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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The field of sleep medicine has gone through tremendous evolution since the discovery of REM sleep in 1953 and remarkable research in recent years has led to multiple advances in sleep medicine. Approvals for new medicines for treating sleep disorders along with new evidence-based interventions for insomnia and sleep apnea, have transformed sleep medicine into a medical specialty in its own right.
The Latest Trends in Sleep Medicine reviews the most important improvements in sleep medicine, with contributions from over fifteen international and respected experts in the discipline. Ten chapters cover topics of interest to healthcare professionals who are focused on somnology such as the management of sleep disorders, restless leg syndrome, sleep apnea medication and surgery, REM sleep behavior disorder and cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia. In addition to these topics in medicine, the contributors present broader picture of sleep medicine by reviewing secondary topics such as sleep and aging, and driving safety.
The Latest Trends in Sleep Medicine will be useful to healthcare professionals seeking to improve their understanding about contemporary sleep medicine. It also serves as a timely update for respiratory and sleep medicine clinicians, whose efforts are still needed in treating and improving the quality and length of life in patients with complex sleep disorders.
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Seitenzahl: 396
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2001
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PREFACE I
The field of sleep medicine has gone through tremendous evolution since the discovery of REM sleep in 1953 and remarkable research in recent years has led to multiple advances in sleep medicine. Among the most important improvements are the approval of the new medication for treating excessive daytime sleepiness in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and narcolepsy, treatment of central sleep apnea with phrenic nerve stimulation, treatment of obstructive sleep apnea with hypoglossal nerve stimulation, and emerging evidence on possible medication treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. These are exciting times in the field of sleep medicine, which is now a specialty in its own right. Technological advances are helping us break down diagnoses (e.g., further differentiating Narcolepsy into Type 1 and Type) and lead to novel ways of home sleep apnea testing (like peripheral arterial tonometry) and computerized interpretation of home sleep studies. We have potential tools in some areas of sleep medicine, such as obstructive sleep apnea, that can be used as part of a strategy for deep phenotyping of patients in precision medicine. Not only that, areas such as chronic insomnia and restless legs syndrome show promise for precision medicine application, especially after the identification of genetic markers and application of our understanding of the pharmacogenetics of commonly used medications in sleep medicine. Undoubtedly, much greater progress will be made in the coming years. We believe that the contributions of this book authored by international and respected experts will be useful to the respiratory and sleep medicine clinicians, whose efforts are still needed in treating and improving the quality and length of life in patients with complex sleep disorders.
PREFACE II
I am delighted to present a state-of-the-art, up-to-date, comprehensive sleep medicine textbook. You will recognize many world-renowned scholars and scientists in the list of authors in this book. The credit goes to Dr. Imran Iftikhar's vision and tireless work in compiling this well-rounded book covering all essential topics of sleep physiology, pathology, latest research, and interventions. Content experts have written each chapter in this book with extensive subject experience.
I thank and congratulate all authors and Dr. Iftikhar for putting together an enormous resource for new and seasoned sleep doctors alike. This book's format also lends itself nicely to non-sleep health care workers. Ultimately, this textbook will improve the standard of sleep medicine and benefit patients suffering from sleep disorders.
List of Contributors
Management of Non-Narcolepsy Hypersomnia and Excessive Daytime Sleepiness
Imran H. Iftikhar1,*Abstract
The International Classification for Sleep Disorders- third edition (ICSD-3) has classified central disorders of hypersomnolence as, Narcolepsy type 1 and type 2, idiopathic hypersomnia (IH), Kleine–Levin syndrome (KLS), hypersomnia due to a medical or neurologic disorder, hypersomnia due to medication or substance, hypersomnia associated with psychiatric disorders, and insufficient sleep syndrome. A number of pharmacological treatment options are now available for Narcolepsy type 1 and type 2. However, for conditions like IH and KLS, much work is still being done to understand the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms and consequently, these conditions have the least amount of high-grade evidence on pharmacologic options, and most medicines are used ‘off-label’. This chapter focuses on treating non-narcoleptic hypersomnia syndromes- those commonly encountered in Sleep disorders clinics such as residual hypersomnia despite having a patient adherent to therapeutic positive airway pressure settings, to some uncommon conditions like IH and an exceedingly rare condition like KLS. New medications like solriamfetol and pitolisant and their possible use in some of these conditions is also discussed in this chapter.
