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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Serie: Wiley Handbooks in Education
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive source that demonstrates how 21st century Christianity can interrelate with current educational trends and aspirations The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Education provides a resource for students and scholars interested in the most important issues, trends, and developments in the relationship between Christianity and education. It offers a historical understanding of these two intertwined subjects with a view to creating a context for the myriad issues that characterize--and challenge--the relationship between Christianity and education today. Presented in three parts, the book starts with thought-provoking essays covering major issues in Christian education such as the movement away from God in American education; the Christian paradigm based on love and character vs. academic industrial models of American education; why religion is good for society, offenders, and prisons; the resurgence of vocational exploration and its integrative potential for higher education; and more. It then looks at Christianity and education around the globe--faith-based schooling in a pluralistic democracy; religious expectations in the Latino home; church-based and community-centered higher education; etc. The third part examines how humanity is determining the relationship between Christianity and education with chapters covering the use of Christian paradigm of living and learning; enrollment, student demographic, and capacity trends in Christian schools after the introduction of private schools; empirical studies on the perceptions of intellectual diversity at elite universities in the US; and more. * Provides the breadth and depth of knowledge necessary to gain a sophisticated and nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between Christianity and education and its place in contemporary society * A long overdue assessment of the subject, one that takes into account the enormous changes in Christian education * Presents a global consideration of the subject * Examines Christian education across elementary, secondary, and post-secondary levels The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Education will be of great interest to Christian educators in the academic world, the teaching profession, the ministry, and the college and graduate level student body.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Introduction
Part I: Major Issues in Christian Education
1 The Movement Away from God in American Education
The Christian Classical Tradition in America
Education in the Colonies and the Early American Republic
Thomas Jefferson and His Contemporaries
Benjamin Rush to Henry Adams
John Dewey
The Supreme Court and Secular Schools
A Resurgent Classical Christian Movement
References
2 The Two Biological Parent Family, Christianity, and Economic Prosperity
Historical Trends
Recent Trends in Downplaying or Nearly Dismissing The Role of Faith, Family, and Culture
Issues of Causation
What do Quantitative Data Indicate About the Relationship Between Faith and Family on the One Hand and Economic Prosperity on the Other?
Conclusion
References
3 The Christian Pastoral‐Artisanal vs. Academic Industrial Models of Education in America
Introduction
The Christian Model: Pastoral and Artisanal
An Alternative: Academic Industrialization
Conclusion
References
4 Engaging Questions of Purpose
Higher Education’s Beneficial Tensions and Contemporary Challenges
A History of Holistic Education
Holistic Education: A Priority or on the Periphery?
Searching for Institutional Purpose but Forsaking Purpose Exploration for Students
Meaning, Purpose, and Spirituality Remain Significant for Students
A Call to Reclaim Holistic Educational Approaches
Vocation as a Point of Convergence
Educational Environments Influence Vocational Exploration
Faith‐based Liberal Arts: A Niche of Excellence for Vocational Exploration
The Resurgence of Programs Designed to Explore Vocation
A Christian Vision of Vocational Exploration Emphasizes Character Formation and Moral Development
A Christian Vision of Vocation Actualizes the Connection Between Knowing and Doing
A Christian Vision of Vocation Emerges from a Common Priesthood and Exists for the Common Good
A Christian Vision of Vocation is Part of a Larger Mission (
Missio Dei
) and Contributes to a Broader Kingdom (the Kingdom of God)
Conclusion
References
5 Why Religion and Religious Freedom is Good for Society, Offenders, and Prisons
Historical Roots of Religious Freedom in the United States
Is Religious Freedom Good for Society?
Is Religion and Religious Freedom Good for Offenders?
Why Religion is Good for Offenders
Is Religion Good for Prisons?
How Religion Can Change Prisons for Good
Conclusion
References
6 The Integration of Faith Tradition and Teaching in Christian Higher Education
The Survey
What Motivates Christian Teachers: The Findings
Implications/Conclusions
References
7 A Christian Mentoring Program for Character Education of African American Teens and Young Adults from Detroit
The Significance of Three Primary Agencies for Character Education
Their Significance as Observed from Research Findings
Historically Established from Colonial Times
The Puritan Triad of Character Education
Basics of Our Mentoring Program
Overall Christian Mentoring Strategy
The Christian Mentor’s Competency
Results
Results from a Survey of Public School Teachers
General Discussion
Discussion on Multicultural Mentoring for Minorities
Discussion on Spirituality in Mentoring
Concluding Discussion
References
Further Reading
8 Character Education Traced Throughout American History
Introduction
The Historical Journey
Character Education and the Rise of Public Schools
What Does Separation of Church and State Really Mean?
