The Handbook of Language Teaching E-Book
177,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Serie: Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
- Sprache: Englisch
Bringing together an international and interdisciplinary team of contributors, this Handbook is a wide-ranging and invaluable reference guide to language teaching.
- A comprehensive reference work on language teaching, which combines the latest research findings, coverage of core topics, and examples of teaching experience from a variety of languages and settings
- Provides a unique breadth of coverage, including: the psycholinguistic underpinnings of language learning; social, political, and educational contexts; program design; materials writing and course design; teaching and testing; teacher education; and assessment and evaluation
- Offers a balanced evaluation of the major positions and approaches, including examining the increasingly important social and political context of language teaching
- Written by an international and interdisciplinary group of authors from a dozen different countries; English is only one of the many languages used as examples throughout the volume
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 1773
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Series
Title
Copyright
Contributors
Part I: Overview
Chapter 1: Language Teaching
Notes
Part II: Social, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language Teaching
Chapter 2: The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching
The Social Context of Language Learning and Teaching
The Sociolinguistic Context of Language Learning and Teaching
Major Second and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching Contexts
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: The Politics and Policies of Language and Language Teaching
Introduction
Historical and Global Contextualization
Politics and/or Policy?
Linguistic Human Rights, Linguistic Diversity, and Language Maintenance in and through Education: Issues of Language Policy and Politics
Language Policy, Exemplified by the European Region
Notes
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4: History of Language Teaching
The Context of Second-Language Teaching
Beliefs about Language Learning, Methodologies and Historical Context
The Role and Status of the Language Teacher
The Role and Status of the Learner
Conclusion
References
Part III: Psycholinguistic Underpinnings of Language Learning
Chapter 5: The Language-Learning Brain
What is Neurolinguistics?
Some Promising Neurolinguistic Research
Neurolinguistic Research and L2 Learning and Teaching
Some Confusions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Sequences and Processes in Language Learning
Learner Language or Interlanguage
Sequences in Language Learning
Processes
Sequences, Processes, and Instruction: Five Generalizations and a Coda
Note
References
Chapter 7: The Importance of Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning
Actual, Perceived, and Assumed Similarities
Types of Cross-Linguistic Similarity Relationships
Item Transfer and System Transfer in Comprehension, Learning, and Production
Implications for Teaching
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Cognitive-Psychological Processes in Second Language Learning
The Components of Second Language Knowledge
How the Components of Second Language Knowledge Are Used
How the Components of Second Language Knowledge Are Learned, Acquired, Practiced, Monitored, and Consolidated
References
Chapter 9: Optimizing the Input: Frequency and Sampling in Usage-Based and Form-Focused Learning
Estimating How Language Works: From Tokens to Types to System
The Units of Language Acquisition
Acquiring Constructions
Frequency and the Roles of Input
Tuning the System: Frequency and the Attainment of Nativelike Fluency and Selection
The Language Calculator Has No “Clear” Button
Notes
References
Part IV: Program Design
Chapter 10: Bilingual and Immersion Programs
Introduction
The Sociopolitical Context of Bilingual Education
Types, Goals, and Participants
General Outcomes of Bilingual Education Programs
Dissenting Perspectives
Outcomes of Immersion Programs
Illustrative Sketches of Bilingual and Immersion Programs
Pedagogical Issues within Bilingual and Immersion Programs
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Heritage Language Programs
Introduction
Heritage Languages and Speakers
The Acquisition of Heritage Languages
Research Findings
(Re)Learning the Heritage Language in a Formal Setting
Conclusion
Notes
References
Further Reading
Chapter 12: Specific Purpose Programs
The Concept of Specific Purposes
The Case for Specific Purposes Programs
Needs, Contexts, and Genres
Rights and Identities in LSP
Organizing Specific Language Instruction
Research-Informed Pedagogy in LSP
Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 13: Study Abroad Research: Findings, Implications, and Future Directions
A Brief History of Study Abroad Research
Populations of Study and the Threshold Hypothesis
The Issue of Study Abroad Efficacy
Important Cognitive Constructs in the Study Abroad Literature
Important Linguistic Constructs in the Study Abroad Literature
The (Assumed) Roles of Input and Interaction
Identity
Programmatic Considerations
Concluding Remarks
Notes
References
Chapter 14: Less Commonly Taught Languages: Issues in Learning and Teaching
Introduction
Are LCTLs Difficult?
Theoretical and Empirical Approaches to LCTLs in SLA: Sources of Difficulty
Teaching Less Commonly Taught Languages
References
Chapter 15: Third Language Acquisition Theory and Practice
Introduction
Review of the Literature
Praxis: Research on Adult L3 Instruction
A Case Study of USG L3 Programs
Notes
References
Part V: Course Design and Materials Writing
Chapter 16: Foreign and Second Language Needs Analysis
Introduction
Get Ready to Do NA
Do the NA Research
Use the NA Results
Conclusion
Note
References
Chapter 17: Syllabus Design
Introduction: Two Basic Distinctions
Traditional Approaches to Syllabus Design
Contemporary Rationales for Syllabus Design
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter 18: Advances in Materials Design
Introduction
Departure
Analysis
Conclusion
Note
References
Further Reading
Chapter 19: Corpora in Language Teaching
Introduction
What are the Principles in Corpus Linguistics that Can Be Applied to Language Teaching?
What Information Can the Corpus Provide?
What Corpora?
