The Role of Seaweeds in Blue Bioeconomy E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This comprehensive volume is a review on the pivotal role of seaweeds in the blue bioeconomy. It begins by introducing the blue bioeconomy concept which encompasses the use of renewable biological marine resources to produce food, materials and energy. The book then continues to explore the applications of seaweeds. Chapters cover the biomedical applications (nutraceuticals), functional applications (functional ingredients, biofertilizers), and commercial applications (cosmeceuticals, animal feeds) of seaweeds. Each chapter is structured into sections to provide an easy to understand summary of respective topics, with detailed discussions that reveal the intricate nature of seaweeds. The book shares perspectives from experts in environmental science and biology, with references for advanced readers. The book is for anyone who wants to understand the role of seaweeds in the bioeconomy and for sustainable development.
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Industrialists, policymakers, scientists, students and science readers.
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Seitenzahl: 634
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
With the ever-increasing global population, the demand for food and all other services is rising, while the availability of suitable land for agricultural and other essential human activities is decreasing. In this context, marine bioresources have recently gained much attention as a sustainable alternative to meet the increasing demand for land-based agricultural activities. Thus, the term 'blue bioeconomy' has come into play, and many businesses are starting to consider marine bioresources as a sustainable approach to fulfill the growing demand gap associated with the increasing population and depletion of non-biogenic resources such as fossil fuel. With the growing demand for blue bioeconomy-related activities, it is necessary to understand and use the limited resources responsibly in a sustainable manner to ensure the use of these precious resources for future generations without degradation. Specifically, we want to prioritize major and minor marine bioresources in order to fully utilize them and conserve them. Just commercializing these precious marine bioresources without knowing their availability, applications, and potential could lead to another disaster for future generations.
With this basic idea, the editors have summarized the potential marine bioresources that play a significant role in the blue bioeconomy. Among the listed marine bioresources, seaweeds stand out as one of the ideal options that can be utilized in various industries, including food, biomedical applications, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, functional ingredients, animal feeds, and the biofertilizer industry. Given these key roles, seaweeds have a substantial impact on the blue bioeconomy and are significant for future generations.
In this book, we aim to assist individuals, including industrialists, policymakers, scientists, and students globally, in understanding and effectively communicating the role of seaweed in the blue bioeconomy. We introduce important applications of seaweeds, starting with an explanation of the blue bioeconomy. The book then proceeds to highlight the morphology and nutritional profiles of seaweeds, along with other potential marine organisms such as microalgae, marine fungi and bacteria, and marine higher plants. Subsequently, the book delves into detailed explanations of major biomedical applications, including anticancer, antidiabetic, cardiovascular protection, and antivirus effects. Continuing the exploration, the book delves into various functional properties of seaweeds, with a particular emphasis on their antiaging and cosmeceutical-related applications. Extensive discussions in most chapters unravel the intricacies of these properties. As the narrative unfolds, the final chapters meticulously dissect additional commercial applications of seaweeds, shedding light on their significance as essential components in animal feed and biofertilizers.
We, the editors and authors of this book, are delighted to recommend this enlightening journey, “The Role of Seaweeds in Blue Biotechnology”, to all interested parties, including industrialists, policymakers, scientists, and university students. This comprehensive exploration not only unveils the diverse applications of seaweeds but also serves as a valuable resource for understanding their pivotal role in shaping the future of blue biotechnology. We invite you to join us on this insightful expedition and discover the immense potential these marine wonders hold for various sectors and the for sustainable development of our blue planet.