Other Individuals who Played a Major Role in The Development of Public Schools
The Extent of Character Education Training
The Rise of Liberalism in American Public Schools
An International Exploration of Character Education
Character Education Curriculum, Organizations, and Programs
Results of Character Education Studies
Challenges of Character Education
Summary
References
9 Publicly Funded Charter Schools with Religious Ties
The Legal Context for Religious Influence in Public Education
Charter School Reform
Different Types of Religious Ties in Charter Schools
Theoretical Expectations for Charter Schools with Religious Ties
Outcomes for Charter Schools
Unanswered Questions and Directions for Future Research
Conclusion
References
Part II: Christianity and Education Around the Globe
10 Faith‐based Schooling in a Pluralistic Democracy
Overview
Reasons for Choosing Faith‐based Schools
Claims Made for Public Common Schools
Schooling for a Pluralistic Democracy
References
11 The Teaching of the Holocaust in American Evangelical Christian Schools
Introduction
The Historical Context of the Holocaust
Missed Opportunities
The Nature of Adolf Hitler and His Rise to Power
Hitler’s Rise
Churches
Evangelical Support in the Aftermath of The Holocaust
Growing Religious Intolerance
Lessons of the Holocaust for Today’s Evangelical Christians
References
12 Learned Piety in a Place of Freedom
Introduction
The Medieval University: Education between Church and State
Humanism and Education in Reformation Europe
Education in a European World: Industrialism, Colonialization, and Decolonization
From Elite to Mass Higher Education
Conclusion and Prospects
References
13 Religious Liberty and Educational Pluralism
Freedom of Conscience
The role of Core Beliefs in Human Experience and Knowledge
Taking Education Out of Party Politics
The Unity of the Child
Sound Pedagogy
Parental Rights
Church Rights
Preparation for Future Service to Society
Free Initiative, and Civil Society
Justice for the Poor
National Unity
The Dutch Culture and Heritage
References
14 Christianity and Education
Introduction
Beginnings of Catholic Education in Brazil
Four Periods
The Importance of Religious Education
The Future
Conclusion
References
15 Latinx Parental Expectations in the Home
Introduction
The Impact of Religiosity on Education
Theoretical Framework
Manifestations of Parental Expectations
Who are Latinx and why do Expectations of Students Matter?
Parental Expectations Matter in School Performance
Parental Belief, Guidance, and Monitoring
The Acquisition of Cultural Capital through Community Resources
Implications for Parental Expectations and Involvement in Education
References
16 Church‐based and Community‐centered Higher Education
Introduction
Rationale for Serving the Poor
The Trinity Education Model
Assessing This Model
Prospects for Future Growth
Conclusion
References
17 “Small Things with Great Love”
The Divine Mission and Ultimate Purpose of Education
Faith—Sofia Cavalletti (1917–2011)
The Parables as Grist for Deepening the Relationship with Christ
Add to Your Faith
Virtue
Add to Virtue
Knowledge
Add to Knowledge
Self‐control
Add to self‐control,
Perseverance or Steadfastness
Add to steadfastness
Godliness
To Godliness add
Brotherly Love
And brotherly affection with
Love of God
A Word on the Pedagogy Debates
Returning to Peter’s Admonitions
References
Part III: Humanity at a Crossroads in Determining the Relationship Between Christianity and Education
18 The Supreme Court, 1st Amendment Religion Clauses, and Education
Introduction
State Aid to Faith‐based School
Forms of State Aid
Secular Services and Salary Supplements
Aids to Parents
Religious Activities and Public Schools
Conclusion
References
19 Using the Christian Paradigm of Living and Learning to Rethink the Extravert Ideal
Personality Theory and Societal Excess
The Christian Paradigm of Living and Learning
How the Christian Paradigm Reverses Extravert Excesses
Conclusion
References
20 The Dog that Didn’t Bark
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion and Conclusion
References
21 School Choice, Worldview, and Secularism’s Blindness
Introduction
Worldviews in School Choice Discussions
Worldview: Irrelevant or Neglected?
Summary Conclusion
Proposal
References
22 Education in a Catholic Key
Introduction
Education in a Personal and Invitational Key
Education in a Sacramental Key
Education in a Eucharistic Key
Education as a Uniting Key
Conclusion
References
23 Minority Male Attainment
Mission and Overview
Spiritual Social Emotional Development
The Removal of an Emphasis on Spirituality and Character from the Public Schools
The Importance of Family Configuration for Young Males
The Role of The Schools
Changing the Situation for the Better
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
24 Defining our Terms
Introduction
What is the
Truly
Pluralistic University?
True Pluralism Versus the Current Definition of Pluralism
Why Would Secularists Wish to Relinquish Their Control?
What is The Alternative to the Secular Definition of Pluralism?
Adapting to The New Reality
The Move Toward
True
Pluralism
Specific Steps to Create A True Pluralism in American Universities
A Christian Argument for Pluralism in the Academy, as Expressed to Those in Secular University and the Christian Community
Eight Reasons for Welcoming the
Truly
Pluralistic Model
Conclusion
References
25 Christianity and Higher Education
Background
Introduction
The Culture Wars and the Liberal University
Studies on Intellectual Diversity
Intellectual Diversity among Socially Conservative College Seniors: A Hierarchical Generalized Linear Modeling (HGLM) Study
Results
Investigating the Influence of Religious/Social Conservatism on Perceptions of Intellectual Diversity: A Case for the Polytomous Rasch Model (PRM)
Discussion
References
26 Religion, Adolescent Wellbeing, and Educational Outcomes
Religion’s Influence on Adolescence
Religion and Risk Behaviors
Religion and Mental Health
Religion and Educational/School Outcomes
Additional Research
Explanations
Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Broad Theological Traditions of Faculty Respondents (n = 2309)
Table 6.2 Does your Theological Tradition Influence the Following Areas of your Teaching? (Responses by percentage)
Table 6.3 Identity Labels
Table 6.4 Integration of Christian Tradition and Teaching Within Various Disciplines
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Male Self‐Evaluation Scores
Table 7.2 Female Self‐Evaluation Scores
Table 7.3 Male Self‐Evaluations Compared to Control Mean Scores
Table 7.4 Female Self‐Evaluations Compared to Control Mean Scores
Table 7.5 t‐Test Comparison of Opinion Scores of Schools
Table 7.6 t‐Test Comparison of Opinion Scores of School B to a Control Mean of 3
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Choice Programs in Effect During the Study Period
Table 20.2 Number of Choice Programs and States by Year
Table 20.3 Enrollment Trends
Table 20.4 Percent Minority Trends
Table 20.5 Grades Offered Trends
Table 20.6 Christian School Enrollment as a Function of Public School Enrollment
Table 20.7 Racial/Ethnic Composition of Christian Schools as a Function of Composition of Population
Table 20.8 Christian School Enrollment as a Function of Charter School Enrollment
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Democrat‐to‐Republican Ratios as Found in Major Studies, by Department
Table 25.2 Descriptive Statistics of Outcome Variable “Please Rate your Satisfaction with Your College in Each Area—Respect for the Expression of Diverse Beliefs” and Level 2 Units
Table 25.3 Cumulative Logit Models for the Perception of an Institution’s Respect for the Expression of Diverse Beliefs among Socially Conservative Seniors and Socially Conservative Christian Seniors at Elite Post‐Secondary Institutions in the United States with Robust Standard Errors
Table 25.4 Variables in the Study
Table 25.5 Zero‐Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for Indicator Variables for High/Low Religious‐Conservative Students (Lower Diagonal) and Middle Religious‐Conservative Students (Upper Diagonal). Middle Religious‐Conservative Mean and Standard Deviation in Parentheses.
