Designing Interventions in/for HROs

Case: Firefighters and Cancer Reduction—Clean Gear as the New Badge of Honor

Practical Issues and Challenges

Future Directions

Conclusion

References

18 Anticipatory Model of Crisis Management and Crisis Communication Center (CCC)

Crisis Communication Center

Anticipatory Model of Crisis Management

The CCC's Role in Research Translation

CCC as Intermediary

Recommendations

Implications

Conclusion

References

19 Communication Challenges of Volunteers

Communication Challenges of Volunteers

Background on Volunteering

Volunteers' Movement In and Out of Volunteer Roles

Discussion

References

20 Towel Cards Revisited

Introduction

Defining Environmental Communication

A Short History of Corporate Environmentalism

Sociological Approaches in the Study of Towel Cards

Psychological Approaches in the Study of Towel Cards

Conclusion

References

Part 4: Risk and Crisis Communication

21 Discourse of Renewal

Discourse of Renewal

Applications of Discourse of Renewal

Challenges and Course Corrections

Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions

References

22 Visual Framing of Conflict and Terrorism in the MENA Region

Visual News Research

Visual Framing

Visuals of Risk and Crisis in the Middle East

Conclusion

References

23 Revisiting the Best Practices in Risk and Crisis Communication

Best Practices in Risk and Crisis Communication

Case Study Methodology

Analysis and Discussion

Recommendations

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

24 Evolving Coverage of Risk in the Mass and Social Media

The Role of the Media

Mass Media Risk Coverage

The Internet and the Emergence of Social Media Coverage of Risk

An Example of Evolving Media Coverage of Radiation and Nuclear Accidents

Conclusion

References

25 Terror Management Theory Perspectives on Applied Communication Research

Terror Management Theory

Hypotheses

Terror Management Processes and the Need to Belong

The Anxiety‐Buffering Function of Close Attachments

Self‐Construal and Distal Terror Management Defense

Terror Management Theory and Prosocial Behaviors

Future Applications

Conclusion

References

26 The Consequences of Risk Amplification in the Evolution of Warning Messages during Slow‐Moving Crises

Hurricane Warning Messages

Method

Analysis

Conclusions

Implications

Summary

References

27 Psychological Reactance and Persuasive Message Design

Psychological Reactance, Self‐Determination, and Autonomy

Measurement

Health Communication Applications

Conclusion

References

Volume 2

List of Contributors

Applied Communication Research

An Engaging Process

Engaged Scholarship

Organization

References

Part 5: Education and Instructional Communication

28 Effective Superintendents

Public Education in the United States

Challenges Faced by Superintendents

Superintendent Role Characteristics

Redesigning Organizational and Social Architecture of School Districts

Future Directions

References

29 Narrativity in Instructional Communication

Narrativity in Human Communication

What Is a Narrative?

Stories and Narratives in Instructional Communication

Nature of Knowledge and Curriculum

Narrativity in Subject Instruction

Mathematics

Science

Persuasive Power of Narratives

Narrative Nature of Knowledge Construction

Identity Narratives in Instruction

Conclusion and Discussion

References

30 How Data Guides Communication Within Democratic Organizational Change

Democratic Organizations

Democratic Decision Making

Applied Communication

The K20 Model for Democratic Organizational Change

Implications and Contributions

References

31 Communication Challenges of Creating Personalized, Learner‐Centered Instruction

Introduction

Rationale and Challenges

Teacher Researcher's Perspective

Creating Personalized, Learner‐Centered Classrooms

Method and Data

Writing an Autoethnography

Findings

Reflections

Summary

References

32 The Power of Application in Learning Life Skills

Game‐Based Learning

Engaging Learners in Real‐World Experiences

The Value of Life Skills: Financial Literacy

Financial Literacy Education

Mind Your Own Budget

Method

Results

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Part 6: Legal, Ethical, and Policy Issues

33 Communication Ethics as a Foundational Construct in Applied Communication Theory, Research, and Practice

Defining Parameters

Virtue

Utilitarianism—Consequences

Deontology—Principles

Future Research & Problematic Challenges for Ethics in Applied Communication

Conclusions from a Macro View: An Organizational Commitment to Ethics

References

34 Paternity Leave

Communication Theory of Identity

(

CTI

)

Methods

Results

Discussion

Limitations and Future Directions

Conclusion

References

35 The Role of Popular Film in Fraternity Recruitment

Scheduling Greek Rush

Cost

Secrecy

Brief Overview of America's Greek System

The Questions and Answers Informing This Study

Analysis of Each Film's Moral Judgment of Fraternities

Two Possible Readings of These Frat Films

Six Recurring Campus Lessons from the Top 10 Frat Films

Conclusion

References

36 Sexual Harassment, Communication, and the Bystander

Sexual Harassment as a Legal Phenomenon

Sexual Harassment and Bystander Intervention: Setting an Agenda for the Next Generation of Scholars

Bystander Intervention Model

Engaging Culture

Emotions and Sexual Harassment

Constructive/Destructive Bystander Behaviors

Conclusion

References

37 Policy Communication

Theories and Methods

Central Issues

Pragmatic Implications

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

38 Applied Deception Detection

Defining Deception

Definitions of Deception Detection

Contexts and Applications

Deception Prevalence and Motives

Theories of Deception Detection

Review of Literature

Lie Detection Training

Practical Implications

Future Directions

Summary

References

Part 7: Strategies of Hope

39 Autoethnography as Applied Communication Research

Historical Context: Why Autoethnography?