Applications
Corpora and LSP
Learner Corpora
Conclusion
Notes
References
Further Reading
Chapter 20: Technology-Enhanced Materials
Introduction
The Pedagogical Evolution of CALL
Technology and Materials Creation
Teachers as Authors: What Can Be Expected
Review of Resources
Conclusion
Notes
References
Part VI: Teaching and Testing
Chapter 21: Methodological Principles for Language Teaching
The Methodological Pendulum
On What Basis Advice, Then?
Methodological Principles, Pedagogic Procedures, and Evaluation Criteria
Some Relevant SLA Research Findings
Implications for Approaches to LT
Ten MPs
Notes
References
Chapter 22: Teaching and Testing Listening Comprehension
Cognitive and Social Dimensions of Listening
Approaches to Teaching SL/FL Listening
Listening Assessment
Conclusion
Note
References
Chapter 23: Teaching and Testing Speaking
Introduction
The Problem Space
The Construct of Spoken Language
The Construct of Oral Language Development
Researching Approaches to Spoken Language Pedagogy
Organizing the Oral Language Curriculum
Testing
Conclusion
References
Chapter 24: Teaching and Testing Reading
Research Foundations
L1 and L2 Reading Differences
L2 Reading Assessment
L2 Implications for Reading Instruction and Assessment
Teaching L2 Reading
Testing L2 Reading
Concluding Comments
Appendix: Reading Test Item Types (see Alderson, 2000; Hughes, 2004, and others)
References
Chapter 25: Learning to Read in New Writing Systems
Basic Concepts and Constructs
The Mechanism of Transfer
Reading Universals
Metalinguistic Awareness
Conceptualizing Second Language Learning to Read: The Framework
Second-Language Learning to Read: Empirical Studies
Summary and Implications
References
Chapter 26: Teaching and Testing Writing
Cognitive Factors in Learning to Write
The Writing Process and Process Approach
Writing Pedagogy outside of North America
Post-Process Approaches
Assessing Writing
References
Chapter 27: Teaching and Testing Grammar
Introduction
A Definition
Grammar Pedagogy (in General)
Approaches to Grammar Teaching
Other Topics
Grammatical Assessment
References
Chapter 28: Teaching and Testing Vocabulary
What Vocabulary?
How Should Vocabulary Be Taught and Learned?
How Should Vocabulary Knowledge Be Monitored and Assessed?
References
Chapter 29: Teaching and Testing Pragmatics
Pragmatics
Learning Pragmatics and the Structure of Pragmatic Competence
Instructed Learning of Pragmatics
Problems with Teaching Pragmatics
Testing of Pragmatics
Problems and Prospects in Testing Pragmatics
Conclusion
Notes
References
Chapter 30: Task-Based Teaching and Testing
Introduction
Task-Based Language Education
Task-Based Teaching
Task-Based Testing
Challenges and Opportunities for Task-Based Language Teaching
References
Chapter 31: Radical Language Teaching
Introduction
Historical Background to Radical Education
Developments under the Heading “Critical”
Critical Pedagogy in Second and Foreign Language Areas
Feminist Pedagogy and Language Teaching
Some Additional and Some Missing Pieces of Radical Language Teaching
Distinctiveness of Radical Language Teaching?
Notes
References
Further Reading
Chapter 32: Diagnostic Feedback in Language Assessment
Introduction
Definitions and Scope
Large-Scale Assessment Context
Classroom Assessment Context
New Approaches
Challenges
Conclusion
Note
References
Chapter 33: Computer-Assisted Teaching and Testing
Introduction
Language Teaching
The Technology Difference in Language Testing
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Teacher Education
Chapter 34: Language Teacher Education
What Is “Teaching”?
The Training of Teachers
The Great Debate
The Need for Awareness
Bridging the Divide
Note
References
Chapter 35: Diffusion and Implementation of Innovations
Introduction
What Is an Innovation?
The Central Role of Teachers’ Concerns
Supporting Teachers throughout the Implementation Process
Interaction with inservice trainers and coaches
Innovation and Language Assessment
Conclusions
References
Part VIII: Assessing and Evaluating Instruction
Chapter 36: Current Trends in Classroom Research
Introduction
Historical Background
Interactionist Classroom Research
Explicit Instruction and “Focus on Form”
Sociocultural Classroom Research
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Researching Classrooms as Social Communities
Practitioner Research
Conclusion
Note
References
Chapter 37: Issues in Language Teacher Evaluation
What Are the Main Purposes of Language Teacher Evaluation?
What Do We Know about Effective Teaching?
What Criteria Are Used for Language Teacher Evaluation?
Who Is Involved in the Language Teacher Evaluation Process?
What Types of Data Can Be Used to Inform Teacher Evaluation?