Table 25.6a Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Campus Dissatisfaction from Dummy‐Coded Variables of Self‐Identified Political Conviction
Table 25.6b Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Campus Dissatisfaction from Dummy‐Coded Variables of Views on Same‐Sex Marriage
Table 25.6c Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Campus Dissatisfaction from Dummy‐Coded Variables of Views on Abortion
Table 25.6d Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Campus Dissatisfaction from Dummy‐Coded Variables of How Often Participants Attend a Religious Service
Table 25.6e Summary of Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Campus Dissatisfaction from Dummy‐Coded Variables on Self‐Rating of Spirituality
Table 25.7a Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Views on Same‐Sex Marriage on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7b Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Political Views on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7c Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Attending Religious Service on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7d Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Prayer on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7e Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Self‐Rate of Spirituality on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7f Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Views on Abortion on Perception of Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
Table 25.7g Summary of One‐Way Analysis of Variance for Views on Legalized Marijuana and Campus’s Respect for a Diversity of Beliefs
List of Illustrations
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 A Mentoring Model for Christian Mentoring Systems.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Parental Expectancy Framework for Students’ Academic Success.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Academic Mentor Responsibilities.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Enrollment, Percentage Minority, and Grades Offered Trends in Choice and Non‐Choice States, 1990–2012.
Figure 20.2 Enrollment, Percentage Minority, and Grades Offered Trends in Voucher and Non‐Voucher States, 1990–2012.
Figure 20.3 Enrollment, Percentage Minority, and Grades Offered Trends in Tax Deduction and Non‐Tax Deduction States, 1990–2012.
Figure 20.4 Enrollment, Percentage Minority, and Grades Offered Trends in Individual Tax‐Credit and Non‐Individual Tax‐Credit States, 1990–2012.
Figure 20.5 Enrollment, Percentage Minority, and Grades Offered Trends in Tax‐Credit Scholarship and Non‐Tax‐Credit Scholarship States, 1990–2012.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Faculty Ideology: Overall Percentage of Faculty Members with Left‐ and Right‐of'Center Positions. From M. Brow, M. (2016). Investigating the perceptions of intellectual diversity among socially conservative Christian seniors at elite U.S. colleges.
Journal of Research on Christian Education
,
25
(1): 38–55.
Figure 25.2 Standardized coefficients for Structural Equation Model (SEM) and Their Standard Errors (in parentheses). From M. Brow (2016). Investigating the perceptions of intellectual diversity among socially conservative Christian seniors at elite U.S. colleges.
Journal of Research on Christian Education, 25
(1): 38–55.
Figure 25.3 Predicted Cumulative Probabilities (vertical axis) of Being “Very Dissatisfied” (phi 1) or “Dissatisfied” (phi 2) with a university’s respect for the expression of diverse beliefs as a Function of Social Conservatism (horizontal axis).
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The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Education
The Wiley Handbooks in Education offer a capacious and comprehensive overview of higher education in a global context. These state‐of‐the‐art volumes offer a magisterial overview of every sector, sub‐field and facet of the discipline‐from reform and foundations to K‐12 learning and literacy. The Handbooks also engage with topics and themes dominating today's educational agenda‐mentoring, technology, adult and continuing education, college access, race and educational attainment. Showcasing the very best scholarship that the discipline has to offer, The Wiley Handbooks in Education will set the intellectual agenda for scholars, students, researchers for years to come.
The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Educationby William Jeynes (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Ethnography of Educationby Dennis Beach (Editor), Carl Bagley (Editor), and Sofia Marques da Silva (Editor)
he Wiley Handbook of Diversity in Special Educationby Marie Tejero Hughes (Editor) and Elizabeth Talbott (Editor)
The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Leadershipby Duncan Waite (Editor) and Ira Bogotch (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Social Studies Researchby Meghan McGlinn Manfra (Editor) and Cheryl Mason Bolick (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of School Choiceby Robert A. Fox (Editor) and Nina K. Buchanan (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Home Educationby Milton Gaither (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Cognition and Assessment: Frameworks, Methodologies, and Applicationsby Andre A. Rupp (Editor) and Jacqueline P. Leighton (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Learning Technologyby Nick Rushby (Editor) and Dan Surry (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Education
Edited by William Jeynes
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Notes on Contributors
Nathan F. Alleman, PhD, is Associate Professor of Higher Education Studies at Baylor University and a Research Fellow with the Texas Hunger Initiative. He studies marginal and marginalized groups and institutions in higher education. He recently co‐authored the book Restoring the Soul of the University: Unifying Christian Higher Education in a Fragmented Age.