Introduction
Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) is the cardinal feature of several disorders of central hypersomnolence. This specific sub-field in Sleep Medicine has evolved significantly over time. The earliest known use of the word ‘Narcolepsy’ is believed to have been in a case report published in 1880 by Jean Baptiste Gélineau describing a 38-year-old wine merchant with > 200 sleep attacks per day [1]. Gélineau used the Greek word, ‘νάρκη’ (narkē), meaning “numbness” and λῆψις (lepsis) meaning ‘attack’, to coin the term we use now, ‘Narcolepsy’.
From the works of Bedrich Roth and colleagues [2] in the mid-1970s to 1980s, the term ‘idiopathic hypersomnia (IH) was introduced, who actually subdivided non-narcoleptic functional hypersomnias into three types: (1) monosymptomatic IH, characterized by diurnal hypersomnia and long nocturnal sleep periods; (2) polysymptomatic hypersomnia characterized by the same symptoms as well as by prolonged confusion and disorientation upon awakening (sleep drunkenness); and (3) neurotic hypersomnia [3]. ICSD-1 then formally incorporated the term ‘IH’ [4]. This then evolved over time and the term was further sub-divided into ‘IH with or without long sleep time’ in ICSD-2 [5], only to be lumped back again into one category, ‘IH’ in ICSD-3 [6]. Recently, a new debate has emerged in literature on re-arranging this classification further and lumping in ‘IH’ with the Narcolepsy type 2 category, primarily because ‘IH with long sleep time’ appears to be an identifiable and meaningful disease subtype as seen by most experts in the field and because ‘IH without long sleep time’ and Narcolepsy type 2 share substantial phenotypic overlap and cannot reliably be distinguished with current testing [7].
As such, the management approach of Narcolepsy (especially Type 1) is well-established, extensively published with a continued supply of new pharmacologic treatment options to our armamentarium to manage this condition [8, 9]. However, not much is known about the non-narcoleptic disorders of hypersomnolence like Kleine–Levin syndrome, hypersomnia due to a medical or neurologic disorder, hypersomnia due to medication or substance, hypersomnia associated with psychiatric disorders, and insufficient sleep syndrome, and hence will be the focus of this chapter. Table 1 summarizes the diagnostic criteria of each category and the treatment options.
Idiopathic Hypersomnia
Current diagnostic criteria as laid out by ICSD-3 requires the presence of excessive daily sleepiness for at least 3 months, along with the absence of cataplexy, evidence of fewer than 2 sleep onset Rapid Eye Movements period of sleep (SOREMPs) on multiple sleep latency testing (MSLT) or none if the preceding overnight polysomnography (PSG) had one, and either having an MSL of less than 8 min on MSLT or evidence of sleeping > 660 minutes based on objective testing from either a 24 hour PSG or at least a 7-day wrist actigraphy aided with sleep log [6]. More often than not, patients with this condition will also have features of autonomic dysfunction (like orthostatic blood pressure changes or Raynaud’s phenomenon) [10, 11], long sleep durations at night, long naps, a sense of unrefreshing sleep, and extreme difficulty in awakening, known as sleep drunkenness or pronounced sleep inertia [12], as well as fatigue and cognitive dysfunction [13].
The exact pathophysiology of IH is not clear. Several theories exist in literature. One of them relates to the increased activity of the sedating GABA-A system, presumably by the presence of a trypsin-sensitive substance found in the CSF of these patients [14]. Circadian dysfunction is postulated as another theory because of the noted similarities in clinical phenotype, melatonin, and cortisol rhythms with a circadian phase delay condition [15]. Recently a study of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of IH patients showed that the Default-Mode Network (DMN)—a brain network key to alertness and sleep had strikingly distinct findings- specifically greater gray matter volume and cortical thickness in the posterior DMN and lowered regional cerebral blood flow and functional connectivity in the anterior DMN [16]. Lastly, some have proposed that IH patients may have a dysfunction of the parasympathetic activity during awake and sleep and an altered autonomic response to arousals, further suggesting that an impaired parasympathetic function may explain some vegetative symptoms in these patients [17].