Concluding Comments
References
Chapter 38: Investigating the Effects and Effectiveness of L2 Instruction
Introduction
A Conceptual Framework for Investigating L2 Instruction
Evaluating Research and Empirical Findings on the Effects of Instruction
Conclusions and Implications for Teaching Practice
Notes
References
Chapter 39: Program Evaluation
Stakeholders
Program Theory and Logic
Program Planning and Design
Realistic Moderating Variables
Implementation Monitoring
Evaluability
Outcomes Assessment
Quantitative Program Evaluation Designs
Program Cohesion
Value-Added Interventions
Conclusions
References
Author Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 6: Sequences and Processes in Language Learning
Table 6.1 Morpheme accuracy order, from earliest to latest mastery
Table 6.2 Stages in the development of perfective (pretérito) and imperfective (imperfecto) aspect in L2 Spanish
Table 6.3 Developmental stages for negation in L2 English
Table 6.4 The emergence of word order in L2 German according to Meisel, Clahsen, & Pienemann (1981)
Table 6.5 The emergence of questions in L2 English according to Pienemann, Johnston, & Brindley (1988)
Table 6.6 Relative clauses in L2 German following Keenan & Comrie’s (1977) Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy
Chapter 11: Heritage Language Programs
Table 11.1 Linguistic characteristics of heritage speakers
Table 11.2 Characteristics of L1, L2, and HL acquisition
Table 11.3 Some predictions of a cognitive and linguistic approach to HL acquisition
Chapter 16: Foreign and Second Language Needs Analysis
Table 16.1 Steps in the NA process
Table 16.2 Procedures for NA
Table 16.3 Ideas for types of questions to address in NA
Table 16.4 Standards for judging of quantitative and qualitative research reports (summarized from Brown, 2004a)
Table 16.5 Key concepts in qualitative research methods (summarized from Brown, 2001)
Chapter 17: Syllabus Design
Table 17.1 Characteristics for pedagogic task design and sequencing decisions
Chapter 21: Methodological Principles for Language Teaching
Table 21.1 MPs, sources, and EC
Chapter 28: Teaching and Testing Vocabulary
Table 28.1 Vocabulary size needed to reach 98 percent coverage in a variety of texts
Table 28.2 Percentage coverage by fourteen 1,000-word family lists of three newspaper corpora
Chapter 32: Diagnostic Feedback in Language Assessment
Table 32.1 Summary of skill profiles
Chapter 33: Computer-Assisted Teaching and Testing
Table 33.1 Comparison studies of computer-mediated communication focused on SLA constructs
Chapter 36: Current Trends in Classroom Research
Table 36.1 Types of private speech (Ohta, 2001, p. 40)
Table 36.2 Benefits of peer L2 interactive tasks (Ohta, 2001, p. 126)
Table 36.3 Characteristics of action research (Burns, 2005, p. 61)
Table 36.4 Principles of exploratory practice (Allwright, 2005, p. 360)
Chapter 37: Issues in Language Teacher Evaluation
Table 37.1 Individual and institutional goals in formative and summative evaluation (following Darling-Hammond et al., 1983, p. 302)
Chapter 38: Investigating the Effects and Effectiveness of L2 Instruction
Table 38.1 Implicit and explicit forms of form-focused instruction
List of Illustrations
Chapter 12: Specific Purpose Programs
Figure 12.1 The teaching-learning cycle
Chapter 15: Third Language Acquisition Theory and Practice
Figure 15.1 Maximizing prior language learning and experience in conversion training
Chapter 19: Corpora in Language Teaching
Figure 19.1 Concordance of the word meaning from a corpus of academic lectures
Chapter 22: Teaching and Testing Listening Comprehension
Figure 22.1 Metacognitive knowledge about listening
Figure 22.2 Stages of listening instruction and related metacognitive processes
Chapter 28: Teaching and Testing Vocabulary
Figure 28.1 Classification of multi-word units
Chapter 29: Teaching and Testing Pragmatics
Figure 29.1 Model of pragmatics learning
Chapter 32: Diagnostic Feedback in Language Assessment
Figure 32.1 Skill mastery probabilities in nine reading skills
Figure 32.2a DiagnOsis scoring report card
Figure 32.2b DiagnOsis scoring report card
Chapter 34: Language Teacher Education
Figure 34.1 Reflective practice model of professional education/development (Wallace, 1991)
Figure 34.2 Relationships between public and private theories
Chapter 37: Issues in Language Teacher Evaluation
Figure 37.1 People involved in the teacher evaluation process
Chapter 39: Program Evaluation
Figure 39.1 Initial logic model
Figure 39.2 Logic model with individual difference variables
Figure 39.3 Logic model simulator I
Figure 39.4 Comparative growth curves
Figure 39.5 Logic model with social and economic factors
Figure 39.6 Logic model simulator II
Figure 39.7 Comparative growth curves mediated by social and economic factors
Figure 39.8 Randomized intervention design
Figure 39.9 Quasi-experimental design
Figure 39.10 Regression discontinuity design
Figure 39.11 Regression discontinuity scatterplot
Figure 39.12 Regression point displacement scatterplot
Figure 39.13 Standardized residuals plot
Pages
C1
ii
iii
iv
v
vii
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
1
3
4
5
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
371
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
This outstanding multi-volume series covers all the major subdisciplines within linguistics today and, when complete, will offer a comprehensive survey of linguistics as a whole.