Eric Ambroso is currently a doctoral student in the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University. His research focuses on educational opportunities available to immigrants, refugees, and asylees in the United States. Eric’s current research projects include examining how existing language policies and support structures affect the experiences of forcibly displaced children in public schools.
Rene Antrop‐González is Dean and Professor of Urban Education in the School of Urban Education at Metropolitan State University in St. Paul, Minnesota. Rene is the author of numerous articles centered on urban education and the schooling of Latino youth in national and international refereed journals, book chapters, and a book. He also has presented in numerous conferences internationally and nationally, often focusing on educational issues and their intersections with race/ethnicity and language. He is the recipient of numerous grants to fund research on topics involving urban education. In addition, he finds time to contribute to community service organizations, both locally and on the national level.
Fred W. Beuttler is Associate Dean for Liberal Arts Programs at the Graham School for Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies at the University of Chicago, where he received his Ph.D. in history. From 2005 to 2010 he was the Deputy Historian of the U.S. House of Representatives.
Mark Brow has a doctorate in Curriculum and Instruction (Ed.D.) from Azusa Pacific University and a Master’s degree in Measurement, Evaluation, Statistics, and Assessment (MESA) from the University of Illinois at Chicago. He is currently earning a Ph.D. in MESA and teaching at the university.
Kenneth Calvert is a member of the History Faculty at Hillsdale College. He also serves as the Headmaster of Hillsdale Academy, a private, Classical, K‐12 day school. His research interests include the Roman Republic, the History of Christianity, as well as Classical education in the United States.
Dick Carpenter II is a Professor of Leadership, Research, and Foundations at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs.
Monica Cole‐Jackson has a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership from California State University, Long Beach. She has been an educator for 20 years and has taught kindergarten, elementary, middle, high, community college and university students. She believes the development of students’ spiritual, social and emotional aptitude is a missing component from public education curricula. Dr. Cole‐Jackson works to provide supports to increase resilience in students.
Rev. Louis A. DelFra, C.S.C. serves on the faculty and as Director of Pastoral Life for the Alliance for Catholic Education. He currently publishes in the fields of religion and literature, teacher education, and spirituality. He gives retreats and workshops on the intersection of faith and education throughout the country.
Craig S. Engelhardt has a background in private education and a Ph.D. from Baylor University in Religion, Politics, and Society. From this vantage point, Craig recognizes the perspectival nature of education and how secular public education has shaped the citizenry. He currently directs SACE, an organization devoted to strengthening civic philosophy.
Amanda Forbes has helped build Trinity Education from the ground‐up, working with leaders in multiple countries and shaping a global educational/discipleship model that can be deployed in marginalized contexts. She holds degrees from Pepperdine University (B.A.), Vanderbilt University (M.Ed.), and the University of Minnesota, where she completed her Ph.D. in international education (2011).
Perry L. Glanzer is Professor of Educational Foundations at Baylor University and a resident scholar with Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion. He recently co‐authored Restoring the Soul of the University: Unifying Christian Higher Education in a Fragmented Age and The Quest for Purpose: The Collegiate Search for a Meaningful Life.
Charles L. Glenn is Professor Emeritus of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Boston University. From 1970 to 1991 he was director of urban education and equity for the Massachusetts Department of Education. Glenn’s dozen books include The Myth of the Common School (1988), The Ambiguous Embrace: Government and Faith‐based Schools and Social Agencies (2000), and (edited with Jan De Groof) Balancing Freedom, Autonomy, and Accountability in Education (2012), with chapters on 65 national systems of education in four volumes.
Daniel Hamlin is a doctoral candidate in Educational Leadership and Policy at the University of Toronto. His areas of expertise are school choice, parental involvement, and urban education policy. In his research, he uses quantitative and qualitative methods and draws on conceptual tools from economics, sociology, and public policy.
Jamie Kay Jakubowski‐Tungyoo has a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership from California State University, Long Beach and earned her master’s degree in Secondary Math Education and bachelor’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction at Arizona State University. She has served as an assistant principal and classroom teacher for a total of ten years.
William Jeynes is a Senior Fellow at the Witherspoon Institute in Princeton and a Professor of Education at California State University in Long Beach. He graduated first in his class at Harvard University and received the Rosenberger Award at the University of Chicago for being his cohort’s most outstanding student. He has about 165 academic publications, including 14 books. He has spoken and written for the White House and several US Government Departments, under three US presidents. He has been a consultant for the governments of the US, the EU, South Korea, and other major countries. His 4‐point plan presented to the Acting President of South Korea passed the Korean Parliament and became the core of the nation’s economic stimulus package that helped it emerge from the greatest Asian economic crisis since World War II. He has been quoted or interviewed by most of the nation’s foremost newspapers, as well as many leading foreign ones. He received the “Distinguished Scholar Award” from the California State Senate and the California State Assembly. His work has been cited by the US Congress, the British Parliament, the EU, and many State Supreme Courts across the United States.
Byron R. Johnson is Distinguished Professor of the Social Sciences at Baylor University. He is the founding director of the Baylor Institute for Studies of Religion. His newest books are The Angola Prison Seminary (Routledge, 2016) and The Quest for Purpose: The Collegiate Search for a Meaningful Life (SUNY Press, 2017).
Rebecca S. Keith, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Instructor and a Research Assistant at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs. She is also a Biology and Mathematics Instructor at St. Mary’s High School in Colorado Springs and an author of a published children’s science fiction/fantasy series.