Currently, there are no medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of IH. Most clinicians have resorted to “off-label” prescribing of drugs used in other disorders of excessive daytime sleepiness. Some of these drugs are discussed below.
Modafinil
Modafinil is approved by the US FDA for the excessive daytime sleepiness associated with Narcolepsy type 1, type 2, obstructive sleep apnea, and shift work sleep disorder in adults besides other non-sleep indications. Although it is not entirely clear how modafinil works but a major mechanism of its action seems to be the prevention of dopamine reuptake [18]. In a randomized controlled trial (RCT), though modafinil 200 mg/day over a 3 week period showed -6 points mean reduction in Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) score compared with -1.5 points with placebo, MWT improvement when compared to placebo was not significant (+ 3 min vs. 0 min) [19]. In another double-blind cross-over RCT, modafinil, in a composite group of patients with IH and patients with narcolepsy, improved driving performance and improved MWT (from 19.7 ± 9.2 min under placebo to 30.8 ± 9.8 min) [20]. Another RCT showed similar results [21]. The latter two RCTs [20, 21] did not specifically assess the effects of modafinil in the IH group alone. Although these studies [20, 21] do not directly indicate a treatment benefit of modafinil for people with IH because the majority of patients in these 2 studies (31/54, 57%) had IH, it is conceivably possible that these significant treatment benefits were because of that in the IH group.
Like modafinil, armodafinil which is the r-enantiomer of modafinil, is also not labeled for use in IH. There are no RCTs todate on armodafinil in IH patients. Simply based on clinical experience and because of its pharmacology, it is presumed to have similar effectiveness to modafinil in people with IH. However, unlike modafinil, which is quite often prescribed in divided doses so that its wake-promoting effects can last until the afternoon and early evening, armodafinil is usually taken as a single morning dose.
Sympathomimetic Psychostimulants
Numerous sympathomimetic psychostimulants that are used for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD are also used for narcolepsy and are FDA-approved for both. However, none is FDA-approved for the treatment of IH. These include methylphenidate, dexmethylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, amphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, methamphetamine, and combinations of some of these. Despite the fact that not many RCTs have been performed testing this class of medications for the treatment of narcolepsy, its use is still endorsed by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine [22]. Methylphenidate is frequently used as a second-line medication in IH. In a single retrospective case series including 61 patients treated with a mean dose of 51 mg of methylphenidate, 51% of the patients took methylphenidate and the rest modafinil. Of those on methylphenidate, 95% had a complete or partial response, instead of the 88% on modafinil [23].
Solriamfetol
Solriamfetol, a dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, is a wake-promoting medication, approved by the FDA in March 2019 for the treatment of sleepiness associated with narcolepsy or obstructive sleep apnea only. Because narcolepsy and sleep apnea-associated daytime sleepiness would cover a broad range of pathophysiologic mechanisms, solriamfetol could be used ‘off-label’ in IH. In a 12-week RCT study on its effects on narcolepsy in adults, solriamfetol improved important measures of wakefulness and sleepiness without associated polysomnographic evidence of significant sleep disruption [24]. In another 12-week RCT study of solriamfetol in adult patients with EDS related to OSA, there was a dose-dependent improvement in measures of wakefulness [25]. Some notable side-effects seen with this medication include anxiety and elevated mood, as well as increases in blood pressure. A subsequent study of this medication found that it was efficacious at the maintenance of improvements at 6 months [26]. Given the theorized mechanism of action as a dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, which is similar to that of widely prescribed bupropion, future observation and studies could provide insights on its effect on depression as well. Solriamfetol is not approved for use in children because there is a risk of abuse and dependence, and this medication is FDA schedule 4.