List of Contributors
A Basic Introduction to Blue Bioeconomy
Kalahe Hewage Iresha Nadeeka Madushani Herath1,Kalu Kapuge Asanka Sanjeewa2,*Abstract
The blue bioeconomy represents a transformative approach to harnessing the vast potential of marine resources for sustainable development. As the demand for food, energy, and materials continues to rise, the sustainable utilization of marine ecosystems offers a promising solution to meet these challenges while conserving terrestrial resources. The blue bioeconomy encompasses a broad range of sectors, including fisheries, aquaculture, marine biotechnology, and coastal tourism, among others. By capitalizing on the inherent biological diversity of the oceans, it seeks to unlock innovative pathways for economic growth, job creation, and environmental stewardship. This transition from traditional practices to a more sustainable and knowledge-based approach requires careful consideration of ecological, social, and economic factors. One of the primary advantages of the blue bioeconomy lies in its potential to provide alternative sources of protein and other essential nutrients through sustainable fisheries and responsible aquaculture practices. Additionally, marine biotechnology offers vast potential for the development of novel drugs, biomaterials, and biofuels, leveraging the unique properties of marine organisms. These innovations are Promising in addressing pressing global challenges, such as food security, climate change mitigation, and the transition to renewable energy sources. The blue bioeconomy represents a transformative pathway towards sustainable development, utilizing the diverse resources and ecosystems of our oceans. By adopting a holistic approach that integrates environmental, social, and economic considerations, the blue bioeconomy holds the potential to drive economic growth, enhance food and energy security, and contribute to the conservation and restoration of marine ecosystems. Embracing this approach is crucial for building a more sustainable and resilient future for our planet and future generations.
INTRODUCTION
The term bioeconomy generally refers to the part of the economy that is based on biology and biosciences. However, the definition of the term varies across different regions, and there is no single, universally accepted definition. In general, the concept is associated with the sustainable and renewable use of biological resources from both land and sea for the production of various goods and services in all economic sectors. Many definitions emphasize the importance of this approach at both the upstream and downstream stages of the value chain [1]. Different colors have been used to classify bioeconomy based on their focus and application. The green bioeconomy represents agricultural genetic engineering and other biotechnologies to improve crop traits and produce biofertilizers. The white bioeconomy focuses on the use of biotechnology to develop industrial products, such as ethanol, limonene, and polylactic acid through biorefinery, the red bioeconomy represents the production of diagnostic drugs using cell technology and genetic engineering for medicine and human health and the gray bioeconomy involves the use of waste as a resource for the production of energy and materials [2]. The colors of the biotechnology are summarized in Table 1.
Marine ecosystems play a significant role in promoting sustainable development and the overall health of the planet. Ocean ecosystems generate oxygen, absorb carbon dioxide, recycle nutrients, and regulate global climate and temperature, making them essential for all life on the Earth. Oceans are not only a fundamental partof the Earth's ecosystem, hosting a wide range of uncatalogued life diversity, but also an undervalued economic powerhouse with a high gross marine product value [3]. Furthermore, marine ecosystems serve as a source of food, livelihood, and tourism and have the potential to help achieve sustainable development goals, such as eliminating hunger and poverty [4]. Additionally, the deep sea or seabed provides hydrocarbons and mineral resources, accounting for 32% of the global supply. The ocean also offers renewable energy sources like wind, wave, tide, and thermal and biomass sources [3, 5]. Due to the increasing demand for resources to meet the global food-water-energy nexus and the rapid decline in land-based sources, oceans have become a crucial solution for promoting a sustainable environment and economy. Consequently, in the last decade, many industries and researchers have focused on developing marine bioresource-based products and applications (blue bioeconomy) [6, 7].
The blue economy consists of biological and non-biological components of marine bioresources. In 2012, UNEP published a synthesis report that introduced the concept of a “Green economy in a Blue world.” The report emphasized the significance of the marine environment as an essential component of a paradigm shift toward a sustainable bioeconomy, which was subsequently termed the “blue economy” by Pacific Small Island Developing States [3]. In general, the blue economy is a systematic approach to utilizing ocean resources, combining short and long-term economic activities based on principles of social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and innovation in and around the sea. However, instead of solely focusing on the blue economy, the concept of blue bioeconomy has gained prominence in recent years as a means of promoting the sustainable use of marine resources. Based on different definitions given by different agencies, the blue bioeconomy can be defined as a subset of the blue economy that specifically targets the extraction of marine biomass for various applications, such as material production, food and feed, energy generation (such as ethanol and biogas), and chemical production (such as fertilizers) [8].