Daniel D. Liou is an Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership at the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University. His research focuses on issues of school reform and effectiveness, and the stratifying effects of educators’ expectations for student learning along the P‐20 educational pipeline. By drawing on critical theories and ecological frameworks, Dr. Liou examines how educators’ expectancy practices contribute to teacher‐student relationships, schoolwide excellence, and effective organizational leadership to instill confidence and expand educational opportunities with and for diverse populations.
Michelle C. Louis is an Associate Professor in the Doctoral Programs in Higher Education at Azusa Pacific University. She was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Noel Academy for Strengths‐Based Leadership and Education, and has served as an educational consultant to Gallup as well as Associate Editor at The Journal of Positive Psychology. She is co‐editor of the volume entitled Thriving in Transitions: A Research‐based Approach to College Student Success. Her experience in teaching at the undergraduate, masters, and doctoral levels has prompted her to be curious about research inquiries that lie at the intersection of Psychology and Education, as well as topics related to the scholarship of teaching and learning.
William C. Mattison III is Senior Advisor of Theological Formation at the Alliance for Catholic Education and Associate Professor of Theology in the Department of Theology at the University of Notre Dame. His latest book is The Sermon on the Mount and Moral Theology: A Virtue Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2017).
Sean McGraw, C.S.C. is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame. He co‐founded the Alliance for Catholic Education with Fr. Tim Scully, C.S.C. His research interests are political parties, religion, and politics, Irish politics, and education policy. He has published one book, How Parties Win: Shaping the Irish Political Arena (University of Michigan Press, 2015).
Wendy Naylor worked in the Netherlands for over ten years, helping to establish two Christian schools in Amsterdam. She has also traveled extensively to assist teacher training projects, primarily in Europe, and South America. Her dissertation was on the educational thought and work of Abraham Kuyper, a Dutch statesman and social philosopher. Since moving back to Chicago, she has also worked on the board of a new Christian school, and served there as acting principal. She currently lives in Chicago with her husband, Tim, and is working on several writing projects.
Robert Osburn has spent over 30 years in the higher education arena, both as an adjunct instructor at the University of Minnesota, as well as a campus minister among international and graduate students, as well as faculty. His Ph.D. is in International Education from the University of Minnesota (2005).
Tommy M. Phillips is an Associate Professor of Human Development and Family Studies and coordinator of the graduate program in HDFS in the School of Human Sciences at Mississippi State University. He earned his Ph.D. in Human Development and Family Studies at Auburn University. Dr. Phillips’ primary research and teaching interests lie in the area of youth development and wellbeing.
Mary Poplin is a Professor of Education at the Claremont Graduate University. Her work includes analyzing worldviews dominant in education and the larger culture, as well as research on the most highly effective teachers with low‐income students. She is also the author of both Is Reality Secular? and Finding Calcutta both published by InterVarsity Press.
David W. Robinson is a historian, teacher, and professor with over 40 years of experience. His specialty is American history, focusing on education, worldview, and the effects of industrialization/technology on higher education since the Civil War. The Christian faith, culture, and the classroom is of particular interest.
Paulo Romeiro was awarded a B.A. degree in Journalism from Brás Cubas University, an M.Div. from Gordon‐Conwell Theological Seminary in Boston, MA, and a Ph.D. from the Methodist University in São Paulo, Brazil. He is a Professor of Theology at Mackenzie Presbyterian University in São Paulo, Brazil and is also the founder and Senior Pastor of the Trinity Christian Church. He researches New Religious Movements and the author of several books.
Charles J. Russo, M. Div., J.D., Ed. D., the Joseph Panzer Chair in Education in the School of Education and Health Services, Director of its Ph.D. Program, and Adjunct Professor in the School of Law at the University of Dayton. has authored or co‐authored more than 280 articles in peer‐reviewed journals and has authored, co‐authored, edited, or co‐edited 60 books, and more than 1,000 publications.
Timothy R. Scully, C.S.C. is a Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame where he also serves as Hackett Director of the Institute for Educational Initiatives. Scully founded the Alliance for Catholic Education in 1993 with Fr. Sean McGraw, C.S.C. His research and graduate teaching focuses on comparative political institutions, especially political parties.
Lou Selzer, D.Min. has pastored a church near Detroit for almost 28 years. His ministry underscores the importance of Christian mentoring, pastoral counseling, and preaching and teaching with a sound biblical exegesis. He especially enjoys promoting Christian education, while serving as a lead pastor and as an adjunct Bible college professor.
Betty J. Talbert is Managing Editor of Philosophia Christi, the journal of the Evangelical Philosophical Society. She holds master’s degrees in New Testament, Talbot School of Theology, and Christian Apologetics, Simon Greenleaf School of Law. Her news media career spans more than 15 years. She worked as an editor for many years at the Orange County Register, the nation’s fourteenth largest newspaper.
Osie L. Wood, Jr. obtained a Ph.D. in Educational Studies at Claremont Graduate University. Over the past 50 years, Dr. Wood has served the communities of Southern California as an educator, community activist, social program provider, college chaplain and church pastor. As an educator, Dr. Wood has served as the Dean of the Trade and Industrial Division for Long Beach City College, Coordinator of Continuing Education and Director of the Education Opportunity Program, Director of the first Educational Opportunity Center in the western states, and counselor for Vietnam Veterans at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Director of the U.S. Office of Education Talent Search Program funded through the University of California, Los Angeles.