Already published:
The Handbook of Child LanguageEdited by Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinney
The Handbook of Phonological Theory, Second EditionEdited by John A. Goldsmith, Jason Riggle, and Alan C. L. Yu
The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic TheoryEdited by Shalom Lappin
The Handbook of SociolinguisticsEdited by Florian Coulmas
The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, Second EditionEdited by William J. Hardcastle and John Laver
The Handbook of MorphologyEdited by Andrew Spencer and Arnold Zwicky
The Handbook of Japanese LinguisticsEdited by Natsuko Tsujimura
The Handbook of LinguisticsEdited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller
The Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic TheoryEdited by Mark Baltin and Chris Collins
The Handbook of Discourse AnalysisEdited by Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. Hamilton
The Handbook of Language Variation and ChangeEdited by J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-Estes
The Handbook of Historical LinguisticsEdited by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda
The Handbook of Language and GenderEdited by Janet Holmes and Miriam Meyerhoff
The Handbook of Second Language AcquisitionEdited by Catherine J. Doughty and Michael H. Long
The Handbook of BilingualismEdited by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. Ritchie
The Handbook of PragmaticsEdited by Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward
The Handbook of Applied LinguisticsEdited by Alan Davies and Catherine Elder
The Handbook of Speech PerceptionEdited by David B. Pisoni and Robert E. Remez
The Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volumes I–VEdited by Martin Everaert and Henk van Riemsdijk
The Handbook of the History of EnglishEdited by Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los
The Handbook of English LinguisticsEdited by Bas Aarts and April McMahon
The Handbook of World EnglishesEdited by Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. Nelson
The Handbook of Educational LinguisticsEdited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult
The Handbook of Clinical LinguisticsEdited by Martin J. Ball, Michael R. Perkins, Nicole Müller, and Sara Howard
The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole StudiesEdited by Silvia Kouwenberg and John Victor Singler
The Handbook of Language TeachingEdited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty
The Handbook of Language ContactEdited by Raymond Hickey
The Handbook of Language and Speech DisordersEdited by Jack S. Damico, Nicole Müller, Martin J. Ball
The Handbook of Computational Linguistics and Natural Language ProcessingEdited by Alexander Clark, Chris Fox, and Shalom Lappin
The Handbook of Language and GlobalizationEdited by Nikolas Coupland
The Handbook of Hispanic LinguisticsEdited by Manuel Díaz-Campos
The Handbook of Language SocializationEdited by Alessandro Duranti, Elinor Ochs, and Bambi B. Schieffelin
The Handbook of Language Teaching
Edited by
Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty
This paperback edition first published 2011© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd except for editorial material and organization © 2009 Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty
Edition history: Blackwell Publishing Ltd (hardback, 2009)
Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Offices350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataThe handbook of language teaching / edited by Michael H. Long and Catherine J. Doughty.p. cm. — (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics)ISBN 978-1-4051-5489-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4443-5002-9 (paperback : alk. paper)Language and languages—Study and teaching—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Second language acquisition—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Long, Michael H. II. Doughty, Catherine.P51.H3265 2009418.0071—dc22
2009008867
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs [9781444315790]; Wiley Online Library [9781444315783]
Craig Chaudron (1946–2006)
Contributors
Kathleen M. BaileyKathleen M. Bailey received her PhD from the University of California at Los Angeles. She is a professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey Institute of International Studies, where she has taught since 1981. In 1998–99 she was the President of the international TESOL association.
Alan BerettaAlan Beretta is Professor of Linguistics at Michigan State University. His research is in neurolinguistics and has been published in such journals as Brain and Language, Cognitive Brain Research, and Aphasiology.
David BrettDavid Brett worked in Italy as an ESL teacher for 10 years before becoming a researcher in English Linguistics at the University of Sassari. He has published and presented widely on New Technologies and Second Language Learning, with particular reference to pronunciation teaching. He has also held training workshops for language teachers on various aspects of technology-enhanced teaching, both in Italy and in other countries.
James Dean BrownJames Dean (“JD”) Brown is Professor of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. He has authored or co-authored numerous articles and books on topics as diverse as second language testing and quantitative research methods, language curriculum development, using surveys in language programs, teaching connected speech, and heritage language curriculum.
Martin BygateMartin Bygate is Professor in Applied Linguistics and Language Education at Lancaster University, UK. He has undertaken funded research and taught courses on oral language teaching and development. Principal publications are Speaking(1987, Oxford University Press), Grammar and the Language Teacher (co-edited with A. Tonkyn and E. Williams, 1994, Prentice-Hall), Researching pedagogic tasks: Second language learning, teaching and testing (co-edited with P. Skehan & M. Swain, 2001, Pearson Educational Ltd), and, co-authored with Virginia Samuda, Tasks in second language learning (2008, Palgrave).
Carol A. ChapelleCarol A. Chapelle, Professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics at Iowa State University, is Past President of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (2006–7), former editor of TESOL Quarterly (1999–2004), and co-editor of the Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series. Her books include Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing, and research (2001, Cambridge University Press), English language learning and technology: Lectures on applied linguistics in the age of information and communication technology (2003, John Benjamins), Assessing language through technology (with Dan Douglas, 2006, Cambridge University Press), Building a validity argument for the Test of English as a Foreign Language (with Mary Enright & Joan Jamieson, 2007, Routledge) and Tips for teaching with CALL (2008, Pearson-Longman).
Teresa ChungMihwa Chung (Teresa) teaches at Korea University. She has published articles on technical vocabulary, the vocabulary of newspapers, and developing reading speed in a foreign language. Her PhD thesis from Victoria University of Wellington was on the methodology of developing lists of technical vocabulary and the role of technical vocabulary in technical texts.
Joseph CollentineJoseph Collentine is Professor of Spanish at Northern Arizona University. He has published articles and research about study abroad, the acquisition of grammar, and corpus linguistics. He is currently the director of the Spanish Masters programs at NAU and the coordinator of the Spanish online program.
Graham CrookesGraham Crookes is Professor, Department of Second Language Studies, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, where he is also Executive Director, ESL Programs. His most recent books are A Practicum in TESOL and Making a Statement: Values, Philosophies, and Professional Beliefs in TESOL (2003 and 2008, Cambridge University Press).
Jim CumminsJim Cummins is Professor and Canada Research Chair in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. His research focuses on literacy development in multilingual school contexts, as well as on the potential roles of technology in promoting language and literacy development.
