The Handbook of Language Teaching E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1748

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Bringing together an international and interdisciplinary team of contributors, this Handbook is a wide-ranging and invaluable reference guide to language teaching. * A comprehensive reference work on language teaching, which combines the latest research findings, coverage of core topics, and examples of teaching experience from a variety of languages and settings * Provides a unique breadth of coverage, including: the psycholinguistic underpinnings of language learning; social, political, and educational contexts; program design; materials writing and course design; teaching and testing; teacher education; and assessment and evaluation * Offers a balanced evaluation of the major positions and approaches, including examining the increasingly important social and political context of language teaching * Written by an international and interdisciplinary group of authors from a dozen different countries; English is only one of the many languages used as examples throughout the volume

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Series page

Title page

Copyright page

Contributors

Part I: Overview

Chapter 1: Language Teaching

Notes

Part II: Social, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language Teaching

Chapter 2: The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching

The Social Context of Language Learning and Teaching

The Sociolinguistic Context of Language Learning and Teaching

Major Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching Contexts

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: The Politics and Policies of Language and Language Teaching

Introduction

Historical and Global Contextualization

Politics and/or Policy?

Linguistic Human Rights, Linguistic Diversity, and Language Maintenance in and through Education: Issues of Language Policy and Politics

Language Policy, Exemplified by the European Region

Notes

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4: History of Language Teaching

The Context of Second-Language Teaching

Beliefs about Language Learning, Methodologies and Historical Context

The Role and Status of the Language Teacher

The Role and Status of the Learner

Conclusion

References

Part III: Psycholinguistic Underpinnings of Language Learning

Chapter 5: The Language-Learning Brain

What is Neurolinguistics?

Some Promising Neurolinguistic Research

Neurolinguistic Research and L2 Learning and Teaching

Some Confusions

Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Sequences and Processes in Language Learning

Learner Language or Interlanguage

Sequences in Language Learning

Processes

Sequences, Processes, and Instruction: Five Generalizations and a Coda

Note

References

Chapter 7: The Importance of Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning

Actual, Perceived, and Assumed Similarities

Types of Cross-Linguistic Similarity Relationships

Item Transfer and System Transfer in Comprehension, Learning, and Production

Implications for Teaching

References

Further Reading

Chapter 8: Cognitive-Psychological Processes in Second Language Learning

The Components of Second Language Knowledge

How the Components of Second Language Knowledge Are Used

How the Components of Second Language Knowledge Are Learned, Acquired, Practiced, Monitored, and Consolidated

References

Chapter 9: Optimizing the Input: Frequency and Sampling in Usage-Based and Form-Focused Learning

Estimating How Language Works: From Tokens to Types to System

The Units of Language Acquisition

Acquiring Constructions

Frequency and the Roles of Input

Tuning the System: Frequency and the Attainment of Nativelike Fluency and Selection

The Language Calculator Has No “Clear” Button

Notes

References

Part IV: Program Design

Chapter 10: Bilingual and Immersion Programs

Introduction

The Sociopolitical Context of Bilingual Education

Types, Goals, and Participants

General Outcomes of Bilingual Education Programs

Dissenting Perspectives

Outcomes of Immersion Programs

Illustrative Sketches of Bilingual and Immersion Programs

Pedagogical Issues within Bilingual and Immersion Programs

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Heritage Language Programs

Introduction

Heritage Languages and Speakers

The Acquisition of Heritage Languages

Research Findings

(Re)Learning the Heritage Language in a Formal Setting

Conclusion

Notes

References

Further Reading

Chapter 12: Specific Purpose Programs

The Concept of Specific Purposes

The Case for Specific Purposes Programs

Needs, Contexts, and Genres

Rights and Identities in LSP

Organizing Specific Language Instruction

Research-Informed Pedagogy in LSP

Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 13: Study Abroad Research: Findings, Implications, and Future Directions

A Brief History of Study Abroad Research

Populations of Study and the Threshold Hypothesis

The Issue of Study Abroad Efficacy

Important Cognitive Constructs in the Study Abroad Literature

Important Linguistic Constructs in the Study Abroad Literature

The (Assumed) Roles of Input and Interaction

Identity

Programmatic Considerations

Concluding Remarks

Notes

References

Chapter 14: Less Commonly Taught Languages: Issues in Learning and Teaching

Introduction

Are LCTLs Difficult?

Theoretical and Empirical Approaches to LCTLs in SLA: Sources of Difficulty

Teaching Less Commonly Taught Languages

References

Chapter 15: Third Language Acquisition Theory and Practice

Introduction

Review of the Literature

Praxis: Research on Adult L3 Instruction

A Case Study of USG L3 Programs

Notes

References

Part V: Course Design and Materials Writing

Chapter 16: Foreign and Second Language Needs Analysis

Introduction

Get Ready to Do NA

Do the NA Research

Use the NA Results

Conclusion

Note

References

Chapter 17: Syllabus Design

Introduction: Two Basic Distinctions

Traditional Approaches to Syllabus Design

Contemporary Rationales for Syllabus Design

Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 18: Advances in Materials Design

Introduction

Departure

Analysis

Conclusion

Note

References

Further Reading

Chapter 19: Corpora in Language Teaching

Introduction

What are the Principles in Corpus Linguistics that Can Be Applied to Language Teaching?

What Information Can the Corpus Provide?

What Corpora?

Applications

Corpora and LSP

Learner Corpora

Conclusion

Notes

References

Further Reading

Chapter 20: Technology-Enhanced Materials

Introduction

The Pedagogical Evolution of CALL

Technology and Materials Creation

Teachers as Authors: What Can Be Expected

Review of Resources

Conclusion

Notes

References

Part VI: Teaching and Testing

Chapter 21: Methodological Principles for Language Teaching

The Methodological Pendulum

On What Basis Advice, Then?