Major Sectors of Blue Bioeconomy
The blue bioeconomy represents an emerging economic paradigm that recognizes the importance of marine and freshwater resources for economic growth and sustainable development. Blue bioeconomy encompasses several sectors that deal with marine and freshwater ecosystems, such as marine fisheries, aquaculture, algal biomass and freshwater fishing fisheries, marine biotechnology, eco-tourism, etc [14, 15]. Over the past few decades, there has been consistent and gradual growth in the use of marine resource biotechnology for commercial purposes. By the year 2020, the market for products derived from marine bioresources surpassed several billion USD per year, with an average annual growth rate of 4-5% [16]. In this section, major sectors of the blue bioeconomy are briefly described.
Marine Fisheries
Fisheries are one of the oldest and most traditional components of the blue bioeconomy. Specifically, coastal communities in tropical regions heavily rely on marine fisheries for their well-being, including food security, livelihoods, economic development, and cultural preservation. Thus, marine fisheries make significant contributions to the welfare of people and society [17, 18]. Tropical coastal areas are home to about 1.3 billion people who depend on fisheries as a primary food source. Fish is a crucial nutritional component for coastal and urban communities worldwide. For instance, Pacific Island countries and territories rely on fish for 50-90% of their dietary animal protein, while West Africa and Southeast Asia rely on it for 50% and 37%, respectively. These regions rely heavily on wild-caught fish to obtain essential micronutrients such as zinc, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids, which prevent micronutrient malnutrition and “hidden hunger” [18]. However, overfishing and unsustainable fishing practices have led to declining fish stocks in many parts of the world, threatening the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on fishing for their income and food security [19]. The blue bioeconomy seeks to address this challenge by promoting sustainable fishing practices, including the use of science-based quotas, selective fishing gear, and ecosystem-based management approaches.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture refers to the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants. It involves cultivating aquatic organisms under controlled conditions in ponds, tanks, or other enclosed systems or in natural bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, or the ocean [20]. Aquaculture plays a crucial role in the blue bioeconomy by providing a sustainable and reliable source of seafood, reducing pressure on wild fish stocks, and creating new job opportunities [21]. By farming fish and other aquatic organisms in controlled environments, aquaculture can provide a consistent and predictable supply of high-quality seafood [22, 23]. This reduces the reliance on wild fish stocks, which are often overfished and subject to fluctuations in availability [24]. In the past few decades, aquaculture is the fastest-growing sector in agriculture [23, 24]. Since 2013, the production of aquaculture has exceeded the production of wild fisheries. According to previous studies, in 2018, the global production of aquaculture reached 82.1 million tonnes, with finfish accounting for 54.3 million tonnes (8.1 kg per capita) and mollusks, primarily bivalves, contributing 17.7 million tonnes (2.6 kg per capita). Bivalves, such as oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels, represent more than 70% of mollusk production, with clams and oysters contributing 38% and 33%, respectively. Meanwhile, scallops and mussels make up 17% and 13% of the overall production, respectively [25].
Despite the sudden expansion and development of aquaculture, it has encountered many challenges, such as limited improved species, labor-intensive processes, environmental contamination, disease outbreaks, and insufficient product traceability [21]. To enhance fish production, aquaculture requires innovative technologies. Emerging and revolutionary technologies, such as genome editing, artificial intelligence, offshore farming, recirculating aquaculture systems, alternative proteins and oils to replace fish meals and fish oils, oral vaccination, blockchain for marketing, and the Internet of Things, have the potential to offer sustainable and profitable solutions for aquaculture. However, the sustainability of aquaculture is critical for the future of the blue bioeconomy. Sustainable aquaculture practices can help mitigate the environmental impact of the industry, reduce the use of antibiotics and chemicals, and prevent the spread of disease [22].