The Human Sciences as Moral, Political, and Narrative

Toward a Poetic Science

Origins

Autoethnography and Applied Communication Research

A Synopsis of Autoethnographic Literature

Exemplar I: Microaggressions (Tony)

Exemplar II: Academic Practices (Arthur)

Conclusion

References

40 Communication Activism for Social Justice Research

Communication Activism Research Principles and Practices

Communication Activism Empirical Research

Communication Activism Research Studies

Conclusion

References

41 Rawabi

Introduction

Humans as Creators of Stories and Narratives

Rawabi

Method

Analysis

Findings

Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

Appendix A: Rawabi Interview Questions

42 Belonging in Practice

Social Support and Social Networks

CoP Theory Framework

Conclusion

References

43 Design and Interactional Challenges of Informal Justice Practices in the US

Brief Overview of Informal Justice

Grounded Practical Theory and Design Theory

The Practice of Small Claims Courts

The Practice of Mediation (in Small Claims Courts)

The Practice of Restorative Justice (in a University)

Reflections about Informal Justice

Proposals for Future Research and Development of the Practices

References

44 Storytelling and Progressive Action

Case Histories of Passion Works and Turn it Gold

An Overview of Narrative Sensibilities

A Model of Engaged Scholarship

Inquiry Practices

Concluding Reflections

References

Appendix A: WOUB consent form

Part 8: Health Communication

45 Meeting the Challenges of Communication and Uncertainty in Medical Care

The Importance of Communication and Uncertainty in Medical Care

Change and Continuity in Illness and Medical Care

Centering Communication and Uncertainty in Understanding Illness and Medical Care

An Agenda for Future Research

Conclusions

References

46 Obesity‐Related Health Information Sharing and Receiving Between Midlife Adults and Their Adult Children and Aging Parents

Health Information Sharing

Intergenerational Health Information Sharing

Health Information Receiving

Intergenerational Health Information Receiving

Potential Negative Outcomes Associated with Health Information Sharing and Receiving

Health Information Sharing and Receiving in Additional Dyadic Relationships

Conclusions

References

47 New Technologies and Health Communication

New Communication Technologies and Health Interventions

Mobile (M)Health Technologies and Health Communication

Social Media, Social Support Communities, and Health Outcomes

Challenges and Future Directions for New Technology and Applied Health Communication Research

Conclusion

References

48 The Effects of Media and Technology on Provider–Patient Interaction and Health Outcomes

Introduction

The Evolving Health Media and Technology Environment

The Evolving Provider–Patient Relationship

Media and ICTs in the Provider–Patient Interaction

Conclusion

References

49 Evidence‐Based Communication in Clinical, Mass Media, and Social Media Contexts to Enhance Informed Consent for Participation in Clinical Trials and Precision Medicine Initiatives

Introduction

Interventions to Improve Clinical Trial Accrual

Channels for the Delivery of Recruitment Messages

Precision Medicine: An Unprecedented Communication Challenge

Ethical Considerations in Clinical Trial Communication

Future Research

Conclusion

References

50 The Communicative Ecology of End of Life Care

Introduction

Ecological Model of EOL Communication

Toward Improving Communication

Conclusion

References

51 Air Pollution and Health in China

Introduction

Characterizing Risks and Crises Warning Messages

Distinguishing Environmental and Health Risks

Case Study: Air Pollution as an Environmental Hazard and Serious Health Risk

Implications

Recommendations

References

52 Converging Innovations in Health Communication and Public Health

Introduction

Individual‐Level Analysis: Assumptions and Limitations

A Modern Applied Health Communication Perspective Addresses Three Conditions: The Example of Community Structure Theory

The Contribution of an SDH Perspective from Public Health

Social Inequality: A Central Focus of the Social Determinants of the Health Approach

Focusing on a Specific Social Determinant of Health: Social Capital

Cross‐National Indicators: Measuring Social Capital at Individual and Collective Levels

How Health Communication Can Promote Social Capital

Concrete Recommendations for Change

References

53 The Emerging Area of E‐health Communication Research

The Emergence of E‐health Communication Inquiry

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 0v1

Table I.1 Volume 1 Chapter Synopses.

Chapter 0v2

Table I.1

Volume II Chapter Synopses.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Data sets.

Table 8.2 Creating a CGBD case.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Descriptions of analytics in

Social Media Analytics and Research Te

...

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Correlations between identification and similarity with media char...

Table 11.2 Correlations between similarity with media character and eye fixat...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Comparison of properties of tacit versus explicit knowledge (Dalki...

Table 14.2 Typology of knowledge visualizations applied to design thinking st...