Methodological Principles, Pedagogic Procedures, and Evaluation Criteria

Some Relevant SLA Research Findings

Implications for Approaches to LT

Ten MPs

Notes

References

Chapter 22: Teaching and Testing Listening Comprehension

Cognitive and Social Dimensions of Listening

Approaches to Teaching SL/FL Listening

Listening Assessment

Conclusion

Note

References

Chapter 23: Teaching and Testing Speaking

Introduction

The Problem Space

The Construct of Spoken Language

The Construct of Oral Language Development

Researching Approaches to Spoken Language Pedagogy

Organizing the Oral Language Curriculum

Testing

Conclusion

References

Chapter 24: Teaching and Testing Reading

Research Foundations

L1 and L2 Reading Differences

L2 Reading Assessment

L2 Implications for Reading Instruction and Assessment

Teaching L2 Reading

Testing L2 Reading

Concluding Comments

Appendix: Reading Test Item Types (see Alderson, 2000; Hughes, 2004, and others)

References

Chapter 25: Learning to Read in New Writing Systems

Basic Concepts and Constructs

The Mechanism of Transfer

Reading Universals

Metalinguistic Awareness

Conceptualizing Second Language Learning to Read: The Framework

Second-Language Learning to Read: Empirical Studies

Summary and Implications

References

Chapter 26: Teaching and Testing Writing

Cognitive Factors in Learning to Write

The Writing Process and Process Approach

Writing Pedagogy outside of North America

Post-Process Approaches

Assessing Writing

References

Chapter 27: Teaching and Testing Grammar

Introduction

A Definition

Grammar Pedagogy (in General)

Approaches to Grammar Teaching

Other Topics

Grammatical Assessment

References

Chapter 28: Teaching and Testing Vocabulary

What Vocabulary?

How Should Vocabulary Be Taught and Learned?

How Should Vocabulary Knowledge Be Monitored and Assessed?

References

Chapter 29: Teaching and Testing Pragmatics

Pragmatics

Learning Pragmatics and the Structure of Pragmatic Competence

Instructed Learning of Pragmatics

Problems with Teaching Pragmatics

Testing of Pragmatics

Problems and Prospects in Testing Pragmatics

Conclusion

Notes

References

Chapter 30: Task-Based Teaching and Testing

Introduction

Task-Based Language Education

Task-Based Teaching

Task-Based Testing

Challenges and Opportunities for Task-Based Language Teaching

References

Chapter 31: Radical Language Teaching

Introduction

Historical Background to Radical Education

Developments under the Heading “Critical”

Critical Pedagogy in Second and Foreign Language Areas

Feminist Pedagogy and Language Teaching

Some Additional and Some Missing Pieces of Radical Language Teaching

Distinctiveness of Radical Language Teaching?

Notes

References

Further Reading

Chapter 32: Diagnostic Feedback in Language Assessment

Introduction

Definitions and Scope

Large-Scale Assessment Context

Classroom Assessment Context

New Approaches

Challenges

Conclusion

Note

References

Chapter 33: Computer-Assisted Teaching and Testing

Introduction

Language Teaching

The Technology Difference in Language Testing

Conclusion

References

Part VII: Teacher Education

Chapter 34: Language Teacher Education

What Is “Teaching”?

The Training of Teachers

The Great Debate

The Need for Awareness

Bridging the Divide

Note

References

Chapter 35: Diffusion and Implementation of Innovations

Introduction

What Is an Innovation?

The Central Role of Teachers’ Concerns

Supporting Teachers throughout the Implementation Process

Interaction with inservice trainers and coaches

Innovation and Language Assessment

Conclusions

References

Part VIII: Assessing and Evaluating Instruction

Chapter 36: Current Trends in Classroom Research

Introduction

Historical Background

Interactionist Classroom Research

Explicit Instruction and “Focus on Form”

Sociocultural Classroom Research

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Researching Classrooms as Social Communities

Practitioner Research

Conclusion

Note

References

Chapter 37: Issues in Language Teacher Evaluation

What Are the Main Purposes of Language Teacher Evaluation?

What Do We Know about Effective Teaching?

What Criteria Are Used for Language Teacher Evaluation?

Who Is Involved in the Language Teacher Evaluation Process?

What Types of Data Can Be Used to Inform Teacher Evaluation?

Concluding Comments

References

Chapter 38: Investigating the Effects and Effectiveness of L2 Instruction

Introduction

A Conceptual Framework for Investigating L2 Instruction

Evaluating Research and Empirical Findings on the Effects of Instruction

Conclusions and Implications for Teaching Practice

Notes

References

Chapter 39: Program Evaluation

Stakeholders

Program Theory and Logic

Program Planning and Design

Realistic Moderating Variables

Implementation Monitoring

Evaluability

Outcomes Assessment

Quantitative Program Evaluation Designs

Program Cohesion

Value-Added Interventions

Conclusions

References

Author Index

Subject Index

The Handbook of Language Teaching

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataThe handbook of language teaching / edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty.p. cm. — (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics)ISBN 978-1-4051-5489-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4443-5002-9 (paperback : alk. paper)Language and languages—Study and teaching—Handbooks, manuals, etc.  2. Second language acquisition—Handbooks, manuals, etc.  I. Long, Michael H.  II. Doughty, Catherine.P51.H3265  2009418.0071—dc22

2009008867

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs [9781444315790]; Wiley Online Library [9781444315783]

Craig Chaudron (1946–2006)

Contributors

Kathleen M. BaileyKathleen M. Bailey received her PhD from the University of California at Los Angeles. She is a professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey Institute of International Studies, where she has taught since 1981. In 1998–99 she was the President of the international TESOL association.

Alan BerettaAlan Beretta is Professor of Linguistics at Michigan State University. His research is in neurolinguistics and has been published in such journals as Brain and Language, Cognitive Brain Research, and Aphasiology.

David BrettDavid Brett worked in Italy as an ESL teacher for 10 years before becoming a researcher in English Linguistics at the University of Sassari. He has published and presented widely on New Technologies and Second Language Learning, with particular reference to pronunciation teaching. He has also held training workshops for language teachers on various aspects of technology-enhanced teaching, both in Italy and in other countries.