Marine Biotechnology and Bioprospecting
Marine biotechnology aims to develop methods for producing novel products originating from marine organisms (algae, bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates), which could contribute to the human healthcare (bioactive secondary metabolites) sector, food and feed industries (antioxidants and pigments), and energy-related industries [26-28]. Industrial applications of marine bioresources include the production of sustainable products such as biofuels, bioplastics, and other useful materials from a range of marine sources, including macro-organisms such as seaweeds, marine vertebrates, and invertebrates, as well as microorganisms like microalgae, bacteria, and fungi [29]. Biofuel and related applications of marine seaweeds are discussed under the “Marine renewable energy” section.
Marine bioprospecting is the process of identifying unique characteristics of marine organisms to develop them into commercially valuable products [30]. Marine bioprospecting has become an increasingly important section in the blue bioeconomy due to the recognition of the vast biodiversity of marine organisms and their potential as a source of novel compounds and enzymes. However, the term “marine bioprospecting” evokes images of mass harvesting of marine organisms, similar to mining or commercial fishing activities; this is a misconception. Unlike these industries that rely solely on the physical extraction of resources such as ore or fish, marine bioprospecting is primarily a quest for knowledge. Through careful screening and analysis of marine organisms, scientists are trying to identify/isolate active agents, leading to potential drug discovery. Thus, the focus of marine bioprospecting is on the acquisition of knowledge rather than the wholesale extraction of natural resources [31].
Throughout human history, natural products have been utilized for treating various disorders [32]. Despite being largely unexplored, marine ecosystems have the potential to yield novel bioactive products to develop a range of industrial, healthcare, and medicinal products [33]. Specifically, there are over 30,000 clinically described diseases, but less than one-third of these can be managed through symptomatic treatment, and only a limited number can be completely cured. Thus, marine organisms have a significant role to play in providing novel therapeutic agents that can address the current unmet medical needs [34]. Taken together, the identification and isolation of novel bioactive compounds (antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anticancer, and skin whitening) with potential therapeutic applications are key segments of marine biotechnology and marine bioprospecting [35].
Even though marine bioprospecting holds great promise as a valuable sector in the blue bioeconomy, it faces multiple challenges, ranging from discovering intriguing metabolites or organisms to successfully commercializing them, such as inadequate bioinformatics development, challenges in large-scale production and product purification, production variability, and high cost of production [36]. Other than the commercial aspects, there are also concerns about the potential impact of marine biotechnology and bioprospecting on marine ecosystems. The exploitation of marine organisms and resources can have negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem function [37]. It is, therefore, important to ensure that these activities are conducted sustainably and responsibly through the implementation of appropriate management practices and regulations.
Marine Renewable Energy-biofuel
During the last decade, governments across the globe have come to acknowledge the necessity of including renewable energy resources in their energy policies as a substitute for exhaustible fossil fuels [38]. This is not just because of the challenges and concerns linked to fossil fuel usage, such as environmental contamination, climate change, energy supply security, price fluctuations in international markets, and imminent resource depletion, but also due to the immense and mostly unexplored energy resources present in the oceans, which have a prolonged availability [39-41]. The increasing demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has prompted the exploration of various alternative options, such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass, and biofuels, to replace fossil fuels [42]. When considering biofuels, the “first-generation biofuels” that are commonly used are produced from feedstocks that can potentially compete with human food resources. These feedstocks include corn, sugarcane, soybean, potato, wheat, and sugar beet [43, 44]. Consequently, recent efforts have focused on producing “second-generation” or advanced biofuels that are derived from lignocellulosic biomass and agricultural waste [43].