Acknowledgments
I am very thankful to many individuals who played a large role in making this work possible. I want to thank numerous people in the academic world at Harvard University and the University of Chicago for helping me give birth to this project and in guiding me through the early stages of planning this book. I especially want to thank the late Bob Jewell for his encouragement. I want to thank a couple of academics for their input into this project. These individuals include Byron Johnson and James Hartwick. In addition, I deeply appreciate President Obama and President G. W. Bush for inviting me to speak on these issues. I also want to thank several dear friends whose encouragement with respect to this project touched me deeply. Among these friends are Wayne Ruhland, Jean Donohue, Larry and Vada DeWerd, Joyce Decker, Jessica Choi, Tim and Sarah Kim, Charles and Marion Patterson, and Mike and Dee Fitzpatrick.
I count myself fortunate to have been married for 32 years to my wife, Hyelee, whose support has been exemplary. We have three wonderful boys, whom I thank for their love and inspiration. I also want to thank God for giving me the strength and providence to complete this project. May this book open many eyes and hearts.
Introduction
The Handbook of Christianity and Education was birthed several years ago when some of the leaders of Wiley‐Blackwell Publishing contacted William (Bill) and asked him if he would consider organizing and editing this prodigious work. On the one hand, William seemed like a natural fit because he had served as the Chair of the Religion and Education group for the American Educational Research Association for a number of years. In addition, William believed that part of his “call” was to draw together some of the leaders in the fields of Christianity, missions, education, and discipleship and have them write and present on their expertise.
On the other hand, William was extremely busy both speaking and writing for the White House and speaking for other U.S. government departments at the time. In fact, it was one of the busier periods in William’s life. However, William has always been impressed with Wiley‐Blackwell books and therefore could not turn down such a wonderful opportunity. He gathered together some of the finest leaders in the field to produce this book. The authors of these chapters therefore believe that the contents of this book will touch many minds and hearts.
Part IMajor Issues in Christian Education
In The Movement Away from God in American Education, Kenneth Calvert writes a vital overview covering American education’s trending away from God over time. He elaborates on the Christian foundation established by the Puritans and other settlers, the founders of the nation, and educators throughout the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s. Dr. Calvert then elaborates on what people and forces contributed to the turning away from this Christian foundation, and the price the United States has paid for this direction.
William Jeynes writes an interesting piece pointing to the American historical belief in The Two Biological Parent Family, Christianity, and Economic Prosperity. This worldview was widely accepted in the United States for many years. Dr. Jeynes draws from both logic and data to demonstrate that the relationship between the three is as real today as it ever has been.
David W. Robinson writes an intriguing chapter entitled, The Christian Pastoral‐Artisanal vs. Academic Industrial Models of Education in America. He argues that the Christian instructional model emphasizes the whole person and is considerably more effective than the industrial model that especially gained adherents in the early 1900s and focuses on profits, revenue, and productivity more than it does on what is good for people and society overall.
Continuing on the theme of a Christian‐based broader approach to education than is currently practiced, Michelle C. Louis contributes an interesting piece. In Engaging Questions of Purpose: The Resurgence of Vocational Exploration and Its Integrative Potential for Higher Education, Dr. Louis argues that people are pondering an approach to education that includes integrating more vocational approaches.
Byron R. Johnson addresses a very penetrating topic when he examines the education of prisoners, juvenile delinquents, and lawbreakers. He presents evidence that suggests that Christian education can reduce recidivism and crime. He investigates this issue in the chapter: Why Religion and Religious Freedom is Good for Society, Offenders, and Prisons.
Perry L. Glanzer and Nathan F. Alleman pen a very practical chapter entitled, The Integration of Faith Tradition and Teaching in Christian Higher Education. There is no question that good research can guide Christian teaching practices and this chapter spells out how.
Lou Selzer, who is both an academic and a professor, writes a very practical and informative chapter on A Christian Mentoring Program for Character Education of African American Teens and Young Adults from Detroit. Dr. Selzer shares a convincing chapter on how the application of biblical principles in mentoring can change the lives of adolescents and young people.
Jamie Kay Jakubowski‐Tungyoo and William Jeynes examine the history of character education in schools in the United States in their chapter, Character Education Traced Throughout American History. They share about its Christian foundation from the early 1600s until its largely de facto removal from public schools due to the reactions of educators to U.S. Supreme Court decisions in 1962 and 1963. Although these decisions did not specifically remove character education from the public school curriculum, for reasons elaborated on by the authors, school leaders generally retreated from teaching it in the classrooms. The authors believe that character education can still be taught in the public schools, not based on a religious rubric, but rather by focusing on certain values that are common to virtually all human beings including honesty, sincerity, compassion, and responsibility.
Daniel Hamlin presents a very unique chapter entitled, Publicly Funded Charter Schools with Religious Ties. The number of religious schools is in decline, while the number of public charter schools has risen substantially since the early 1990s. With these two trends in place, part of the reason for this trend is due to the presence of public charter schools with religious connections. This chapter elaborates on this development.
1The Movement Away from God in American Education
Kenneth Calvert
Hillsdale College
The Declaration of Independence (1776): We hold these truths to be self‐evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
(Frohnen, 2001, p. 189)
The Northwest Ordinance (1787): Article 3, Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.
(Frohnen, 2001, p. 227)
The Constitution of the United States: Bill of Rights (1789): Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.