James Dean BrownJames Dean (“JD”) Brown is Professor of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. He has authored or co-authored numerous articles and books on topics as diverse as second language testing and quantitative research methods, language curriculum development, using surveys in language programs, teaching connected speech, and heritage language curriculum.

Martin BygateMartin Bygate is Professor in Applied Linguistics and Language Education at Lancaster University, UK. He has undertaken funded research and taught courses on oral language teaching and development. Principal publications are Speaking (1987, Oxford University Press), Grammar and the Language Teacher (co-edited with A. Tonkyn and E. Williams, 1994, Prentice-Hall), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (co-edited with P. Skehan & M. Swain, 2001, Pearson Educational Ltd), and, co-authored with Virginia Samuda, Tasks in second language learning (2008, Palgrave).

Carol A. ChapelleCarol A. Chapelle, Professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics at Iowa State University, is Past President of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (2006–7), former editor of TESOL Quarterly (1999–2004), and co-editor of the Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series. Her books include Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing, and research (2001, Cambridge University Press), English language learning and technology: Lectures on applied linguistics in the age of information and communication technology (2003, John Benjamins), Assessing language through technology (with Dan Douglas, 2006, Cambridge University Press), Building a validity argument for the Test of English as a Foreign Language (with Mary Enright & Joan Jamieson, 2007, Routledge) and Tips for teaching with CALL (2008, Pearson-Longman).

Teresa ChungMihwa Chung (Teresa) teaches at Korea University. She has published articles on technical vocabulary, the vocabulary of newspapers, and developing reading speed in a foreign language. Her PhD thesis from Victoria University of Wellington was on the methodology of developing lists of technical vocabulary and the role of technical vocabulary in technical texts.

Joseph CollentineJoseph Collentine is Professor of Spanish at Northern Arizona University. He has published articles and research about study abroad, the acquisition of grammar, and corpus linguistics. He is currently the director of the Spanish Masters programs at NAU and the coordinator of the Spanish online program.

Graham CrookesGraham Crookes is Professor, Department of Second Language Studies, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, where he is also Executive Director, ESL Programs. His most recent books are A Practicum in TESOL and Making a Statement: Values, Philosophies, and Professional Beliefs in TESOL (2003 and 2008, Cambridge University Press).

Jim CumminsJim Cummins is Professor and Canada Research Chair in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. His research focuses on literacy development in multilingual school contexts, as well as on the potential roles of technology in promoting language and literacy development.

Robert DeKeyserRobert DeKeyser (PhD, Stanford University) is Professor of Second Language Acquisition at the University of Maryland. His research is mainly on second language acquisition, with emphasis on cognitive-psychological aspects such as implicit versus explicit learning, automatization of rule knowledge, and individual differences and their interaction with instructional treatments. He has published in a variety of journals, including Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Language Testing, The Modern Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly, and AILA Review. He has contributed chapters to several highly regarded handbooks, and he recently published an edited volume with Cambridge University Press entitled Practice in a Second Language: Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology (2007).

Catherine J. DoughtyCatherine J. Doughty is Senior Research Scientist and SLA Area Director at the Center for the Advanced Study of Language at the University of Maryland, and is an affiliate Professor of SLA at the University of Maryland.

Nick C. EllisNick C. Ellis is Research Scientist at the English Language Institute and Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. His research interests include language acquisition, cognition, reading in different languages, corpus linguistics, cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, and emergentist accounts of language acquisition.

John FlowerdewJohn Flowerdew is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Centre for Language Education Research, School of Education, University of Leeds. For many years he worked at the City University of Hong Kong. He has also worked in South America and the Middle East. As well as writing and editing a number of books, he has published widely in the leading Applied Linguistics, Language Teaching and Discourse Analysis journals, focusing on academic discourse, corpus linguistics, and English for Specific Purposes. His most recent book (with Lindsay Miller) is Second Language Listening (2005, Cambridge University Press). His most recent edited book (with Vijay Bhatia and Rodney Jones) is Advances in Discourse Studies (2008, Routledge).

Christine GohChristine Goh is Associate Professor of applied linguistics in the National Institute of Education, Singapore (Nanyang Technological University). Her interests are in listening and speaking development, and the role of metacognition in L2 learning. She has authored many international journal articles and book chapters on listening research and teaching methodology for listening.

Ewa M. GolonkaEwa M. Golonka holds a PhD in Russian Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition from Bryn Mawr College. She has taught Russian, linguistics, and SLA at various universities. Currently, she is an Assistant Research Scientist at the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.

Marta González-LloretMarta González-Lloret has taught at the Spanish division of the LLEA department at the University of Hawai’i for more than a decade. She holds a PhD in Second Language Acquisition from the University of Hawai’i at Manoa and her research interests include second language acquisition, technology for language learning and teaching, and teacher training.

Kira GorKira Gor is Associate Professor of Russian and Second Language Acquisition in the School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at the University of Maryland. Her research interests include psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying cross-linguistic and second-language processing of phonology and morphology.

William GrabeWilliam Grabe is Regents Professor of English at Northern Arizona University, where he teaches in the MATESL and PhD in Applied Linguistics programs. His interests include reading, writing, written discourse analysis, and the disciplinary status of applied linguistics. His most recent book is Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice (2009, Cambridge University Press).

Rick de GraaffRick de Graaff is a language teaching consultant/researcher at the IVLOS Institute of Education, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. His main fields of interest include: task effectiveness in language teaching, the role of instruction in L2 pedagogy, the role of peer feedback in collaborative writing, and content and language integrated learning. Most recently he has contributed to the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism and ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics.

Alex HousenAlex Housen (MA, UCLA; PhD, University of Brussels) is Senior Lecturer in English, Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism at the University of Brussels (VUB). His research interests include second/foreign language acquisition, second/foreign language teaching, and bilingualism. His recent publications include Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (with M. Pierrard, 2005, Mouton de Gruyter) and Bilingualism: Basic Principles and Beyond (with J. M. Dewaele and L. Wei, 2003, Multilingual Matters).