In order to meet the renewable fuel goals set by various authorities and governments, it is necessary to develop large and sustainable biomass resources. Seaweed blooms could potentially contribute to achieving this target. However, currently, there are few studies conducted to identify the potential of brown seaweeds as a feedstock in the biofuel production process [45]. Although seaweeds present one of the best available options as sustainable biomass, economic drawbacks in the viable production of biofuels must be addressed [46]. One of the most economical approaches to biofuel production from seaweeds could be the combined production of bio-active materials, where multiple biofuels are produced from one biomass resource [45]. An integrated biorefinery platform could be proposed to make the biofuels of seaweeds more profitable in the near future. Although brown seaweed feedstocks do not directly compete with human food resources, there is still a possibility of negative competition in the future with food crops as the possible reduction of cultivable land with population growth. Apart from biofuels, the marine renewable energy sector encompasses numerous industries. Therefore, policymakers must take this into consideration. Taken together, marine renewable energy, generated from different sources, has the potential to emerge as a significant contributor to meet sustainable global energy requirements [39].
Marine Tourism and Recreation
Seaweed plays a significant role in enhancing marine tourism and recreation experiences. The presence of seaweed in coastal areas and underwater environments adds aesthetic appeal and biodiversity, attracting tourists and nature enthusiasts. Seaweed beds provide habitats for diverse marine species, making them ideal locations for snorkeling, diving, and other water-based activities. Additionally, seaweed offers opportunities for activities like beachcombing, coastal walks, and photography, further enhancing the recreational value of coastal areas. The village of Bwejuu engages in an economic activity that serves as a tourist attraction. Women in Bwejuu play a significant role in the cultivation of seaweed, and they actively participate in seaweed farming and are involved in decision-making processes. On the other hand, men are actively engaged in conducting tours related to seaweed activities [47]. This demonstrates that the cultivation of seaweed has the potential to emerge as a novel tourism, offering promising prospects for growth and development.
Culinary or gastronomic tourism reflects a genuine interest in exploring the cultural and natural aspects of food production in a specific location. While the food itself may not be the primary motivation for travel, it is considered an integral part of the overall tourism experience and the destination itself. Tourists are often more adventurous and willing to try new things while traveling compared to their everyday lives. They actively seek out novel food and consumption experiences. Initially, these new and unfamiliar culinary encounters may be driven by curiosity, but over time, they can become integrated into people's regular taste preferences and habits. Thus, foods that are discovered and enjoyed during vacations have the potential to shape individuals' leisure activities and contribute to the adoption of a particular lifestyle. In the context of algae consumption, incorporating it into one's diet during a vacation could potentially lead to a transformation of everyday eating habits [48]. The introduction of seaweed via restaurant menus is being popularized nowadays, and seaweed safaris are getting more tourist attraction.
These activities can include snorkeling or diving in seaweed-rich areas to explore the underwater ecosystems and appreciate the beauty of seaweed beds. Some enthusiasts also engage in beachcombing, searching for unique and interesting seaweed specimens washed ashore. Additionally, seaweed-themed nature walks or guided tours can provide educational insights into the importance of seaweed and its ecological role in coastal ecosystems. These recreational activities offer a chance for individuals to connect with nature, appreciate the marine environment, and develop a deeper understanding of the significance of seaweed. The unique beauty and ecological importance of seaweed contribute to the overall attraction of marine tourism and recreational activities.
Marine Mining and Mineral Resources
Marine environments possess abundant natural ore reserves that hold great potential for development and have strategic value. The extraction of metal resources from the ocean is of utmost importance in the field of ocean engineering. Marine mining refers to the extraction of mineral resources from the seabed. It involves the exploration, extraction, and processing of valuable minerals and resources found in the ocean. This emerging industry has gained attention due to the increasing demand for metals and minerals, as well as advancements in mining technologies. However, marine mining also poses significant environmental and social challenges.