Robert DeKeyserRobert DeKeyser (PhD, Stanford University) is Professor of Second Language Acquisition at the University of Maryland. His research is mainly on second language acquisition, with emphasis on cognitive-psychological aspects such as implicit versus explicit learning, automatization of rule knowledge, and individual differences and their interaction with instructional treatments. He has published in a variety of journals, including Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Language Testing, The Modern Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly, and AILA Review. He has contributed chapters to several highly regarded handbooks, and he recently published an edited volume with Cambridge University Press entitled Practice in a Second Language: Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology (2007).
Catherine J. DoughtyCatherine J. Doughty is Senior Research Scientist and SLA Area Director at the Center for the Advanced Study of Language at the University of Maryland, and is an affiliate Professor of SLA at the University of Maryland.
Nick C. EllisNick C. Ellis is Research Scientist at the English Language Institute and Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. His research interests include language acquisition, cognition, reading in different languages, corpus linguistics, cognitive linguistics, psycholinguistics, and emergentist accounts of language acquisition.
John FlowerdewJohn Flowerdew is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Centre for Language Education Research, School of Education, University of Leeds. For many years he worked at the City University of Hong Kong. He has also worked in South America and the Middle East. As well as writing and editing a number of books, he has published widely in the leading Applied Linguistics, Language Teaching and Discourse Analysis journals, focusing on academic discourse, corpus linguistics, and English for Specific Purposes. His most recent book (with Lindsay Miller) is Second Language Listening (2005, Cambridge University Press). His most recent edited book (with Vijay Bhatia and Rodney Jones) is Advances in Discourse Studies (2008, Routledge).
Christine GohChristine Goh is Associate Professor of applied linguistics in the National Institute of Education, Singapore (Nanyang Technological University). Her interests are in listening and speaking development, and the role of metacognition in L2 learning. She has authored many international journal articles and book chapters on listening research and teaching methodology for listening.
Ewa M. GolonkaEwa M. Golonka holds a PhD in Russian Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition from Bryn Mawr College. She has taught Russian, linguistics, and SLA at various universities. Currently, she is an Assistant Research Scientist at the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.
Marta González-LloretMarta González-Lloret has taught at the Spanish division of the LLEA department at the University of Hawai’i for more than a decade. She holds a PhD in Second Language Acquisition from the University of Hawai’i at Manoa and her research interests include second language acquisition, technology for language learning and teaching, and teacher training.
Kira GorKira Gor is Associate Professor of Russian and Second Language Acquisition in the School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at the University of Maryland. Her research interests include psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying cross-linguistic and second-language processing of phonology and morphology.
William GrabeWilliam Grabe is Regents Professor of English at Northern Arizona University, where he teaches in the MATESL and PhD in Applied Linguistics programs. His interests include reading, writing, written discourse analysis, and the disciplinary status of applied linguistics. His most recent book is Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice (2009, Cambridge University Press).
Rick de GraaffRick de Graaff is a language teaching consultant/researcher at the IVLOS Institute of Education, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. His main fields of interest include: task effectiveness in language teaching, the role of instruction in L2 pedagogy, the role of peer feedback in collaborative writing, and content and language integrated learning. Most recently he has contributed to the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism and ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics.
Alex HousenAlex Housen (MA, UCLA; PhD, University of Brussels) is Senior Lecturer in English, Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism at the University of Brussels (VUB). His research interests include second/foreign language acquisition, second/foreign language teaching, and bilingualism. His recent publications include Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (with M. Pierrard, 2005, Mouton de Gruyter) and Bilingualism: Basic Principles and Beyond (with J. M. Dewaele and L. Wei, 2003, Multilingual Matters).
Ken HylandKen Hyland is Professor of Education and director of the Centre for Academic and Professional Literacies at the Institute of Education, University of London. He has published over 130 articles and 13 books on language teaching and academic writing, most recently Academic Discourse (2009, Continuum). He is co-editor of the Journal of English for Academic Purposes.
Eunice Eunhee JangEunice Eunhee Jang is Assistant Professor at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto. Her research interests include validity and fairness issues in language testing and cognitive diagnostic assessment. Her research has been published in Journal of Educational Measurement, Language Testing (in press), International Journal of Testing, Journal of Mixed Methods Research, and in the book New Directions in Psychological Measurement with Model-Based Approaches (edited by S. Embretson & J. S. Roberts, American Psychological Association).
Scott JarvisScott Jarvis is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at Ohio University, where he teaches courses on second language acquisition, language testing, and other areas of applied linguistics. His main research interests are cross-linguistic influence (or language transfer) and lexical diversity, and his work has appeared in journals such as Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, and Language Testing. He is also co-author with Aneta Pavlenko of Crosslinguistic Influence in Language and Cognition (2008, Routledge), and is the Associate Editor for Language Learning.
Renée JourdenaisRenée Jourdenais is an associate professor in the MATESOL/MATFL program at the Monterey Institute of International Studies, where she specializes in second language acquisition and in language teacher education. She also has extensive experience in curriculum development and in language assessment. Her recent research work explores the development of teacher knowledge.
Keiko KodaKeiko Koda is Professor of Second Language Acquisition and Japanese in the Department of Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University. Her major research areas include second language reading, biliteracy development, psycho-linguistics, and foreign language pedagogy. Her recent books include Insights into Second Language Reading (2005, Cambridge University Press), Reading and Language Learning (2007, Blackwell), and Learning to Read across Languages (2008, Routledge).