Ken HylandKen Hyland is Professor of Education and director of the Centre for Academic and Professional Literacies at the Institute of Education, University of London. He has published over 130 articles and 13 books on language teaching and academic writing, most recently Academic Discourse (2009, Continuum). He is co-editor of the Journal of English for Academic Purposes.

Eunice Eunhee JangEunice Eunhee Jang is Assistant Professor at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto. Her research interests include validity and fairness issues in language testing and cognitive diagnostic assessment. Her research has been published in Journal of Educational Measurement, Language Testing (in press), International Journal of Testing, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, and in the book New Directions in Psychological Measurement with Model-Based Approaches (edited by S. Embretson & J. S. Roberts, American Psychological Association).

Scott JarvisScott Jarvis is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at Ohio University, where he teaches courses on second language acquisition, language testing, and other areas of applied linguistics. His main research interests are cross-linguistic influence (or language transfer) and lexical diversity, and his work has appeared in journals such as Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, and Language Testing. He is also co-author with Aneta Pavlenko of Crosslinguistic Influence in Language and Cognition (2008, Routledge), and is the Associate Editor for Language Learning.

Renée JourdenaisRenée Jourdenais is an associate professor in the MATESOL/MATFL program at the Monterey Institute of International Studies, where she specializes in second language acquisition and in language teacher education. She also has extensive experience in curriculum development and in language assessment. Her recent research work explores the development of teacher knowledge.

Keiko KodaKeiko Koda is Professor of Second Language Acquisition and Japanese in the Department of Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University. Her major research areas include second language reading, biliteracy development, psycho-linguistics, and foreign language pedagogy. Her recent books include Insights into Second Language Reading (2005, Cambridge University Press), Reading and Language Learning (2007, Blackwell), and Learning to Read across Languages (2008, Routledge).

Antony John KunnanAntony John Kunnan is Professor of TESOL and Language Education at California State University and the University of Hong Kong respectively. He has published in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Language Testing, and Language Assessment Quarterly and in many edited volumes and handbooks. He was the President of the International Language Testing Association in 2004 and is the founding editor of Language Assessment Quarterly.

Diane Larsen-FreemanDiane Larsen-Freeman is Professor of Education, Professor of Linguistics, and Research Scientist at the English Language Institute, University of Michigan. Her most recent book (2008) is Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics, co-authored with Lynne Cameron and published by Oxford University Press.

Michael H. LongMichael H. Long is Professor of SLA in the School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he teaches courses and seminars in the PhD program in SLA. Mike is the author of over 100 articles and several books, and has served on the editorial boards of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, TESOL Quarterly, Language Teaching Research, and other journals. His recent publications include The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, co-edited with Catherine Doughty (2003, Blackwell), Second Language Needs Analysis (2005, Cambridge), and Problems in SLA (2007, Lawrence Erlbaum).

Sandra Lee McKaySandra Lee McKay is Professor of English at San Francisco State University, where she teaches courses in sociolinguistics, as well as methods and materials for graduate students in TESOL. Her books include Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches (2002, Oxford University Press, winner of the Ben Warren International Book Award), Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching (edited with Nancy Hornberger, 1996, Cambridge University Press) and Researching Second Language Classrooms (2006, Lawrence Erlbaum). Her newest book, International English in Its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially Sensitive Pedagogy (with Wendy Bokhorst-Heng, 2008, Routledge) is an examination of the social and sociolinguistic context of present-day English teaching and learning.

Rosamond F. MitchellRosamond F. Mitchell is Professor of Education at the University of Southampton. Her research interests are in the area of Second Language Acquisition, especially of French. She is particularly interested in theories of language learning and their empirical implications, and in the interface between linguistic theory and cognitive approaches to the learning of second languages. She is co-editor of Teaching Grammar: Perspectives in Higher Education (1996) and co-author of Second Language Learning Theories (2004).

Silvina MontrulSilvina Montrul is Associate Professor of Spanish, Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is author of The Acquisition of Spanish (2004, John Benjamins) and Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism. Re-examining the Age Factor (2008, John Benjamins). Her research focuses on linguistic and psycholinguistic approaches to adult second language acquisition and bilingualism, in particular syntax, semantics, and morphology. She is also an expert in language loss and retention in minority-language-speaking bilinguals.

Diane MusumeciDiane Musumeci is Associate Professor and Head in the Department of Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is the author of Breaking Tradition: An Exploration of the Historical Relationship Between Theory and Practice in Second Language Teaching (1997, McGraw-Hill).

Paul NationPaul Nation is professor of Applied Linguistics in the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. His specialist interests are language teaching methodology and vocabulary learning. His latest book on vocabulary is Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques published by Cengage Learning (2008), and two books, Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking (with Jonathan Newton) and Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing, have just appeared from Routledge/Taylor and Francis.

John M. NorrisJohn M. Norris is associate professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. His work focuses on assessment, program evaluation, research methods, and task-based language teaching in foreign and second language education. His recent publications include a single-author book Validity Evaluation in Language Assessment (2008, Peter Lang) and a co-edited volume with Lourdes Ortega Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching (John Benjamins, 2006).

Lourdes OrtegaLourdes Ortega is associate professor at the University of Hawai’i, where she teaches graduate courses in second language acquisition and foreign language education. Her most recent book is Understanding Second Language Acquisition (2009, Hodder Arnold).

Robert PhillipsonRobert Phillipson is a Professor Emeritus at Copenhagen Business School, Denmark. His Linguistic Imperialism (1992, Oxford University Press) has also been published in China and India. Recent publications include English-Only Europe? Challenging Language Policy (2003, Routledge) and Linguistic Imperialism Continued (Orient Black-swan). Several articles can be downloaded from www.cbs.dk/staff/phillipson.

Charlene PolioCharlene Polio is an associate professor at Michigan State University, where she directs the MA TESOL program. She has published research on second language writing, classroom discourse, and second language acquisition and in journals such as the Journal of Second Language Writing, the Modern Language Journal, and Studies in Second Language Acquisition. She is the incoming editor of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics and co-editor of Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Second Language Research in Honor of Susan M. Gass to be published by Routledge.