Pitolisant
Pitolisant is another wakefulness-promoting drug for adult patients with narcolepsy and cataplexy. It acts as an inverse agonist and antagonist of histamine H3 receptors, resulting in a reduction of the usual feedback inhibition effected through the H3 receptor, thereby enhancing the central nervous system release of histamine and other neurotransmitters. It is not approved for IH as it has not been tested in a placebo-controlled trial of people with IH. In a small case series of IH patients whose symptoms could not be adequately controlled with modafinil, methylphenidate, or sodium oxybate, pitolisant was effective in reducing sleepiness- resulted in 3 points reduction in Epworth scores compared to baseline- in 37% of people with IH with long sleep times and 31% of people with IH without long sleep times [27].
Pitolisant is generally well tolerated, with headache, insomnia, nausea, and anxiety being the most common adverse reactions. It can also prolong the QT interval, so a baseline EKG is advised. There is a potential for interaction with hormonal birth control. Therefore,, additional or alternate methods of contraception should be used while taking pitolisant and for 28 days after discontinuation of pitolisant [28]. While pitolisant is a prescription medication, it is not a controlled substance and not a scheduled substance by the FDA. However, it is an expensive drug. Following FDA approval, its manufacturer Harmony Biosciences estimated an annual price tag of about $140,000 [29]. In a Swedish study, the cost per additional quality-adjusted life-year was estimated at SEK 356,337 (10 SEK ≈ 1 Euro) for pitolisant monotherapy and at SEK 491,128 for pitolisant as an adjunctive treatment [30].
Flumazenil
Following the discovery of a possible endogenous peptide enhancing GABA-A transmission in the CSF of patients with IH, flumazenil, commonly used as an antidote for benzodiazepine overdose, was tested in these patients. It is a negative allosteric modulator of GABA-A receptors, in addition to its role as a competitive antagonist at the benzodiazepine binding site. In an early proof-of-concept study, flumazenil was administered intravenously in a single-blind fashion to several hypersomnolent patients and was found to significantly improve subjective sleepiness, as measured by the Stanford Sleepiness Scale, and it also improved reaction times on the psychomotor vigilant testing [14]. Because of the large first-pass metabolism effect and short duration of action, if given intravenously or orally, it has been compounded as transdermal, sublingual, or subcutaneous for the treatment of IH. In a series of 153 patients with IH and similar other hypersomnolence disorders that were refractory to standard treatments, flumazenil was found to reduce symptoms of sleepiness in 62.8% [31]. Though serious side effects for intravenous flumazenil are well known, including seizures and arrhythmias, those of compounded flumazenil are not as well understood mainly because it has not been widely tested and used.
Clarithromycin
Clarithromycin is a macrolide antibiotic that has been shown to modulate the function of GABA-A receptors. In a randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients with IH with evidence of endogenous GABA-A receptor activating peptide in the cerebrospinal fluid, clarithromycin given in a single morning dose of 500 to 1000 mg/d, reduced subjective sleepiness but did not change psychomotor vigilance testing results [32]. Caution is advised when prescribing clarithromycin as side effects include antibiotic resistance, superinfection with infections such as Clostridium difficile, QT prolongation, and potential for drug–drug interactions because of its actions as an inhibitor of CYP2C9, 3A4, P-gp, and OATP1B1.
Sodium Oxybate
It is FDA-approved for the treatment of narcolepsy in adults and children. When dosed at bedtime and during the night, it has been shown to improve nocturnal sleep quality and reduce daytime sleepiness as well as cataplexy in patients with narcolepsy [22]. But because nocturnal sleep quality is actually better in IH patients than in those with narcolepsy type 1 and also because sleep inertia could potentially worsen in healthy people with increasing amounts of N3 sleep, the concern remains that use of sodium oxybate could worsen ‘sleep drunkenness’ by increasing N3 [33, 34]. Since this risk with sodium oxybate seems theoretically possible, published evidence seems contradictory- a clinical series of 40 IH patients that showed a similar magnitude of reduction in subjective daytime sleepiness as in those with NT1, as well as showing that 71% of IH patients treated with sodium oxybate also demonstrated an improvement in sleep drunkenness [35]. However, the side effects from sodium oxybate were more common in those with IH, particularly nausea and dizziness [35].