Antony John KunnanAntony John Kunnan is Professor of TESOL and Language Education at California State University and the University of Hong Kong respectively. He has published in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Language Testing, and Language Assessment Quarterlyand in many edited volumes and handbooks. He was the President of the International Language Testing Association in 2004 and is the founding editor of Language Assessment Quarterly.
Diane Larsen-FreemanDiane Larsen-Freeman is Professor of Education, Professor of Linguistics, and Research Scientist at the English Language Institute, University of Michigan. Her most recent book (2008) is Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics, co-authored with Lynne Cameron and published by Oxford University Press.
Michael H. LongMichael H. Long is Professor of SLA in the School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he teaches courses and seminars in the PhD program in SLA. Mike is the author of over 100 articles and several books, and has served on the editorial boards of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, TESOL Quarterly, Language Teaching Research, and other journals. His recent publications include The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, co-edited with Catherine Doughty (2003, Blackwell), Second Language Needs Analysis (2005, Cambridge), and Problems in SLA (2007, Lawrence Erlbaum).
Sandra Lee McKaySandra Lee McKay is Professor of English at San Francisco State University, where she teaches courses in sociolinguistics, as well as methods and materials for graduate students in TESOL. Her books include Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches (2002, Oxford University Press, winner of the Ben Warren International Book Award), Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching (edited with Nancy Hornberger, 1996, Cambridge University Press) and Researching Second Language Classrooms (2006, Lawrence Erlbaum). Her newest book, International English in Its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially Sensitive Pedagogy (with Wendy Bokhorst-Heng, 2008, Routledge) is an examination of the social and sociolinguistic context of present-day English teaching and learning.
Rosamond F. MitchellRosamond F. Mitchell is Professor of Education at the University of Southampton. Her research interests are in the area of Second Language Acquisition, especially of French. She is particularly interested in theories of language learning and their empirical implications, and in the interface between linguistic theory and cognitive approaches to the learning of second languages. She is co-editor of Teaching Grammar: Perspectives in Higher Education (1996) and co-author of Second Language Learning Theories (2004).
Silvina MontrulSilvina Montrul is Associate Professor of Spanish, Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is author of The Acquisition of Spanish (2004, John Benjamins) and Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism. Re-examining the Age Factor (2008, John Benjamins). Her research focuses on linguistic and psycholinguistic approaches to adult second language acquisition and bilingualism, in particular syntax, semantics, and morphology. She is also an expert in language loss and retention in minority-language-speaking bilinguals.
Diane MusumeciDiane Musumeci is Associate Professor and Head in the Department of Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is the author of Breaking Tradition: An Exploration of the Historical Relationship Between Theory and Practice in Second Language Teaching (1997, McGraw-Hill).
Paul NationPaul Nation is professor of Applied Linguistics in the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. His specialist interests are language teaching methodology and vocabulary learning. His latest book on vocabulary is Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques published by Cengage Learning (2008), and two books, Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking (with Jonathan Newton) and Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing, have just appeared from Routledge/Taylor and Francis.
John M. NorrisJohn M. Norris is associate professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. His work focuses on assessment, program evaluation, research methods, and task-based language teaching in foreign and second language education. His recent publications include a single-author book Validity Evaluation in Language Assessment (2008, Peter Lang) and a co-edited volume with Lourdes Ortega Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching (John Benjamins, 2006).
Lourdes OrtegaLourdes Ortega is associate professor at the University of Hawai’i, where she teaches graduate courses in second language acquisition and foreign language education. Her most recent book is Understanding Second Language Acquisition (2009, Hodder Arnold).
Robert PhillipsonRobert Phillipson is a Professor Emeritus at Copenhagen Business School, Denmark. His Linguistic Imperialism (1992, Oxford University Press) has also been published in China and India. Recent publications include English-Only Europe? Challenging Language Policy (2003, Routledge) and Linguistic Imperialism Continued (Orient Black-swan). Several articles can be downloaded from www.cbs.dk/staff/phillipson.
Charlene PolioCharlene Polio is an associate professor at Michigan State University, where she directs the MA TESOL program. She has published research on second language writing, classroom discourse, and second language acquisition and in journals such as the Journal of Second Language Writing, the Modern Language Journal, and Studies in Second Language Acquisition. She is the incoming editor of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics and co-editor of Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Second Language Research in Honor of Susan M. Gass to be published by Routledge.
Håkan RingbomHåkan Ringbom is emeritus professor of English at Åbo Akademi University, Turku/Åbo, Finland. Among his previous publications are The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning (1987) and Cross-Linguistic Similarity in Foreign Language Learning (2007), both with Multilingual Matters.
William P. RiversWilliam P. Rivers is Chief Linguist at Integrated Training Solutions, Arlington, VA. His publications include Language and National Security in the 21st Century (with Richard D. Brecht, 2001) and Language and Critical Area Studies after September 11 (with Richard D. Brecht, Ewa Golonka, and Mary E. Hart). His research interests include third language acquisition, computational sociolinguistics, and language policy.
Peter RobinsonPeter Robinson is Professor of Linguistics and SLA in the Department of English, Aoyama Gakuin University, Shibuya, Tokyo, where he teaches and supervises research on second language acquisition, cognitive abilities for language learning, and effects of instruction. Recent publications include Task Complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis and Second Language Instruction, special issue of the International Review of Applied Linguistics (co-edited with Roger Gilabert, 2007), Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (co-edited with Nick Ellis, 2008, Routledge), and Second Language Task Complexity: Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of Learning and Performance (in press, John Benjamins).