Håkan RingbomHåkan Ringbom is emeritus professor of English at Åbo Akademi University, Turku/Åbo, Finland. Among his previous publications are The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning (1987) and Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning (2007), both with Multilingual Matters.

William P. RiversWilliam P. Rivers is Chief Linguist at Integrated Training Solutions, Arlington, VA. His publications include Language and National Security in the 21st Century (with Richard D. Brecht, 2001) and Language and Critical Area Studies after September 11 (with Richard D. Brecht, Ewa Golonka, and Mary E. Hart). His research interests include third language acquisition, computational sociolinguistics, and language policy.

Peter RobinsonPeter Robinson is Professor of Linguistics and SLA in the Department of English, Aoyama Gakuin University, Shibuya, Tokyo, where he teaches and supervises research on second language acquisition, cognitive abilities for language learning, and effects of instruction. Recent publications include Task Complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis and Second Language Instruction, special issue of the International Review of Applied Linguistics (co-edited with Roger Gilabert, 2007), Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (co-edited with Nick Ellis, 2008, Routledge), and Second Language Task Complexity: Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of Learning and Performance (in press, John Benjamins).

Carsten RoeverCarsten Roever is a Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics in the School of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Melbourne. His research interests include second language acquisition, interlanguage pragmatics, and second language assessment. He has written several book chapters, journal articles, and the book Testing ESL Pragmatics (2005, Peter Lang) and has co-authored Language Testing: The Social Dimension with Tim McNamara (2006, Blackwell).

Steven J. RossSteve Ross teaches at the School of Policy Studies, Kwansei Gakuin University. His research has appeared in Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, International Journal of Testing, Language Testing, Journal of Pragmatics, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Second Language Research, System, International Review of Applied Linguistic, TESOL Quarterly, and in several edited volumes.

Rani RubdyDr Rani Rubdy is Senior Fellow at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. She is co-editor of two recently published books, English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles (Continuum, 2006) and Language as Commodity: Global Structures, Local Marketplaces (Continuum, 2008). Her other recent publications include the book chapters, ‘Remaking Singapore for the new age: Official ideology and the realities of practice’ in Decolonization, Globalization: Language-in-education Policy and Practice (edited by Angel M. Y. Lin & Peter W. Martin, 2005, Multilingual Matters) and ‘Language planning ideologies, communicative practices an their consequences’ in Springer’s Encyclopedia of Language and Education (2008).

Tove Skutnabb-KangasTove Skutnabb-Kangas, emerita (University of Roskilde, Denmark and Åbo Akademi University, Finland), bilingual from birth in Finnish and Swedish, has written or edited around 50 monographs and almost 400 articles and book chapters, in 32 languages, about minority education, linguistic human rights, linguistic genocide, subtractive spread of English and the relationship between biodiversity and linguistic diversity. She lives on an ecological farm with husband Robert Phillipson. For publications, see http://akira.ruc.dk/∼tovesk/.

Kris Van den BrandenKris Van den Branden is a professor of linguistics at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. He is one of the current directors of the Centre for Language and Education at the same university. His main research interests are in task-based language teaching, the role of interaction in instructed language learning, and the diffusion of innovations in the educational field. He has published in many international journals, and has edited a volume on task-based language teaching in the Cambridge University Press Applied Linguistics Series.

Larry VandergriftLarry Vandergrift is Professor at the Official Languages and Bilingualism Institute (OLBI) at the University of Ottawa. His research in the teaching of second/foreign language listening has been published in Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Canadian Modern Language Review, Language Learning, Language Teaching, Modern Language Journal, and more. He is currently a co-editor of the Canadian Modern Language Review and director of the research centre at OLBI.

Karen VatzKaren Vatz is a graduate student in the Second Language Acquisition PhD program at the University of Maryland. She is currently working on her dissertation on the representation and processing of grammatical gender in advanced L2 learners. Other areas of interest include bilingual lexical representation and critical period effects.

Alan WatersAlan Waters is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, UK. He has taught EFL and trained teachers in the UK and several other parts of the world. He has published a number of books and articles on a range of ELT topics.

Jessica WilliamsJessica Williams is a Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Chicago, where she also directs the TESOL program. She has published on variety of topics, including second language writing, lexical acquisition, and the effect of focus on form. Her latest publications include an edited volume (with Bill VanPatten, 2006, Routledge), Theories in Second Language Acquisition and the student text, Academic Encounters: American Studies (Cambridge University Press, 2007).

Part I

Overview

Chapter 1

Language Teaching

MICHAEL H. LONG

Hundreds of millions of people voluntarily attempt to learn languages each year. They include adults who seek proficiency in a new language for academic, professional, occupational, vocational training, or religious purposes, or because they have become related through marriage to speakers of languages other than their mother tongue. Then, there are (some would argue, “captive”) school-age children who experience their education through the medium of a second language, or for whom one or more foreign languages are obligatory subjects in their regular curriculum. In addition to these easily recognizable groups, language teachers around the world are increasingly faced with non-volunteers. These are the tens of millions of people each year forced to learn new languages and dialects, and sometimes new identities, because they have fled traumatic experiences of one kind or another – war, drought, famine, disease, intolerable economic circumstances, ethnic cleansing, and other forms of social conflict – crossing linguistic borders in the process. Since the horror and frequency of such events show no signs of decreasing, language teaching is likely to remain a critical matter for these groups for the foreseeable future, with the scale of forced mass migrations if anything likely to grow in the twenty-first century, due to the potentially disastrous effects of climate change.

For both groups of learners, volunteers and non-volunteers, language teaching is increasingly recognized as important by international organizations, governments, militaries, intelligence agencies, corporations, NGOs, education systems, health systems, immigration and refugee services, migrant workers, bilingual families, and the students themselves. With the growing recognition come greater responsibility and a need for accountability. LT1 is rarely a matter of life or death, but it often has a significant impact on the educational life chances, economic potential and social wellbeing of individual students and whole societies. Students and entities that sponsor them increasingly want to know not just that the way they are taught works, but that it constitutes optimal use of their time and money.