Serious side effects of sodium oxybate include central nervous system and respiratory depression, psychosis depression, suicidal ideation, and abuse or dependence. Sodium oxybate must be dispensed under an FDA Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program directly through a centralized pharmacy.
Other Strategies
Several other strategies have been proposed to cope with sleep inertia in IH. The French expert consensus statement includes melatonin at 3 mg (or 2 mg slow-release melatonin) to be taken at sleep onset to reduce sleep drunkenness upon waking up [36]. This is presumed to be because of melatonin’s phase advance effects and we know that in IH patients, sleep inertia is exacerbated by the delayed sleep phase. Other strategies include taking a delayed-release stimulant at bedtime or taking a traditional stimulant after waking up an hour before the usual wakeup time, falling back asleep for an hour, and then waking up [12].
Reduction and/or adaptation of working time should be considered by employers of IH patients. Having the option to begin work at a later time (e.g., to sleep an extra hour in the morning) or to telework from home on a few days of the week can be other helpful strategies for IH patients [37].
Kleine–Levin Syndrome
Kleine–Levin syndrome (KLS) is a rare disorder characterized by recurring but reversible periods of excessive sleep (up to 20 hours per day). Symptoms occur as episodes typically lasting a few days to a few weeks. The onset of an episode is often abrupt and may be associated with flu-like symptoms. During the episodes, caregivers may notice behaviors such as excessive food intake, irritability, childishness, disorientation, hallucinations, and an abnormally uninhibited sex drive. Derealization affects more than 9 in 10 patients and is strongly linked to hypoactivity of the right temporoparietal junction on functional imaging [38]. Affected individuals are completely normal between episodes, although they may not be able to remember afterward everything that happened during the episode. It may be weeks or more before symptoms reappear. Symptoms may be related to malfunction of the hypothalamus and thalamus, parts of the brain that govern appetite and sleep [39].
KLS prevalence is estimated at around 1 to 4 cases per million, with 5% of the cases being familial [40]. The cause of KLS is not entirely clear. Most KLS symptoms, specifically derealization, apathy, and disinhibition, are suggestive of transient alterations of the associative cortices. While not much is known about the cause of hypersomnia in KLS, it is believed that KLS patients are not hypocretin- or histamine-deficient [41]. Functional brain imaging studies during episodes are frequently abnormal, showing hypometabolism in the thalamus, hypothalamus, medial temporal lobe, and frontal lobe. Some of these abnormalities also persist during asymptomatic periods in half of the patients [38, 42].
No drug has been shown to be efficacious in the treatment of KLS. Primarily because the condition is so rare, there are no RCTs of any drugs on prevention or treatment of episodes. It is generally believed that once an episode starts, it cannot be stopped by any medication. In a case series, 26 KLS patients treated with methylprednisolone during the episodes were compared with 48 untreated KLS patients. Of the treated patients, about 40% experienced a shortening of the duration of the episode by at least 1 week compared to their baseline compared to only 10% of untreated patients with a similar shortening of episodes. When methylprednisolone was given during the first 10 days of the episode, 65% of the treated patients experienced shorter episodes [43]. Methylprednisolone may be considered in patients with a history of longer (> 30 days) duration of episodes and not in those with brief (7-10 days) duration of episodes.
There is some anecdotal evidence for clarithromycin in KLS, altogether describing 5 patients who not only noticed some improvement in symptoms after an episode was stopped by clarithromycin but also experienced a lengthening of inter-episode duration [44-46]. Psychostimulants have been used in KLS with some benefit in improving alertness, as expected, but with no effect on other KLS symptoms like apathy, derealization or confusion [47-49]. Targeted management of other symptoms like using neuroleptics for psychotic symptoms [47, 50] and benzodiazepines for anxiety can be of some help. Lastly, there is also some anecdotal evidence with amantadine in terminating KLS episodes [51].