Carsten RoeverCarsten Roever is a Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics in the School of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Melbourne. His research interests include second language acquisition, interlanguage pragmatics, and second language assessment. He has written several book chapters, journal articles, and the book Testing ESL Pragmatics (2005, Peter Lang) and has co-authored Language Testing: The Social Dimension with Tim McNamara (2006, Blackwell).
Steven J. RossSteve Ross teaches at the School of Policy Studies, Kwansei Gakuin University. His research has appeared in Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, International Journal of Testing, Language Testing, Journal of Pragmatics, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Second Language Research, System, International Review of Applied Linguistic, TESOL Quarterly, and in several edited volumes.
Rani RubdyDr Rani Rubdy is Senior Fellow at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. She is co-editor of two recently published books, English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles (Continuum, 2006) and Language as Commodity: Global Structures, Local Marketplaces (Continuum, 2008). Her other recent publications include the book chapters, ‘Remaking Singapore for the new age: Official ideology and the realities of practice’ in Decolonization, Globalization: Language-in-education Policy and Practice (edited by Angel M. Y. Lin & Peter W. Martin, 2005, Multilingual Matters) and ‘Language planning ideologies, communicative practices an their consequences’ in Springer’s Encyclopedia of Language and Education (2008).
Tove Skutnabb-KangasTove Skutnabb-Kangas, emerita (University of Roskilde, Denmark and Åbo Akademi University, Finland), bilingual from birth in Finnish and Swedish, has written or edited around 50 monographs and almost 400 articles and book chapters, in 32 languages, about minority education, linguistic human rights, linguistic genocide, subtractive spread of English and the relationship between biodiversity and linguistic diversity. She lives on an ecological farm with husband Robert Phillipson. For publications, see http://akira.ruc.dk/∼tovesk/.
Kris Van den BrandenKris Van den Branden is a professor of linguistics at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. He is one of the current directors of the Centre for Language and Education at the same university. His main research interests are in task-based language teaching, the role of interaction in instructed language learning, and the diffusion of innovations in the educational field. He has published in many international journals, and has edited a volume on task-based language teaching in the Cambridge University Press Applied Linguistics Series.
Larry VandergriftLarry Vandergrift is Professor at the Official Languages and Bilingualism Institute (OLBI) at the University of Ottawa. His research in the teaching of second/foreign language listening has been published in Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Canadian Modern Language Review, Language Learning, Language Teaching, Modern Language Journal, and more. He is currently a co-editor of the Canadian Modern Language Review and director of the research centre at OLBI.
Karen VatzKaren Vatz is a graduate student in the Second Language Acquisition PhD program at the University of Maryland. She is currently working on her dissertation on the representation and processing of grammatical gender in advanced L2 learners. Other areas of interest include bilingual lexical representation and critical period effects.
Alan WatersAlan Waters is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, UK. He has taught EFL and trained teachers in the UK and several other parts of the world. He has published a number of books and articles on a range of ELT topics.
Jessica WilliamsJessica Williams is a Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Chicago, where she also directs the TESOL program. She has published on variety of topics, including second language writing, lexical acquisition, and the effect of focus on form. Her latest publications include an edited volume (with Bill VanPatten, 2006, Routledge), Theories in Second Language Acquisition and the student text, Academic Encounters: American Studies (Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Part IOverview
Chapter 1Language Teaching
MICHAEL H. LONG
Hundreds of millions of people voluntarily attempt to learn languages each year. They include adults who seek proficiency in a new language for academic, professional, occupational, vocational training, or religious purposes, or because they have become related through marriage to speakers of languages other than their mother tongue. Then, there are (some would argue, “captive”) school-age children who experience their education through the medium of a second language, or for whom one or more foreign languages are obligatory subjects in their regular curriculum. In addition to these easily recognizable groups, language teachers around the world are increasingly faced with non-volunteers. These are the tens of millions of people each year forced to learn new languages and dialects, and sometimes new identities, because they have fled traumatic experiences of one kind or another – war, drought, famine, disease, intolerable economic circumstances, ethnic cleansing, and other forms of social conflict – crossing linguistic borders in the process. Since the horror and frequency of such events show no signs of decreasing, language teaching is likely to remain a critical matter for these groups for the foreseeable future, with the scale of forced mass migrations if anything likely to grow in the twenty-first century, due to the potentially disastrous effects of climate change.
For both groups of learners, volunteers and non-volunteers, language teaching is increasingly recognized as important by international organizations, governments, militaries, intelligence agencies, corporations, NGOs, education systems, health systems, immigration and refugee services, migrant workers, bilingual families, and the students themselves. With the growing recognition come greater responsibility and a need for accountability. LT1 is rarely a matter of life or death, but it often has a significant impact on the educational life chances, economic potential and social wellbeing of individual students and whole societies. Students and entities that sponsor them increasingly want to know not just that the way they are taught works, but that it constitutes optimal use of their time and money.