Demonstrating effectiveness and efficiency is often difficult. Historically, LT has been regarded as an art – or a craft, at least – not a science, with scant regard and little financial support for research. Demand for some languages, notably English and Chinese, has been so great in recent years that, with demand far exceeding supply, few consumers have been in a position to quibble over the quality of their instruction. In the case of some rarely taught languages for which there is a sudden surge in need, e.g., as a by-product of military actions or natural disasters, students and sponsors have no choice but to accept whatever can be found, adequate or not. Even in the case of widely taught languages, like English, Chinese, Arabic, French, German, and Spanish, research that is carried out is sometimes criticized for having been conducted in real classrooms and other “natural” instructional settings, with a resulting lack of control over significant variables that may have influenced the outcomes of interest. Alternatively, when conducted under controlled experimental conditions, studies are sometimes criticized for having produced findings that may not generalize to real classrooms. Series of studies of the same phenomena in both natural and artificial instructional environments, utilizing a variety of research methods, are clearly desirable.

Despite these problems, the situation has gradually improved in recent years, with steady growth in the amount and sophistication of research on LT itself, and in disciplines with much to say about the process LT is designed to facilitate, language learning. Of those feeder disciplines, theory and research in some areas of second language acquisition (SLA) are the most directly relevant, but work in psychology, educational psychology, anthropology, curriculum and instruction, and more, is also valuable. This is not to say that all the answers are known, or even that most of them are, but LT prescriptions and proscriptions that ignore theory and research findings in those fields are gradually and justifiably losing credibility. Where they are kept viable, it is chiefly by commercial interests, which still wield enormous influence, and the continued marketability of whose wares is often best served by ignorance about effectiveness.

The authors of each chapter in this volume were asked wherever possible to draw on research findings when making proposals. This, they have done. Also, while many of them specialize in the teaching of English, on which the greatest number of studies have been carried out, and/or operate in English-speaking countries, they were asked not to focus on the teaching of any one language or any one teaching context – foreign, second, lingua franca, etc. – but to choose examples and synthesize research findings and teaching experience from, and relevant to, a variety of languages and settings. They were asked to provide balanced evaluations of major positions and approaches, but granted scope to advance their own views. This, they have also done.

As is visible in the Table of Contents, in addition to coverage of core foundational issues, The Handbook of Language Teaching contains chapters on a few topics seldom found in comparable anthologies and textbooks. These chapters reflect recent developments and changing emphases in the field, or ones we believe deserve more attention. Examples include chapters on the language-learning brain; on programs designed specifically for heritage learners, about whom there is now an explosion of (sometimes rather uninformed) writing; on advanced learners; study abroad; third language, conversion, and cross-training programs; LCTLs (less commonly taught languages), which geopolitics are rapidly making a lot more commonly taught; and (not unrelated) on reading new scripts; as well as on radical language teaching and the diffusion of innovation. In another departure from the norm, instead of one chapter on teaching various skills, and a separate one on testing them, we invited one author to cover both in a single chapter. The idea is to avoid overlap and facilitate greater coherence of treatment. We selected individuals whose prior work showed they can handle both at the required level. While certainly not unique to this volume, there is also expert coverage of the increasingly apparent and important politics and social and political context of language teaching.

One author conspicuously missing from the assembled company is the late Craig Chaudron, a widely respected expert on many aspects of LT, and a valued colleague and close personal friend. Craig had agreed to contribute a chapter to the handbook, but as many readers will know, died unexpectedly in 2006. His untimely passing is a tragic loss for all who knew him, and for the field as a whole. This volume is humbly dedicated to his memory.

NOTES

We are grateful to Danielle Descoteaux, Julia Kirk, and the staff at Wiley-Blackwell for their support at all stages of the development of this volume, and to the reviewers of individual chapters.

1 he following abbreviations are used throughout the volume:

FL – foreign languageL1 – first, or native, languageL2 and SL – second language in the broad sense, including any additional language to the L1LT – language teachingSLA – second language acquisition.

Part II

Social, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language Teaching

Chapter 2

The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching

SANDRA LEE MCKAY AND RANI RUBDY

We live in an age of linguistic diversity increased greatly by globalization, the movement of people across borders, and the widespread acquisition of additional languages by individuals in their own countries. All of these factors have led to an increase in the number of second-language learners and the kinds of contexts in which they are learning languages.

This chapter is about the social and sociolinguistic context of present-day foreign and second-language learning and teaching. In examining the social context of language learning, we focus on how language teaching contexts are affected by the larger social, political, and educational setting in which the teaching takes place. In examining the sociolinguistic context of language teaching, we focus on how the linguistic features of interactions, both inside and outside of the classroom, are affected by the social context in which the interaction takes place.

Our division is in many ways similar to a traditional distinction made in the field of sociolinguistics where one of the major debates is whether to take social or linguistic factors as primary in investigating the relationship between the social context and language variables. As evidence of this debate, Wardhaugh (1992) and others make a distinction between the sociology of language and sociolinguistics. Whereas the sociology of language investigates the manner in which social and political forces influence language use, sociolinguistics takes linguistic factors as primary in its investigations of language and society.

In keeping with this distinction, the first part of the chapter focuses on two areas of investigation typically studied in the sociology of language that influence the social context of language learning: language planning and policy, and societal multilingualism. The second part of the chapter focuses on two areas of investigation typically studied in what Wardhaugh terms sociolinguistics: language contact and variation, and ethnographic sociolinguistics. The final section of the chapter uses case studies of second and foreign language teaching to illustrate how the social and sociolinguistic context can influence language pedagogy. Whereas this chapter will discuss the learning and teaching context of various languages, a good deal of attention will be given to the learning of English. This is because today English is the most widely studied second and foreign language (Crystal, 1997), causing the study of the social and sociolinguistic context of the learning of this language to be of interest to many learners and practitioners.