Table 14.3 Definition and application of communication values.

Table 14.4 Knowledge visualization methods by communicative value.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Theories helpful to guide applied communication research on ICTs a...

Table 15.2 Applied research topics in personal communication technology use a...

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Behavioral

Maxcer Quotient

(

MQ

) elements and their conceptual and o...

Table 16.2 Cluster analysis results from study.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Move structure of towel cards.

Table 20.2 Four types of appeal in towel cards.

Table 20.3 Revised towel cards (new types of appeals).

Chapter 31

Table 31.1 Findings and supporting epiphanies.

Chapter 32

Table 32.1 Sample items on the Financial Literacy Inventory.

Table 32.2 Results from paired t‐tests for pretest and posttest scores for th...

Chapter 35

Table 35.1 Top 10 films and their IMDb ranking.

Table 35.2 Six recurring themes.

Table 35.3 Coding chart of fraternity parties and hazing.

Chapter 39

Table 39.1 Autoethnography and applied communication.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Community‐based participatory research

(CBPR) conceptual mo...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Space–time system in time geography.

Figure 10.2 Individual and collective space–time paths of migration history ...

Figure 10.3 The Social Media Analytics and Research Testbed (SMART) system d...

Figure 10.4 The server‐ and client‐side technological frameworks of the SMAR...

Figure 10.5 The web‐based user interface of the SMART Dashboard 2.0 (The exa...

Figure 10.6 Comparing the SMART filtered flu tweeting trend (weekly) with CD...

Figure 10.7 The SMART Dashboard for monitoring Hurricane Harvey in Houston i...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 A priori codes for content analysis.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Seven types of mis‐ and disinformation.

Figure 12.2 Imposter tweet.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Examples of graphical displays.

Figure 13.2 Interactive map for rate of new cancers in the United States....

Figure 13.3 Interactive data visualization for promoting HPV vaccination des...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 The process of design squiggle (Newman, 2009).

Figure 14.2 Frequency of the term “knowledge management” found in printed bo...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Maxcer concepts.

Figure 16.2 Mincer concepts.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1

Anticipatory model of crisis management

(

AMCM

).

Figure 18.2

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(

CDC

)

knowledge to ac

...

Figure 18.3 Conceptual framework for translation research in occupational sa...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Visual strategy in towel cards: representation of nature..

Figure 20.2 Visual strategy in towel cards: representations of hotel guests ...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Essential guidelines for ongoing risk and crisis communication....

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 Hurricane Irma horror story.

Figure 26.2 Comparison with Hurricane Harvey.

Figure 26.3 Prediction uncertainty.

Figure 26.4 Accepting fate.

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Rationale for adopting logic models for school improvement.

Figure 30.2 PLANS logic model 6‐stage process.

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Creating epiphanies.

Figure 31.2 Word cloud.

Chapter 32

Figure 32.1 Budget screen, the player sets a budget every four weeks.

Figure 32.2 Home screen where the player can monitor time, money, and comfor...

Figure 32.3 A life event screen, in this case showing the kind of insurance ...

Figure 32.4 MYOB offers a wide variety of experiences that mimic those in re...

Figure 32.5 The player can compare credit cards as well as acquire other fin...

Figure 32.6 Players can affect their comfort level by improving the default ...

Figure 32.7 The ledger helps the player monitor the budget and identify frau...

Figure 32.8 Monthly feedback allows the player to identify problematic budge...

Figure 32.9 Mean posttest scores on the Financial Literacy Inventory, contro...

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1 An overview of ethical theories for use in applied communication...

Figure 33.2 A summary of deontological ethical theory and the main construct...

Chapter 36

Figure 36.1 Bystander intervention model.

Chapter 44

Figure 44.1 Storytelling and progressive action: A model of engaged scholars...

Figure 44.2 Student developed visualization for Turn it Gold.

Figure 44.3 Student developed visualization for Turn it Gold.

Figure 44.4 Storefront in Clemson, South Carolina, painted by Stephanie's st...

Figure 44.5 Austin painting shoes.

Figure 44.6 Turn it Gold banner made at Passion Works.

Figure 44.7 Andrew Bianco with the Ohio University Women's volleyball team....

Chapter 45

Figure 45.1 Numbers of PubMed articles indexed with “Patient‐centered care” ...

Figure 45.2 Number of PubMed articles indexed with “Communication” as a majo...

Figure 45.3 Number of PubMed articles indexed with “Uncertainty” as a major ...

Figure 45.4 Number of PubMed articles indexed with both “Communication” AND ...

Chapter 46

Figure 46.1 Interdependent influence in a dyad.

Chapter 49

Figure 49.1 Theoretical model for CChiRP.

Chapter 50

Figure 50.1 Ecological model of

end of life

(

EOL

) communication.

Chapter 51

Figure 51.1 The Global Risks Interconnections Map 2018 (World Economic Forum...

Figure 51.2 Figure of word cloud of haze Weibo posts.