In terms of preventing KLS episodes, lithium has been shown to be somewhat effective. A large prospective, open-label, controlled study of 71 KLS patients who were treated with lithium showed superior outcomes when compared with 49 KLS patients who were not treated with lithium. It was noted that serum lithium levels kept between 0.8 and 1.2 mmol/L (measured 12 h after the drug intake) completely terminated the episodes in 35% of patients and in 45% of lithium-treated patients, episodes were either less frequent or less severe, and episodes relapsed within 2 days when lithium was discontinued [52]. Other mood stabilizers and antiepileptics valproic acid, carbamazepine, phenytoin, gabapentin, and lamotrigine have been studied, but none of these have consistently demonstrated significant benefit [53].
Hypersomnia Due to a Medical or Neurologic Disease
Excessive daytime sleepiness can also be secondary to neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson’s disease or dementia with Lewy bodies [54], or other neurologic conditions like Prader–Willi syndrome [55], muscular dystrophies, or tumoral pathologies like craniopharyngioma, and even vascular or inflammatory insults to the central nervous system. Additionally, around 10% of patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) may also have residual sleepiness despite being adherent to therapeutic PAP settings [56], and there is some evidence to suggest that this may possibly be associated with long-term damage to arousal systems from intermittent hypoxemia [57]. Lastly, post-viral hypersomnia can also be seen, especially after infections with Epstein–Barr virus [58].
Of the conditions listed above, only hypersomnia associated with obstructive sleep apnea has specific pharmacologic options that are FDA-approved which include, modafinil [59], armodafinil [60], and solriamfetol [25]. Because of the association of Hypertension with OSA, and the risk of elevating blood pressure with these medications, caution is advised when using these medications in this specific subset of the population.
In Parkinson’s patients, modafinil may have some clinical utility as a meta-analysis of several small RCTs showed a mean ESS reduction of 2.3 points compared to placebo [61]. A double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial of 12 patients with Parkinson’s disease showed that sodium oxybate, compared with placebo, significantly improved daytime sleepiness as well as sleep quality both subjectively and objectively [62]. However, careful attention should be paid when prescribing as the risks of sodium oxybate could potentially be magnified in Parkinson’s disease [41].
While subjective daytime sleepiness was not improved with armodafinil in an RCT of 117 patients with traumatic brain injury [63], modafinil, on the other hand, did show a modest effect (ESS reduction of 1.6 points) in a meta-analysis of a few studies of myotonic dystrophy [64].
Hypersomnia Secondary to Psychiatric Conditions
Overall, most mood disorders are associated with insomnia than hypersomnolence. However, atypical depression can present with prolonged sleep time and sleep inertia. Bipolar disorder can also present with fluctuating sleep times, oscillating from reduced sleep time with absent daytime sleepiness for a few days followed by a progressive increase of sleep time. Patients with the seasonal affective disorder can also present with increased sleep time, apathy, and decreased mood during winters. Although the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying hypersomnolence in major depressive disorders is not entirely clear, it is believed that impairment in the thalamo-striatal connectivity may have a role [65].
Management of hypersomnolence in psychiatric disorders is not well-established due to the relative paucity of data. Even though modafinil is sometimes used as adjunctive therapy for depression with hypersomnolence symptoms, 2 RCTs of modafinil in hypersomnia associated with major depression did not show sustained evidence of benefit on subjective daytime sleepiness [66, 67].
Hypersomnia Due to a Medication or Substance and Insufficient Sleep Syndrome
Management of hypersomnia due to a medication or substance with sedating properties mostly involves minimizing or discontinuing the medication.
Insufficient sleep syndrome, defined as sleepiness caused by failure to obtain the recommended amount of sleep expected for the age, is managed by sleep extension, which may include interventions targeted to address the barriers to obtaining sufficient sleep.
CONCLUSION
From the evidence presented in this chapter, it is clear that we need a better understanding of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of the non-narcoleptic hypersomnia conditions, which would then hopefully pave the way for more RCTs for targeted treatment of not just excessive daytime sleepiness but also other symptoms of hypersomnolence that contribute to disease burden and functional limitations in these disorders.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