The Social Context of Language Learning and Teaching

Language planning and policy

The social context of language learning and teaching is greatly impacted by a nation’s political decision to give special status to a particular language or languages. This status can be achieved either by making the language an official language of a country or by giving special priority to the language by requiring its study as a foreign language. Today there are over 75 countries in which English has been or continues to be an official language of the country, with many more nations requiring the study of English in the public schools (Crystal, 1997). This situation provides tremendous incentives for the learning of English.

The political choice of designating an official language is fully discussed in Chapter 3. What is important for our purposes is how this choice affects the social context of language learning and teaching. Three ways in which the designation of an official language has consequences for language learning and teaching are (a) the insight the designation provides into prevalent social attitudes toward particular languages, (b) the effect of the language policy on the stated language-in-education policy, and (c) the setting of linguistic standards.

The designation of an official language can foster a great deal of political tension that polarizes social attitudes toward particular languages. Malaysia’s decision, for example, to recognize Bahasa Melayu as the country’s sole official language was strongly opposed by the ethnic Chinese and Tamil populations, who preferred giving English equal status. The debate in South Africa over which languages to designate as official was also based on ethnic lines. In both cases the decision of whether or not to give special status to a particular language became a rallying point for social and ethnic groups. Such social attitudes obviously can affect an individual’s motivation to learn or not learn a particular language.

A second consequence of a language being designated as one of the official languages of the country is that in most cases the country’s official language or languages are used, or at least designated to be used, as the medium of instruction in the schools. The National Educational Policy of South Africa is a case in point. In 1997, the former Minister of Education argued that South Africa’s national language-in-education policy was integral to the government’s strategy of redressing the discrimination of the past and building a non-racial nation in South Africa. He contended that being multilingual should be a defining characteristic of being South African (Chick & McKay, 2001).

While providing for choice from a range of language-in-education policy models, the South African National Educational Policy identified additive bilingual-ism/multilingualism as the normative orientation of the language-in-education policy. This policy, however, contradicts the beliefs of many South African parents that the best way to acquire English, the dominant ex-colonial language, is to commence studying the language as early as possible; that maintenance of the first language is unnecessary and perhaps undesirable; and that the best way for speakers of other languages to acquire English is submersion, that is, a subtractive approach. Given the strong desire on the part of many parents for their children to learn English, English-medium education is currently the only option offered by South Africa’s most sought-after schools. This situation exemplifies the manner in which the stated language-in-education policy is often undermined by prevalent social beliefs as to the value of particular languages.

National language policies can also influence language learning and teaching by the setting of standards. For example, in Singapore today, there is a segment of the population that speaks a localised dialect of English widely known as Singlish or Singapore Colloquial English (SCE). Like many stigmatized varieties, Singlish has begun to gain immense popularity among young professionals, who increasingly use it in domains of friendship and solidarity. Its negative association with the poorly educated and its accelerated usage among the general populace in recent years alarmed the Singapore authorities sufficiently to warrant the mounting of a Speak Good English Movement, a campaign that overtly promotes the use of standard English, and whose implicit agenda is to stem the spread of Singlish before it becomes an integral part of the cultural life of the present generation of school-goers in Singapore. As in the case of Singapore, government policies can influence not only which language is promoted but also which variety of that language is preferred.

Societal multilingualism

When a country has more than one official language and the majority of the population is bilingual, there are generally particular domains in which each language is used. Ferguson (1959) coined the term diglossia to describe the situation of a community in which most of the population is bilingual and/or bidialectal and the two codes serve different purposes. The term was originally used by Ferguson to describe a context in which two varieties of the same language are used by people of that community for different purposes. Normally one variety, termed the High, or H, variety, is acquired in an educational context and used by the community in more formal domains, such as in churches or universities. The other variety, termed the Low, or L, variety, is acquired in the home and used in informal domains, like the home or social center, to communicate with family and friends.

Later, Fishman (1972) generalized the meaning of diglossia to include the use of two separate languages within one country in which one language is used primarily for formal purposes and the other for more informal purposes. The expansion of the meaning of the term made it applicable to countries in which English is one of the official languages, as in South Africa, Singapore, and India. In these countries, English often assumes the role of what Ferguson calls the High variety, with the other languages of the country, or a different variety of English, being used in informal domains.

The fact that these different languages or varieties serve different purposes has implications for second-language teaching. In many cases the language or dialect that serves the purposes of the Low variety has lower status, so that speakers of this variety are marginalized in society and in the school system. Because of this, speakers of this variety are often given the impression that their home language is inferior; furthermore, their lack of access to the High variety can impede their progress in the educational establishment and, ultimately, in society.

Two additional concepts in the study of societal multilingualism that are important for our purposes are language maintenance and language shift. In the case of language maintenance, members of a language minority group work to promote the maintenance of their first language. This is the case of many language minority groups in the United States who have established after-school first-language maintenance programs, funded print and media programs in their first language, and supported special events in which the first language is used. (See McKay & Wong, 2000.) Language shift, on the other hand, occurs when members of a language minority replace the use of their first language in favor of another one. This is the case for almost all third generation immigrants to the United States.

The concepts of language maintenance and shift are particularly relevant to the topic of linguistic diversity in an era of globalization. Today, many warn of the danger of the spread of English and the threat it poses to the continued existence of indigenous and smaller languages (Nettle & Romaine, 2000; Phillipson, 2003). For such individuals, English is seen as the culprit in the decrease in the number of languages spoken in the world. However, there are others (e.g., Brutt-Griffler, 2002) who maintain that the spread of English is not a step toward a monolingual world of English speakers but rather a step toward a world in which bilingualism is the norm. Indeed the tremendous increase in the number of second-language speakers of English would seem to support this position.

The growth of individuals who are learning another language in their own country in order to partake in regional or global exchanges has important implications for second and foreign language learning and teaching. To begin with, such individuals have another language that serves their informal and intimate needs. Hence, they typically have little need to develop informal registers of the regional or global language. Second, in many instances individuals will acquire the additional language in order to communicate with other non-native speakers of that language. Because of this, much more attention should be given in language classes to developing strategies that help learners to communicate in exchanges in which neither speaker is fully fluent in the language.