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Volume 1

The Handbook of Applied Communication Research

Handbooks in Communication and Media

This series aims to provide theoretically ambitious but accessible volumes devoted to the major fields and subfields within communication and media studies. Each volume sets out to ground and orientate the student through a broad range of specially commissioned chapters, while also providing the more experienced scholar and teacher with a convenient and comprehensive overview of the latest trends and critical directions.

The Handbook of Children, Media, and Development, edited by Sandra L. Calvert and Barbara J. Wilson

The Handbook of Crisis Communication, edited by W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay

The Handbook of Internet Studies, edited by Mia Consalvo and Charles Ess

The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address, edited by Shawn J. Parry‐Giles and J. Michael Hogan

The Handbook of Critical Intercultural Communication, edited by Thomas K. Nakayama and Rona Tamiko Halualani

The Handbook of Global Communication and Media Ethics, edited by Robert S. Fortner and P. Mark Fackler

The Handbook of Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility, edited by Øyvind Ihlen, Jennifer Bartlett, and Steve May

The Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Media, edited by Karen Ross

The Handbook of Global Health Communication, edited by Rafael Obregon and Silvio Waisbord

The Handbook of Global Media Research, edited by Ingrid Volkmer

The Handbook of Global Online Journalism, edited by Eugenia Siapera and Andreas Veglis

The Handbook of Communication and Corporate Reputation, edited by Craig E. Carroll

The Handbook of Media and Mass Communication Theory, edited by Robert S. Fortner and P. Mark Fackler

The Handbook of International Advertising Research, edited by Hong Cheng

The Handbook of Psychology of Communication Technology, edited by S. Shyam Sundar

The Handbook of International Crisis Communication Research, edited by Andreas Schwarz, Matthew W. Seeger, and Claudia Auer

The Handbook of Organizational Rhetoric and Communication, edited by Øyvind Ihlen and Robert L. Heath

The Handbook of Applied Communication Research, edited by H. Dan O'Hair and Mary John O’Hair

The Handbook of Applied Communication Research

Volume 1

Edited by

H. Dan O'HairandMary John O’Hair

Editorial Assistants

Erin B. HesterandSarah Geegan

This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: O’Hair, H. Dan, editor. | O’Hair, Mary John, editor.Title: The handbook of applied communication research / edited by H. Dan O’Hair, Mary John O’Hair; editorial assistants, Erin B. Hester, Sarah Geegan.Description: Hoboken, NY, USA : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2020. | Series: Handbooks in communication and media | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019052199 (print) | LCCN 2019052200 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119399858 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119399872 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119399865 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Communication–Research–Methodology.Classification: LCC P91.3 .H325 2020 (print) | LCC P91.3 (ebook) | DDC 302.2/0721–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052199LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052200

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: binary hemisphere © Navidim/Getty Images, Profiles of Technology series © agsandrew/Shutterstock

List of Contributors

Bradley J. Adame, Arizona State University

Kathryn E. Anthony, University of Southern Mississippi

John A. Banas, University of Oklahoma

Daniel R. Bernard, California State University

Elena Bessarabova, University of Oklahoma

Michael D. Bruce, University of Alabama

William J. Burns, Decision Research,

California State University San Marcos

Laura H. Crosswell, University of Nevada

Pam Cupp, University of Kentucky

Lindsay Dillingham, Lipscomb University

William A. Donohue, Michigan State University

Dale Frakes, Portland State University

Finn Frandsen, Aarhus University

Sharon M. Friedman, Lehigh University

Ryan P. Fuller, California State University

Sarah Geegan, University of Kentucky

Michel M. Haigh, Texas State University

Tyler R. Harrison, University of Miami

Emily Helsel, University of Central Florida

Erin B. Hester, University of Kentucky

Brendan Hokowhitu, University of Waikato

Bobi Ivanov, University of Kentucky

Yi Grace Ji, Boston University

Winni Johansen, Aarhus University

Chin‐Te Jung, Esri, Inc.

Soyoon Kim, University of Miami

Michael W. Kramer, University of Oklahoma

Gary L. Kreps, George Mason University

Laurie K. Lewis, University of Texas at San Antonio

Haijing Ma, University of Oklahoma

Zackary B. Massey, Georgia State University

Marcus W. Mayorga, University of Oregon

Claude H. Miller, University of Oklahoma

John B. Nash, University of Kentucky

Sophie Nock, University of Waikato

John G. Oetzel, University of Waikato

H. Dan O’Hair, University of Kentucky

Mary John O’Hair, University of Kentucky

Bolanle A. Olaniran, Texas Tech University

Charles Owen, Michigan State University

Kimberly A. Parker, University of Kentucky

Courtney J. Powers, University of Texas

Andrew S. Pyle, Clemson University

Rangimahora Reddy, Rauawaawa Kauma¯tua Charitable Trust

Ashley R. Reynolds, University of Miami

Beth S. Rous, University of Kentucky

Meghan S. Sanders, Louisiana State University

Juliann C. Scholl, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Timothy L. Sellnow, University of Central Florida