Marine carbonate sediments possess economic significance due to the abundant presence of calcium minerals and valuable trace elements. The Brazilian Exclusive Economic Zone, located in the tropical Southwestern Atlantic Ocean, contains the largest known deposit of marine limestone globally. This deposit holds immense appeal to the global industry, boosting reserves, exceeding 1,355,157,240.00 tons of CaCO3. Notably, this resource is particularly valuable for agricultural and animal nutrition purposes, making it a highly sought-after supply [49]. Marine carbonate sediments result from the accumulation of sand and gravel derived from various sources, such as calcareous algae, algal nodules, corals, mollusks, foraminifera, and benthic bryozoans [49]. These sources contain substantial amounts of calcium carbonates, magnesium, and other significant trace elements. Marine mining is an emerging industry that aims to extract valuable minerals and resources from the ocean floor. While it offers opportunities for accessing untapped resources, it also presents significant environmental challenges. The development of effective regulations and environmentally sustainable mining practices is crucial to ensure the responsible and balanced exploitation of marine mineral resources.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
To foster the development of a sustainable blue bioeconomy, policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders need to prioritize integrated approaches that balance economic growth with environmental protection and social well-being. This requires the promotion of sustainable practices, the development of robust regulatory frameworks, and the investment in research and innovation to unlock the untapped potential of marine ecosystems.
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Dinusha Shiromala Dissanayake1,3,Kalu Kapuge Asanka Sanjeewa1,Thilina Uduwaka Jayawardena2,*Abstract
Seaweeds are rich sources of various nutrients and bioactive compounds, which offer several health benefits. They contain high levels of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and protein, making them a valuable addition to a balanced diet. Seaweeds are particularly rich in iodine, an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in thyroid function and overall metabolism. They also contain significant amounts of iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and other trace minerals that are essential for human health. Moreover, seaweeds are known for their bioactive compounds, such as polysaccharides, phlorotannins, carotenoids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been linked to several health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Studies have shown that consuming seaweed may help to reduce the risk of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. Seaweeds may also improve gut health by acting as a prebiotic, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. In the present chapter, the authors focus on briefly summarizing the bioactive properties of secondary metabolites identified from seaweeds and their therapeutic potential as supportive information for the next chapters in this book.
INTRODUCTION
Seaweeds stand out as rich repositories of various nutrients and bioactive compounds, offering an array of health benefits. With elevated levels of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and protein, they contribute significantly to a well-rounded and
nutritious diet. Seaweeds are also rich in minerals such as iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and other trace minerals essential for maintaining human health. Beyond their nutritional content, seaweeds are renowned for harboring bioactive compounds like sulfated polysaccharides, phlorotannins, carotenoids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, all linked to a spectrum of health-promoting properties ranging from anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects to antimicrobial and anticancer potentials. Extensive research suggests that the regular consumption of seaweed may play a role in reducing the risk of chronic diseases, encompassing cardiovascular ailments, diabetes, and specific types of cancer. Furthermore, the prebiotic qualities of seaweeds can positively influence gut health by fostering the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. This chapter serves to provide a concise overview, summarizing major categories of seaweeds, their ecological and evolutionary facts, and bioactive properties of secondary metabolites identified from seaweeds.
Seaweeds
Seaweeds are marine, photosynthetic, macroscopic, multicellular, and eukaryotic organisms and germinate in the intertidal and subtidal areas of the sea [1]. Algae, especially seaweeds, are an extremely fascinating source of nutritious foods as well as a naturally occurring source of biologically important compounds that could be used as functional ingredients, constituting a research area with many opportunities to explore food [2]. Seaweed consumption in Western diets has long been restricted to artisanal techniques and coastal communities, but in recent years, thanks to the health-food business, consumer interest has expanded [3].
In the food industry, seaweed is primarily employed as a source of hydrocolloids. Some seaweeds have gained attention in recent years just as a potential source of natural bioactive substances with potential uses in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and pharmaceuticals [4]. Approximately 27.3 million tonnes (96%) of the world's seaweeds are produced annually through aquaculture that is recognized as the most sustainable method. However, the rising demand for seaweed-based food ingredients necessitates the establishment of more rigid rules and regulations to ensure sustainability [3].