Demonstrating effectiveness and efficiency is often difficult. Historically, LT has been regarded as an art – or a craft, at least – not a science, with scant regard and little financial support for research. Demand for some languages, notably English and Chinese, has been so great in recent years that, with demand far exceeding supply, few consumers have been in a position to quibble over the quality of their instruction. In the case of some rarely taught languages for which there is a sudden surge in need, e.g., as a by-product of military actions or natural disasters, students and sponsors have no choice but to accept whatever can be found, adequate or not. Even in the case of widely taught languages, like English, Chinese, Arabic, French, German, and Spanish, research that is carried out is sometimes criticized for having been conducted in real classrooms and other “natural” instructional settings, with a resulting lack of control over significant variables that may have influenced the outcomes of interest. Alternatively, when conducted under controlled experimental conditions, studies are sometimes criticized for having produced findings that may not generalize to real classrooms. Series of studies of the same phenomena in both natural and artificial instructional environments, utilizing a variety of research methods, are clearly desirable.
Despite these problems, the situation has gradually improved in recent years, with steady growth in the amount and sophistication of research on LT itself, and in disciplines with much to say about the process LT is designed to facilitate, language learning. Of those feeder disciplines, theory and research in some areas of second language acquisition (SLA) are the most directly relevant, but work in psychology, educational psychology, anthropology, curriculum and instruction, and more, is also valuable. This is not to say that all the answers are known, or even that most of them are, but LT prescriptions and proscriptions that ignore theory and research findings in those fields are gradually and justifiably losing credibility. Where they are kept viable, it is chiefly by commercial interests, which still wield enormous influence, and the continued marketability of whose wares is often best served by ignorance about effectiveness.
The authors of each chapter in this volume were asked wherever possible to draw on research findings when making proposals. This, they have done. Also, while many of them specialize in the teaching of English, on which the greatest number of studies have been carried out, and/or operate in English-speaking countries, they were asked not to focus on the teaching of any one language or any one teaching context – foreign, second, lingua franca, etc. – but to choose examples and synthesize research findings and teaching experience from, and relevant to, a variety of languages and settings. They were asked to provide balanced evaluations of major positions and approaches, but granted scope to advance their own views. This, they have also done.
As is visible in the Table of Contents, in addition to coverage of core foundational issues, The Handbook of Language Teaching contains chapters on a few topics seldom found in comparable anthologies and textbooks. These chapters reflect recent developments and changing emphases in the field, or ones we believe deserve more attention. Examples include chapters on the language-learning brain; on programs designed specifically for heritage learners, about whom there is now an explosion of (sometimes rather uninformed) writing; on advanced learners; study abroad; third language, conversion, and cross-training programs; LCTLs (less commonly taught languages), which geopolitics are rapidly making a lot more commonly taught; and (not unrelated) on reading new scripts; as well as on radical language teaching and the diffusion of innovation. In another departure from the norm, instead of one chapter on teaching various skills, and a separate one on testing them, we invited one author to cover both in a single chapter. The idea is to avoid overlap and facilitate greater coherence of treatment. We selected individuals whose prior work showed they can handle both at the required level. While certainly not unique to this volume, there is also expert coverage of the increasingly apparent and important politics and social and political context of language teaching.
One author conspicuously missing from the assembled company is the late Craig Chaudron, a widely respected expert on many aspects of LT, and a valued colleague and close personal friend. Craig had agreed to contribute a chapter to the handbook, but as many readers will know, died unexpectedly in 2006. His untimely passing is a tragic loss for all who knew him, and for the field as a whole. This volume is humbly dedicated to his memory.
NOTES
We are grateful to Danielle Descoteaux, Julia Kirk, and the staff at Wiley-Blackwell for their support at all stages of the development of this volume, and to the reviewers of individual chapters.
1
he following abbreviations are used throughout the volume:
FL – foreign languageL1 – first, or native, languageL2 and SL – second language in the broad sense, including any additional language to the L1LT – language teachingSLA – second language acquisition.
Part IISocial, Political, and Educational Contexts of Language Teaching
Chapter 2The Social and Sociolinguistic Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching
SANDRA LEE MCKAY AND RANI RUBDY
We live in an age of linguistic diversity increased greatly by globalization, the movement of people across borders, and the widespread acquisition of additional languages by individuals in their own countries. All of these factors have led to an increase in the number of second-language learners and the kinds of contexts in which they are learning languages.
This chapter is about the social and sociolinguistic context of present-day foreign and second-language learning and teaching. In examining the social context of language learning, we focus on how language teaching contexts are affected by the larger social, political, and educational setting in which the teaching takes place. In examining the sociolinguistic context of language teaching, we focus on how the linguistic features of interactions, both inside and outside of the classroom, are affected by the social context in which the interaction takes place.
Our division is in many ways similar to a traditional distinction made in the field of sociolinguistics where one of the major debates is whether to take social or linguistic factors as primary in investigating the relationship between the social context and language variables. As evidence of this debate, Wardhaugh (1992) and others make a distinction between the sociology of language and sociolinguistics. Whereas the sociology of language investigates the manner in which social and political forces influence language use, sociolinguistics takes linguistic factors as primary in its investigations of language and society.
In keeping with this distinction, the first part of the chapter focuses on two areas of investigation typically studied in the sociology of language that influence the social context of language learning: language planning and policy, and societal multilingualism. The second part of the chapter focuses on two areas of investigation typically studied in what Wardhaugh terms sociolinguistics: language contact and variation, and ethnographic sociolinguistics. The final section of the chapter uses case studies of second and foreign language teaching to illustrate how the social and sociolinguistic context can influence language pedagogy. Whereas this chapter will discuss the learning and teaching context of various languages, a good deal of attention will be given to the learning of English. This is because today English is the most widely studied second and foreign language (Crystal, 1997), causing the study of the social and sociolinguistic context of the learning of this language to be of interest to many learners and practitioners.