Deborah D. Sellnow‐Richmond, Southern Illinois University

Mary Simpson, University of Waikato

Paul Slovic, University of Oregon

Brian H. Spitzberg, San Diego State University

Richard Spreng, Michigan State University

Don W. Stacks, University of Miami

Nicole Staricek, University of Kentucky

Keri K. Stephens, University of Texas

Jeannette Sutton, University of Kentucky

Ming‐Hsiang Tsou, San Diego State University

Robert R. Ulmer, University of Nevada

Shari R. Veil, University of Nebraska

Jessica Wendorf Muhamad, Florida State University

Elizabeth A. Williams, Colorado State University

Fan Yang, University of Alabama

Laura E. Young, University of Nebraska

The Promise of Applied Communication Research

H. Dan O'Hair, Mary John O'Hair, Erin B. Hester, and Sarah Geegan

Applied communication research (ACR) is a very special endeavor and it brings to bear all of the elements we value in the discovery process, while at the same time, it is focused squarely on addressing real-world problems. Represented in this two-volume book are a number of different contexts, methodologies, and theories—we value the rich heterogeneity by which participating scholars have made their contributions. In this introductory chapter, we offer some opinions on the nature of ACR and continue to argue, as we have done previously, that pursuing this type of exploration is a noble enterprise. We speculate on several of the ways that investigators and scholars approach the work of ACR, and we highlight two processes that we feel can enrich and extend the findings of applied research: (a) citizen science and (b) entrepreneurship. We conclude this first chapter by providing an overview of the chapters in Volume 1—chapters that constitute a wonderful assemblage of what is possible in the field of ACR. It is these chapters, and those in Volume 2, that support our claim of promises that only ACR can keep.

Viewpoints

In some ways, ACR is basically a convenient term for problem-based research. Many scholars in communication have interests in issues toward problem-based research, action research, critical research, and social justice research. Terms frequently associated with applied research include approaches that are socially relevant, “scholarship that can make a difference” (Kreps, Frey, & O'Hair, 1991, p. 71) or research that is driven by “meaningful inquiry” (Plax, 1991, p. 59). O'Hair and Kreps (1990) argue that “applied researchers provide opportunities for the testing of basic theories in applied contexts….” (p. ix). Our primary assumption resides in the argument that basic and applied communication research are, and should be, interdependent. Applied research brings into use theory and methodology in order to understand how communication can solve problems. Basic research leverages applied research to offer practical accountability of the work (O'Hair, Ploeger, & Moore, 2010).

It is important to remember Kurt Lewin's famous statement: There is nothing more practical than a good theory. In a complementary fashion, Kreps et al. (1991) have argued that there is nothing more theoretical than good practice. Theory and practice are mutually informing and recursive practices. Julia Wood (2000, p. 189) appropriately argued that, “applied communication research is not bounded by domain. Its nature cannot be demarcated usefully by context. What defines and distinguishes ACR is its insistence on putting theory and research into the service of practice, and equally, of studying practices to refine theory in order to gain new understandings of how communication functions and how it might function differently, or better.” ACR can provide a real-world test of the predictive validity of communication theory (O'Hair et al., 2010).

To provide additional context for where ACR has been situated in the recent past, we discuss an article by Steimel (2014), who conducted a four-decade analysis of the topics appearing in the flagship ACR journal in the field, The Journal of Applied Communication Research (JACR). Although organizational and health were consistent themes across the four decades, Steimel did find studies in subsequent decades that were addressing “contemporary communication issues of social concern” (p. 3). And while her focus was on analyses of different decades of published articles in JACR, her final conclusion was more encompassing:

Across the decades, JACR research prominently features concepts … that align closely with many of the National Communication Association's largest interest group divisions. However, the research within those concepts has evolved over the four decades not only to reflect the social issues of relevance at any given time, but also to embrace increasingly diverse and complex communication relationships (for example between individuals and organizations). The future challenges (and opportunities) of applied communication research center around continuing to embrace diverse voices, contexts, and methodologies while foregrounding theory as both a tool and outcome of applied research.

(p. 32)

Other social science disciplines have developed robust portfolios of applied research and in very few cases have these disciplines of study withdrawn from the challenge of pressing social and economic issues confronting society. ACR and its very capable scholars can be found investigating some of the most serious conditions and circumstances that confront us. While we would not argue that ACR is preeminent or more important than other social science disciplines' work in applied contexts, we would be so bold as to offer evidence that the work of our scholars in applied contexts is as meaningful as the other disciplines and certainly as substantial as ever before.

An Eclectic Perspective on ACR

What has been learned over the past 50years, and that which is prominently highlighted by the contributions to this two-volume set, is that it is inaccurate and even inappropriate to pigeonhole research styles of those pursuing ACR. We could point to a few exemplars of prominent and consistent forms of scholarship, and will do so in the next section, but generally characterizing a researcher's tendencies is probably a risky gesture. One thing seems certain: ACR can be successfully conducted from a number of different perspectives (Kreps et al., 1991; Wood, 2000). One such perspective comes from peering into the purpose and/or context for study. In some cases, a research team typically does not conduct ACR but finds themselves in a situation where the only fruitful approach is one that is applied in nature (solving a problem). The research team in this regard may return to ACR from time to time (e.g., being asked to play a role on a grant that is wholly applied) but their primary purpose is to conduct basic research. A second type takes the opposite approach where the researcher and/or context are predominantly in the ACR domain. These are scholars who would rarely consider a research project that did not have a practical problem or challenge directly in sight. Those pursuing this applied paradigm see research as a practical endeavor, although this is not to imply that they are always pursuing the same problem. Rather, they may venture into various venues in search of solving different and interesting problems (e.g., sunscreen, water quality, hurricane warnings). Their predilection for and skills in the applied research arena seem compatible with numerous challenges facing people.