In China, Japan, and Korea as well as several Latin American nations like Mexico, seaweed has been used traditionally as food for many centuries [5]. Because of their widespread migration, the inhabitants of these nations brought this custom with them, and as a result, seaweed consumption is now commonplace in a large number of nations [6]. Seaweed has been successfully incorporated into European cuisine in recent years thanks to a strong movement in France, however, it is still viewed as an exotic ingredient on the menu [7].
Seaweeds are taxonomically classified into three main phyla: Phaeophyceae (brown), which have a brown color due to the presence of the xanthophyll pigment fucoxanthin; Chlorophyceae (green), which contain chlorophylls 'a' and 'b' as well as other specific xanthophyll pigments; and Rhodophyceae (red), which obtain their color from phycobilins [8, 9]. There are about 4000 red seaweeds, 1500 brown seaweeds, and 900 green seaweeds in existence today [10]. Seaweeds play a remarkable role in aquaculture around the world. Brown seaweeds and red seaweeds, which were among the largest species categories in worldwide aquaculture in 2019, provided roughly 30 percent of the 120 million tonnes of aquaculture production in 2019 when assessed in wet weight [11].
Evolutionary and ecological facts about seaweeds
It has been suggested that seaweeds may have had a more significant ecological impact in the past, particularly during the early Paleozoic [12]. However, due to the scarcity of seaweed fossils and the focus on animal development, seaweed evolution and ecological effects have largely been disregarded, leaving us with a partial understanding of early marine ecosystems. There are still some unanswered questions regarding the evolution of macroalgae over time. The estimates from molecular clocks show that significant evolutionary events took place in the Proterozoic period [12]. Seaweeds are made up of red, green, and brown lineages that separately develop from unicellular algae progenitors. Rhodophyta or red algae have existed for ages. Both Bangiomorpha and Raffatazmia, which may be interpreted as red algal fossils, suggest that multicellular red algae first appeared in the Mesoproterozoic era between 1.0 and 1.6 billion years ago [13].
Marine ecology depends significantly on macroalgae for its ecological health. They create oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide. Seaweeds react to several climatic and physicochemical elements. Their ability to grow, survive, and reproduce depends on and varies with a wide range of critical environmental factors, including temperature, hydrodynamics and wave exposure, salinity, nutrients, pH, and carbon dioxide. Because they are the main and secondary producers, and because they safeguard coastal areas and serve as nursery grounds, algae perform a crucial regulatory role in the aquatic ecosystem. Additionally, seaweeds provide a variety of food for aquatic animals, and also provide for a wide spectrum of invertebrates. Additionally, seaweeds have economic significance for society and contribute to the cultural history and distinctiveness of each region [14]. The interaction with its microbiota has a significant influence on how seaweed functions and, consequently, the ecological benefits and economic uses it offers. The effects of this interaction on seaweed's morphology, settling, reproduction, and generation of physiologically active metabolites are only a few examples. The surface of seaweed serves as a very active interface for the release of waste products and secondary metabolites into the surrounding seawater as well as the absorption of nutrients. As a result, the surface environment of the thallus offers favorable attachment sites for particular microbe taxa and secretes a variety of compounds that have an impact on the growth, development, reproduction, and composition of microorganisms [15].
Nutritional and bioactive compounds in seaweeds
Unlike terrestrial plants, seaweeds are rich in nutrients that are beneficial to human health, including proteins, lipids, minerals, dietary fibers, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and vitamins such as A, B, C, and E. Additionally, seaweed contains valuable substances that are essential for the immune system [16, 17]. Fig. (1) shows the main biological compounds and bioactivities of seaweeds.