(Frohnen, 2001, p. 349)
The Christian Classical Tradition in America
The Americas were colonized by European nations the cultures of which had been deeply informed by Classical Christian education. Colonists from Spain, France, Portugal, and England brought with them an intellectual tradition founded upon the liberal arts of the Greco‐Roman world and completed by a Christian theological perspective. The moral and religious convictions of the Greeks and Romans, who understood that religious piety was an essential virtue, had been redefined within Judeo‐Christian monotheism which also understood that honoring the Divine played an important role in the success or failure of a society (Potter, 2013). For European Christians of all stripes religious piety was considered an essential component in the maintenance of individual morality in a healthy, unified society or was even considered essential to the maintenance of a good relationship between an entire polity and the Divine (Gregory, 2013; Gummere, 1963; Haefeli, 2013; Hudson, 1981). Among the philosophers of the 18th century it was an affirmation of natural law, and the God who established such a law, that informed their understanding of an ordered universe as well as the rights due to all human beings (Caspar, 2014; Richard, 1994). Hence, at the core of education in all the colonies there resided a conviction that religious study and piety or certainly an affirmation of a divinely‐established natural law was essential in the shaping of young hearts and minds. This philosophy of education was very much the norm in the English colonies of North America in all the grammar and secondary schools as well as the universities established during the early decades of the American republic (Elias, 2002; Fischer, 1989; Richard, 1994).
By the turn of the 21st century the dominant philosophies shaping school cultures and curricula had not only rejected Christian piety but had also rejected any expression of devout Christian faith within the walls of the public schools. Studies in history and literature were expunged of references to positive Christian influences in culture (Edmondson, 2006). While students and teachers were often encouraged to study non‐traditional religions, Christian piety and, indeed, all expression of serious religious commitment came to be, for all intents and purposes, forbidden in American schools. In just under three centuries the Christian Classical tradition was gradually pushed aside in favor of highly secularized philosophies of education (Kern, 2015; Marsden, 1997).
An account of this transition is as complex as it is unique. However, substantial insight can be found in the shift towards an exclusion of the Divine in American education through a study of the pedagogical convictions of those philosophers and judges who, in the 19th and 20th centuries, defined local and national educational policy. On the whole, the various 18th‐century Founders of the American political culture envisioned a free citizenry informed by intelligence and faithful virtue, yet unburdened by the weight of state‐legislated religion. Over the decades that followed, this perspective was radically reinterpreted through secularizing lenses by those of Progressive convictions. Subjects for study in schools understood to be “necessary” by the Founders for the health of American political culture would, by the mid‐20th century, be deemed “unconstitutional” (Flowers, 2008; Jeynes, 2007).
Education in the Colonies and the Early American Republic
The English colonials brought to their new communities the social, political, religious, and philosophical traditions as well as tensions that had defined English and European life. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations, the wars that attended them, as well as tensions regarding the monarchial and aristocratic political structures of English and European life were transported to the colonies. The peculiar culture of each colony reflected a unity as well as a great variety among their inhabitants. Puritans dominated the New England colonies. Georgia was Methodist. Virginia tended to be aristocratic and Anglican, while a Catholic contingent established themselves first in the colony of Maryland. Yet, the founding documents of every colony, beginning in 1620, acknowledged an allegiance to both the King as well as to the Christian faith (Gregory, 2013; Gummere, 1963; Hudson, 1981).
Also shared among these colonies was an approach to education that was consistently informed by the Christian Classical tradition. Young students were taught to read so that they might participate in commerce, in the political life of their community, and, above all, to read Holy Scripture (Elias, 2002; Fischer, 1989; Gummere, 1963; Jeynes, 2003). The first public schools in the colonies were found in the North, among the Puritans. The laws of Massachusetts required every town to maintain a school (Richard, 1994). In New York, private schools were established for the poor (Jeynes, 2007) while private schools for others could be found in every colony. In the South, education was predominantly private and was often dominated by aristocratic families. David Hackett Fischer (1989) writes that for Virginia, “… literacy was an instrument of wealth and power in this colony, and that many were poor and powerless in that respect” (p. 345). The Quakers of Pennsylvania, who would also establish public schools, often emphasized the “practical” while many schools sought to add the knowledge of commerce, farming, accounting, sailing, and other vocational skills to the dominant Classical curriculum of the day (Elias, 2002). John Winthrop (1538–1649), a Puritan and an advocate of early study in medicine and the sciences, pushed for the introduction of laboratory work (Gummere, 1963). On the whole, however, young men who attended colonial grammar schools were trained in nearly identical subjects, and sent to colleges or universities (in England and in the colonies) that expected in each student a uniform foundation in the liberal arts as well as in Christian thought. The religious focus in these schools was understood to be essential and the reading of Holy Scripture was an integral part of daily study. The ideal education in the English colonies included the study of the Bible as well as the study of Latin and/or Greek, of logic, mathematics, rhetoric, and grammar (Richard, 1994). Quakers stressed the free movement of the spirit within the believer as well as a practical application of faith in daily life and work. Hence, William Penn (1644–1718) taught that “much reading is an oppression of the mind” (Fischer, 1989, pp. 530, 534), and felt a “useful trade” to be more important than useless ancient languages. Yet, his own education was Classical at its very core and so he could never quite escape its positive influences (Gummere, 1963). And even among the Quakers their variation never emphasized “electives.” Among the Quakers discipline and rigor remained the rule (Elias, 2002). Similarly, though his pedagogical methods may have differed from the Christian Classical tradition, Roger Williams (1603–1683), in July of 1654, wrote, “It pleased the Lord to call me for some time and with some persons to practice the Hebrew, the Greeke, Latine, French, and Dutch” (Gummere, 1963, p. 60). The more typical school, such as the Boston Latin School, not only applied traditional methods (large amounts of memorization and good, sometimes heavy, discipline), but also required “Cicero’s orations, Justinian [Roman Law], the Latin and Greek New Testaments, Isocrates, Homer, Vergil, Horace, Juvenal, and dialogues in Godwin’s Roman Antiquities, as well as turning the Psalms into Latin verse” (Gummere, 1963, p. 57). Hopkins Grammar School of New Haven and the Penn Charter School of Philadelphia are two further examples of a tradition that was well‐established throughout the colonies by the 1750s. Schools in the colonies were rooted in a Christian and Classical approach to education.