Still another way in which researchers view their role in ACR is that of studying a persistent problem. Cancer control scholars, climate change researchers, those studying various challenges of sexual harassment, and even classroom communication experts find a home in a specific context and enjoy applying communication theory in ever more nuanced ways. A more in situ perspective describes ACR that studies a specific setting such as a particular locale (New York), regions (Appalachian Mountains), countries (Palestine), or even otherworldly settings such the International Space Station. It is these investigators who become experts in the place of study and can bring to bear rich backgrounds for their studies. Still other investigators are skilled theoreticians and/or methodologists who are often sought after to join ACR teams. These scholars find these opportunities worthwhile for a number of reasons, not the least of which is the prospect to work with different people, the chance to apply the knowledge and skills that they have been building for some time, or even the opportunity to watch firsthand how basic theory and methods can be brought to bear in practical settings. Of course, for many, ACR reflects a blended type where problem, place, or space are not necessarily primary pursuits but conducting ACR is employed to sharpen research skills, have fun, work with interesting people, and make a difference in the world.

Applied Communication Research—Practice

Collections of studies and programs of research represented in this two-volume set on ACR take large steps toward improving economic development, changing lives for the better, and protecting people and property from risks and crises. ACR serves as a means that allows other processes to engage where the research can be used in actual practice. In the following sections we will discuss citizen science and entrepreneurship as promising opportunities to move ACR into action stages.

Citizen Science

Public Participation in Scientific Research is a term advanced by Bonney et al. (2009) and Shirk et al. (2012) which examines a host of participatory research approaches, including citizen science, participatory action research, crowdsourcing, and community-based research (Eitzel et al., 2017). According to Hecker and colleagues, “[t]he long tradition of volunteer engagement in science has taken a big leap forward over the past two decades. Varied approaches of public engagement in science, public understanding of science, crowdsourcing, and community science have come together under the umbrella of citizen science. The result is a growing, global, citizen science community devoted to working together to bridge the science-society-policy interface” (Hecker et al., 2018). Even the popular press such as the AARP Bulletin and PBS have featured stories on citizen science (Greenberg, 2019).

Research projects involving citizen scientists are varied and their numbers seem to be growing. Some examples of recent projects worthy of mention are marine conservation by fishers, dozens of water quality projects, tropical forest crimes, monitoring caterpillars, patients as citizen scientists, and numerous projects supporting public health. Bonney, Cooper, and Ballard were early champions of citizen science and even helped to establish the journal Citizen Science: Theory and Practice. According to them, “… through its many configurations of science-society partnerships, citizen science holds the potential for developing new ways to collectively solve big problems and to fundamentally change the relationship between science and society” (Bonney, Cooper, & Ballard, 2016, p. 1). Citizen science research projects are appealing because they have shown the potential to collect large data sets of field data less expensively and in a shorter amount of time (Gura, 2013)

Perhaps one of the largest challenges of citizen science is quality control (Greenberg, 2019; Gura, 2013). Even if the method and procedures are strictly held to the highest scientific standards, the data collected by citizen volunteers can be questioned. That is one reason that the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2019) developed a citizen science quality assurance tool entitled the Handbook for Citizen Science: Quality Assurance and Documentation. Contained within the Handbook are instructions, descriptions, and templates that chart the procedures necessary for producing a project that can stand up to most scientists' and policy makers' scrutiny. This is a positive step in reinforcing the significance and value of citizen science. There is so much at stake in promoting this type of applied research, including good data collected in an ecologically valid manner (locally), citizenry involvement in research, and a real chance to influence public policy.

Entrepreneurship

A different opportunity to extend the reach of ACR lies in the realm of entrepreneurship. Research-based entrepreneurship is enjoying a great deal of attention, but it involves a lot of work that many researchers are not used to doing. While imagination, intelligence, and tenacity can transform a great idea into a thriving business or a global enterprise, entrepreneurial success is a function of many factors—such as adequate financing, a good support structure, and of course, favorable timing. However, in the churning world of small business, firms come and go as quickly as the Greek God of opportunity, Kairos, whose ephemeral presence offers a fleeting chance of success to those prepared to grasp it. There are many obstacles thinning the ranks of would-be entrepreneurs, but self-imposed unrealized potential—a business that never gets started because the would-be entrepreneur did not act on his or her idea—is the most insidious. While research confirms what common sense suggests, that the intellectual prowess found at the nation's universities has tremendous innovation and commercialization potential (Kim & Marschke, 2007), there is also a strong sense that much of this potential goes unrealized. What Thomas Edison famously said decades ago is equally true today, “the value of an idea lies in the using of it.” As many before us have noted, serious concerns have been raised about the ability or willingness of American research universities to push their research findings out into the marketplace. Underlying efforts to effectively advance entrepreneurship and innovation practices is engaging partners in the various forms of communication, whether represented by interpersonal, group, or organization dynamics. Research focusing on communication practices is especially ripe for application in entrepreneurship contexts.