The Sociolinguistic Context of Language Learning and Teaching

Language contact and variation

One common effect of language contact is language change. In such cases, the various languages used within a multilingual context may undergo phonological, lexical, and grammatical changes as bilinguals make use of two or more languages on a regular basis. This situation is occurring in many countries today where English has an official role in the society. In these countries, English is being influenced by the other languages it comes in contact with. In addition, English is often influencing other languages through the borrowing of English terms.

Many studies have been undertaken to determine the types of grammatical changes that are occurring in various multilingual contexts in which English plays a significant role. (See, for example, Kachru, 2005.) Frequently, researchers begin by examining a written corpus of English of a particular multilingual context to determine what kinds of grammatical innovations exist and how acceptable these structures are to both native speakers of English and local speakers of English. In general, when investigations of language change use a written corpus of published English, only very minor grammatical differences are found. (See, for example, Parasher, 1994.)

Often the kinds of grammatical changes that occur tend to be minor differences, such as variation in what is considered to be a countable noun (e.g., the standard use of luggages in English in the Philippines and the use of furnitures in Nigeria) and the creation of new phrasal verbs (e.g., the use of dismissing off in English in India, and discuss about in Nigeria). In contexts in which such features become codified and recognized as standard within that social context, there arises what Kachru (1986) has termed a nativized variety of English.

What is perhaps most puzzling in the development of alternate grammatical standards in the use of English is the fact that whereas lexical innovation is often accepted as part of language change, this tolerance is generally not extended to grammatical innovation. In Widdowson’s (1994) view, the reason for this lack of tolerance for grammatical variation is because grammar takes on another value, namely that of expressing a social identity. Hence, when grammatical standards are challenged, they challenge the security of the community and institutions that support those standards.

Investigations of language contact have also focused on the code-switching behavior of bilinguals. One of the most comprehensive theories of codeswitching is that of Myers-Scotton (1993). She explains code-switching in terms of a theory of rights and obligations. She proposes a markedness model of code-switching which assumes that speakers in a multilingual context have a sense of which code is the one expected to be used in a particular situation. This is termed the unmarked code. However, speakers can also choose to use the marked code, that is, the language or language variety that is not expected in a particular social context. Using data from multilingual African contexts, Myers-Scotton demonstrates how bilingual speakers make code choices to signal a variety of social relationships. Unfortunately, in many language learning and teaching contexts, the rich linguistic repertoire of bilinguals is not recognized, and policies are often implemented to prohibit the use of any code other than the target language.

Studies in language contact have several implications for the teaching and learning of another language. As mentioned above, language contact will inevitably result in language change. Since today many individuals are using English in contact with other languages on a daily basis, their use of English is changing, and they are in the process of establishing their own standards of English grammar and pronunciation. In general, research on these emerging varieties of English indicates that the codified and accepted standard of English that exists in these communities has few differences from other standard varieties of English. Hence, it is important for L2 teachers to recognize the integrity of the varieties of the language they teach, to realize that they are important sources of personal identity and signs of the current mobility of populations, and to avoid promoting negative attitudes toward such varieties.

Studies on code-switching have illustrated the regularity of code-switching behavior and the purposes that code-switching can serve for bilinguals. Given the many contexts today where English is used as one of the additional languages within a country, more research is needed regarding how individuals make use of English in reference to the other languages they speak. Such research will be valuable in establishing classroom objectives that complement the students’ use of English within their own speech community. In addition, in classrooms in multilingual contexts where the teacher shares a first language, more research is needed to determine how students’ first language can be used to further their competence in a target language.

Ethnographic sociolingistics

A good deal of current work in sociolinguistics falls under what is referred to as an ethnomethodologically oriented approach to the field of sociolinguistics, with linguistic interaction as the focal point. One of the central concepts of ethnographic or interactional sociolinguistics is the term speech community. Hymes (1972) contends that members of a speech community must share the same rules of speaking and be familiar with at least one common linguistic variety. Individuals are typically members of several speech communities and alter their norms of language use to conform to other members of the same speech community. With growing mobility, individuals today can belong to many different speech communities.

Work in linguistic interaction began as a reaction to Chomsky’s (1957) focus on the language of an idealized speaker-listener in a homogeneous speech community with complete knowledge of the language. This notion was challenged by Hymes (1974), who insisted that studies on language use should strive to account for the communicative competence of a native speaker of a language. Gumperz (1982) also challenged Chomsky’s notion of an idealized speaker in a homogeneous speech community, arguing instead that language use in a speech community is influenced by social and cultural factors. Gumperz’s studies on communication between blacks and whites in the United States and between Indians and British in England demonstrated how differences in language use among speech communities can cause misunderstandings leading to racial and ethnic stereotypes and inequalities in power.

The work of Rampton (1995, 1997) has taken the debate about linguistic diversity one step further. He maintains that globalization, as well as late/post-modernity (a term he prefers to postmodernism), warrants a fresh look at the issues important to sociolinguistics and L2 research. Rampton believes that the time has come for sociolinguists to challenge the notion that societies are compact and systematic entities and instead to recognize the heterogeneity and fluidity of modern states. In keeping with much of the discourse of postmodernism, he argues persuasively that sociolinguistics should give more attention to investigating issues related to fragmentation, marginality, and hybridity and recognize that “being marginal is actually a crucial experience of late modernity. Being neither on the inside nor the outside, being affiliated but not fully belonging, is said to be a normal condition” (Rampton, 1997, p. 330).

The ability to signal identity through surface linguistic features has significant ramifications for language learning and teaching. In many contexts around the world, one of the major goals of teaching a second or foreign language is to promote the acquisition of the standard form of the target language. As a result, those who use an alternate form of the target language as a way of signaling their hybridity and affiliation with a particular speech community are often penalized. They are marginalized in the society and often penalized in a school system that uses one standard to determine proficiency in the language.