The norms to which all colonial students were expected to adhere is best found in those entrance requirements established by the American colleges. A student at Harvard in his first year reviewed “the classic authors learned at [grammar] school,” and was expected to, “understand Tully, Virgil, or any such Classical authors and readily to speak or write true Latin in prose and have skill in making Latin verse, and be completely grounded in the Greek language.” Applicants were also required to show evidence of their Christian faith and “blameless life” (Gummere, 1963, p. 6; Jeynes, 2003; Richard, 1994). John Witherspoon (1723–1794) of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University) seemed the most adept at making young colonial men ready for public service to the states and nation. Richard Gummere (1963) writes that, “More than any other American educator, he made Greek and Latin a functional part of the nation’s literary style, as well as a vital element of training for both pulpit and public service” (p. 71). Witherspoon believed that a man was incomplete as a scholar without the close study of both Greek and Latin. John Adams (1735–1826), an admirer of Witherspoon, carried with him an anthology of Cicero’s orations as well as a copy of the New Testament. James Madison (1751–1836), one of Witherspoon’s top students, studied Hebrew in an extra year of school work at Princeton and, in his own writings, gave indication of the influence of Aristotle and Plato, not to mention a deep study and devotion to the Holy Scriptures (Richard, 1994). Throughout his work, Witherspoon addressed divine rights, natural rights, the nature of Greek city‐states, and the fate of the Roman Republic. Witherspoon’s students reflect well the breadth and depth of the Christian Classical tradition in the colonies as they entered into the life of a new nation. As a measure of Witherspoon’s influence, he acted as a vibrant member of the New Jersey legislature and in 1787 served on the state convention to ratify the federal Constitution. He was an educator and an actor on the political stage who held the great respect of his peers (Gummere, 1963). Among Witherspoon’s students were 9 of the 55 men at the Federal Convention in the summer of 1787, and in the early republic one president (James Madison), 39 congressmen, 21 senators, 12 judges, including three on the Supreme Court, and 50 members of the early state legislatures (Gummere, 1963; Richard, 1994; Sandoz, 1998). He was, by far, one of the most important Christian and Classical educators in the new nation. He held his students to high standards of intellectual excellence and piety. And it is not an overstatement to assert that Witherspoon represented a perspective that informed both the universities and schools of early America.
Among the necessary lessons learned in these studies was a healthy fear of tyranny, or of abuse at the hands of evil monarchs and of demagogues (Richard, 1994). The democracy of Athens (6th–5th centuries B.C.), the philosophers of Greece (particularly Aristotle, 384–322 B.C.), as well as a heavy dose of reading in the history of the Roman Republic (8th–1st centuries B.C.), served as wells of inspiration for the generation that would rise in rebellion against English rule. And alongside these Classical models were necessary biblical lessons that spoke to the duty of obeying a just government while opposing oppressive human kings or tyrants. The preachers and the leaders of the era understood that the, “… gift of freedom to do right and live truly carries another possibility, rebellion and rejection” (Sandoz, 1998, p. xviii). Expounding upon biblical admonitions to, “Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers” (Romans 13:1) and to honor God’s governance of the world through human institutions, the colonials held to the belief that rebellion was a sin. However, when kings and tyrants themselves broke the law and disturbed the divine or natural order of things then rebellion was not only a good, it was a duty. Samuel Cooper (1757–1840), on October 25, 1780, preached a sermon to Governor John Hancock (1737–1793) and the legislature of Massachusetts celebrating the new Constitution. In that sermon, he reflected the general concern of the day to train young people to be intelligent, faithful, and loyal citizens. Cooper stated that,
Neither piety, virtue, or liberty can long flourish in a community, where the education of youth is neglected. How much do we owe to the care of our venerable ancestors upon this important subject? Had not they laid such foundation for training up their children in knowledge and religion, in science, and arts, should we have been so respectable a community as we this day appear? Should we have understood our rights so clearly? Or valued them so highly? Or defended them with such advantage? Or should we have been prepared to lay that basis of liberty, that happy Constitution, on which we raise such large hopes, and from which we derive such uncommon joy?
(Sandoz, 1998, p. 648)
At the very foundation of the American Revolution and the founding of the United States lay a tradition of education that lent itself to the development of a citizenry that was sovereign over the state. Indeed, state power was equally, if not more, suspect than the power of a religious sect. Essential to this education was a study of both the Classical and biblical texts, as well as of ancient history and literature as a whole. A secular tone was never the norm, nor was the belief that religion should be kept out of either private or public schools (Jeynes, 2003).
Thomas Jefferson and His Contemporaries
It is a certainty that the leaders of the Revolutionary generation held to a variety of religious convictions. And so it is a great mistake to take any one view as “the” perspective of the American Founders and of their opinions regarding religious study or practice in schools. Such men as Patrick Henry (1736–1799), James Madison, Charles Carroll (1737–1832), and John Witherspoon, even as Protestants and Catholics with a variety of doctrinal disagreements among them, were decidedly dedicated to a more orthodox understanding of the Christian faith (Gregory, 2013; Sandoz, 1998