In September 2009, President Obama released his national innovation strategy; at the center of this initiative were two closely related goals—sustaining economic growth and creating quality jobs. Intrinsic to this strategy is capitalizing on basic research at US research universities and the ensuing commercialization of research discoveries. Unfortunately, the commercialization of university research is a persistent challenge often referred to as “the valley of death.” By their very nature, university researchers are most talented in seeking answers to questions that are not necessarily practical or suitable for the end user. This “valley” that prevents viable research discoveries from reaching consumers, patients, and businesses costs the US economy billions of dollars in unrealized economic valuation.

To address these challenges, the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Innovation Corps (I-Corps) has been put into place and is intended to extend the research of researchers and scientists into practical, and hopefully profitable, endeavors. NSF-funded researchers learn to identify valuable opportunities that can develop from university research projects, and at the same time, acquire entrepreneurial skills. NSF created I-Corps to train researchers and students in innovation and entrepreneurship skills, to encourage collaboration between academia and industry, and to stimulate the translation of fundamental research to the marketplace. NSF seeks to strengthen a national innovation ecosystem that helps foster innovation among faculty and students, promotes regional coordination and linkages, and develops networks to address pressing societal challenges and economic opportunities for the nation. The I-Corps Program helps to ensure that participants gain an understanding of how to (a) identify and develop promising ideas that can generate value, (b) create and implement tools and resources that boost innovation capacity, and (c) develop innovation practices that can be passed along to others (especially students).

Social entrepreneurship is an enterprise that seeks to address social and/or community issues through innovation. Sometimes associated with nonprofit entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship can lead to financial outcomes such as economic growth and jobs creation. Moreover, social entrepreneurship can instill idealism among students about innovation and entrepreneurship that leads to outcomes beyond financial returns.

Social entrepreneurs will play a central role in corresponding to the challenges of the modern world, and we believe their presence will vastly increase the impact research universities have in addressing these problems. Aside from this lofty vision of the social entrepreneurs' new role, there are practical reasons why embracing social entrepreneurship makes sense for a research university.

(Thorpe & Goldstein, 2010, p. 63)

Regardless of purpose or motivation, entrepreneurship is a logical extension of ACR. Its value is multifaceted and can play a key role in extending the shelf life of an ACR project or program of research. In important ways, entrepreneurship lengthens the chain of the discovery process.

Goal of the Book

A set of guidelines recently used in a separate volume (O'Hair, 2018) was adapted for the Handbook. Authors were asked to consider a set of strategies for conceptualizing and organizing chapter contents. In general, authors were asked to address the following issues in their chapters.

What is the best available research in applied communication?

What communication and media theories are most relevant and applicable in this context?

What new ideas do you have to offer in this area (framework, model, theory)?

What are specific research directions that should be pursued for this context of ACR?

What pragmatic implications can you offer practitioners in this area of applied communication?

Contents of Volume 1

Twenty-seven chapters constitute the contents of Volume 1. Divided into four sections, the chapters are generally associated with one another around a common theme. Volume 1 includes the follow themes: (Part I) Theoretical Perspectives; (Part II) Media, Data, Design, and Technology; (Part III) Organizational Communication, and (Part IV) Risk and Crisis Communication. Table I.1 provides a more detailed examination of Volume 1's content, including descriptions, research approaches, and advances and implications of the chapters.

The promise of ACR has never offered more possibilities for positive change in the human condition. The work contained in these volumes is a testament to the identification of problems and challenges, some of which are only emerging on the horizon of scholarly endeavor. The promise of ACR is real.

Preview of Volume 2

Volume 2 is organized in a similar fashion with a tabular format described in the section above. Before that, we offer an opportunity for those involved in the university research process, where the preponderance of research is supported and disseminated—the opportunity is engaged scholarship. We are not naive enough to think that this concept is new, on the contrary it is a battle-tested notion championed by some of the biggest thinkers of our time. We offer it as a complementary set of ideas that have withstood the test of time and are no less important than when they were considered novel. We find the concepts of engaged scholarship and ACR to be highly complementary processes.

Table I.1 Volume 1 Chapter Synopses.