Fig. (1)) The biological compounds and bioactivities of seaweeds.Polysaccharides
Pectins, sulfated polysaccharides (SPS), glycol-protein, hetero-, and homo- polysaccharides are types of polysaccharides that act as protective compounds, energy storage, and structural elements [18]. Edible seaweeds, such as Ulva, Ascophyllum nodosum, Laminaria digitate, and Undaria pinnatifida, consist of carbohydrates ranging from 4.0/100 g to 9.15/100g in wet weight. The species like U. pinnatifida, Saccharina japonica, Gracilaria chilensis, and Ulva compresa have shown a significant amount of glucose concentration, while the genera including Ascophyllum, Porphyra, and Palmaria consist of sulfated polysaccharides. Carrageenans, Ulvans, fucans, and alginates are the main cell wall components of red, green, and brown seaweeds. Agar, agarose, alginates, and carrageenans are popular ingredients in the food sector due to their rheological gelling and solidifying qualities [19, 20]. Compared to brown and red seaweeds, green seaweeds usually have an elevated carbohydrate composition. Ulva lactuca, a green seaweed, has the highest percentage of carbs (35.27%), whereas Enteromorpha intestinalis, a brown seaweed, has the lowest (10.63%30.6) [20].
Fatty Acids
It has been recorded that there are both saturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids present in seaweeds where the ratio of these fatty acids and the proportion between omega-3 and omega-6 found in brown and red seaweeds have positive impacts on individual health than the fatty acids found in green seaweeds. Also, there are glycolipids and phospholipids present in macroalgae, which have anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects [19].
Vitamins, Minerals, and Enzymes
Macroalgae consist of significant vitamins such as vitamin B types and lipophilic vitamins A and E. The prime microelement mineral makeup in seaweeds is typically sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium that together make up more than 97% of the material. Additional microelements like manganese, iron, copper, and zinc are present in trace quantities. (Between 0.001 and 0.094% of the dry weight of seaweeds) [19].
Pigments and Phenolic Compounds
At the moment, astaxanthin, beta-carotene, lutein, fucoxanthin, chlorophyll, and phycocyanin are the principal algal pigments used commercially. The phenolics found in seaweeds range in complexity from the simpler cinnamic acids, phenolics and flavonoids to the further complicated structures of phlorotannin polymers. The compounds such as phlorotannins (eckol, phloroglucinol, 6, 6-bieckol, 7-phloroeckol, fucodiphloroethol, phlorofucofuroeckol A,), hydroxycinnamic acids (ferulic, caffeic, p-coumaric acids, and sinapic,), hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives (p-hydroxybenzoic, Gallic, syringic acids, and vanillic,), bromophenols, and flavonoids (epigallocatechin, epicatechin, quercitrin, rutin, myricetin, hesperidin, and kaempferol), are reported to have been found in seaweeds [19]. Table 1 demonstrates the average composition of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the three seaweed phyla [21].
Therapeutic Properties of Seaweeds
This section will provide a glimpse of the therapeutic influences of seaweeds on various health-related issues. Table 2 demonstrates several bioactivities of the compounds that can be extracted from seaweeds.
Impacts on Non-infectious Diseases
Seaweeds contain linolenic acid and its derivatives that are important for reducing blood viscosity and promoting smooth interaction between vasoconstrictors and blood vessels. Additionally, microalgal polysaccharides, such as laminaran, alginate, and fucoidan, have been shown to have positive anti-tumor effects [19]. Different types of seaweeds have been proven to offer anti-cancer properties by slowing or stopping the growth of cancer cells. According to a clinical trial, consuming the seaweed Undaria may reduce women's death rates and risk of breast cancer, particularly by reducing urinary levels of the human urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor. The human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 has been demonstrated to respond well to a sulfated polysaccharide extract from the red seaweed Laurencia papillosa that contains carrageenan’s [41]. The high antioxidant activity of seaweeds also considerably slows the formation of cancer cells. Seaweeds have even been suggested as a potential treatment option for cardiovascular diseases [20]. An investigation of 3,405 males and females in Korea aged 20 to 65 years revealed that the regular consumption of seaweed reduces the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes [41].