Theoretical Perspectives

Description

Research approaches

Advances and implications

Inoculation

(Ivanov, Parker, & Dillingham)

Inoculation messages are effective in protecting, establishing, and changing attitudes—superior to one-sided across

many

persuasive contexts

Formative research for message design and tailoring

First amendment, recruit/retain minority students in IT field, misinformation, cross-cultural.Unexplored: driverless cars, space travel

Indigenous

(Oetzel, Hokowhitu, Simpson, Nock, & Reddy)

Indigenous theory, community-led to address aging/elderly populations that transform discourse from emphasizing dependency, weakness, limitations to independence and self-determination

Community-based participatory research (CBPR), build on experience, peer educator and support interventions, culture-centered approach, narrative, shared culture social support derived from experience

Health interventions, stewards of cultural integrity, cultural sensitivity to combat ethnocentric approaches, empowering community members, build trust and long-term relationships, benefit to the community is ultimate success

Vested Interest Theory

(Adame)

Motivating attitudinally consistent behavior with personal impact or stake

Formative research to design messages, predict risk perceptions, refined scales

Natural hazards, flood risk, earthquakes, wearing seatbelts, concussion risk among college athletes, need for manipulating perceived vestedness

Apologia

(Haigh)

Theory of image restoration and situational crisis communication theory in apologia

Qualitative for image repair, experimental for situational crisis communication theory, reputation, strategies, medium

Medium impacts credibility, trust, balance between the two to apply proactive strategies to crisis

Social Marketing

(Parker, Geegan, & Ivanov)

Social marketing for sustainable social change (health promotion, environment, safety, and injury prevention)

Systematic process, strategic roadmap design, audience segmentation, tailored to audience needs, goals, marketing mix (4 Ps)

Audience-centered approach to designing compelling campaigns, converges traditional marketing with practical application

Engaged Communication Scholarship

Kreps)

Problem-based, social issues

Community participative research and intervention programs, interdisciplinary, multimodal

Informs public health policy, demystifying complexities, multiple communication channels, longitudinal, disseminating

Negative Emotions

(Bessarabova, Banas, & Bernard)

Anger, fear, and guilt as distinct behavioral tendencies

Cognitive functioning model, appraisaltendency framework, psychological reactance, extended parallel process model

Information processing, persuasion, risk perception, empathy, receiver characteristics, motivating, efficacy, interplay of emotion

Media, Data, Design, and Technology

Description

Research approaches

Advances and implications

Big Data

(Ji & Stacks)

Predictive messaging strategies, assess textual communication, analyze large data sets in seconds

Artificial intelligence, algorithms, continuous data collection, streaming and storage, machine coding

Understand, predict, solve, interconnectedness with social media, eWOM (electronic word of mouth)

Serious Games

(Muhamad & Kim)

Immersive experience, problem solving, incidental learning

Role-taking, role-playing, active, experiential, digital gaming interventions, participatory paradigm

Humanize data, autonomy, homophily, transportation, identification, competence, social relatedness, debriefing

Cyberspace

(Spitzberg, Tsou, & Jung)

Geographic information science, computational linguistics, public health

Volume, velocity, variety, variability, visualization, veracity, value, machine learning, Twitter, SMART Dashboard

Analyze social media analytics, industry or market analytics, disease surveillance, disease response, boundless

Entertainment Marketing

(Crosswell & Sanders)

Direct, individualized, borderless communication, example of

Modern Family

sitcom, viewer perception of entertainment content and advertising

Social cognitive theory, product placement, parasocial interactions, product–character associations, storylines, content analysis, eye tracking experiment

Visual attention, character favoritism, perceptions of branded content, product integration, interpersonal aspects of entertainment marketing

Fake News

(Mayorga, Hester, Helsel, Ivanov, Sellnow, Slovic, Burns, & Frakes)

Inoculation as strategy to counter negative effects of fake news and attitude polarization, intent to deceive, accuracy

Public susceptibility, confirmation bias, algorithm changes, credibility assessment, inoculation can protect (three studies to date)

Climate change, health care, wealth distribution, national security, cynicism, extremism, stop spread of fake news

Visualization

(Yang)

Communicating health and science information

Present encoded quantitative data, graphical display, icon arrays, message perception, comprehension, interactive data visualization, fear appeals, fuzzy trace theory

Appealing visual presentations to increase public understanding, facilitate decision making, behavior change

Design Thinking

(Rous & Nash)

Participatory design, design thinking cycle, solution-oriented approach, building empathy

Needfinding, brainstorming, prototyping, testing and feedback

Knowledge management, organization initiatives, knowledge visualization, interactivity, creativity, novelty

Organizational Communication

Description

Research approaches

Advances and implications

Communication Technology

(Stephens & Powers)

Managerial technology use, organizational translucency, access vs. purpose, affordances

Big data, data-handling, human resource information systems, enterprise, visibility

Hiring, cyberslacking and productivity, social connectedness, habitual checking, civility, acceptability, meetings

Brand Identity

(Donohue, Spreng, & Owen)

Influencers drive corporate branding

Voice of the consumer, eWOM, social media content analysis, network connectivity, diffusion of innovations

Connectedness, knowledgeable, innovativeness, persuasiveness, precisely identify Maxcers, use for insights about brand coordination

Designing for High Reliability Organizations

(Harrison, Williams, & Reynolds)

Consistently operate in uncertain conditions, organizing processes that makes an organization reliably safe

Communication as design works as an experiential intervention, deference to expertise, useful, functional, essential perspective, critical changes