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The Wiley Handbook of Home Education is a comprehensive collection of the latest scholarship in all aspects of home education in the United States and abroad. * Presents the latest findings on academic achievement of home-schooled children, issues of socialization, and legal argumentation about home-schooling and government regulation * A truly global perspective on home education, this handbook includes the disparate work of scholars outside of the U.S. * Typically understudied topics are addressed, such as the emotional lives of home educating mothers and the impact of home education on young adults * Writing is accessible to students, scholars, educators, and anyone interested in home schooling issues

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Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Notes on Contributors

Introduction to The Wiley Handbook of Home Education

Part I: Home Education in the United States

1 The History of Homeschooling

Introduction

The History of Home Education Outside the United States

Domestic Education in the United States

History of The Homeschooling Movement – Early Contributions

The Homeschooling Movement, Theoretical Constructs

Specific Topics

Homeschooling Historiography – Needs and Opportunities for Study

References

2 Using Survey Data Sets to Study Homeschooling

I. Overview

II. Nationally Representative Cross‐sectional Surveys

III. Other Types of Data on Homeschooling

IV. Estimates of the Number and Percentage of Homeschooled Children

V. Avenues for Future Research

References

3 Legal Issues in Homeschooling

The Road to Legal Conflict

Parents versus the State

“Fundamental” Rights and Homeschooling

Applying Rational Basis Review

Applying Strict Scrutiny

Other Lines of Legal Attack

Religion Cases and the First Amendment

The Triumph of Homeschool Laws

How Much Regulation?

Trending Legal Issues

References

4 The Calculus of Departure

Motivational Dynamics

Context Considerations

Motivational Frameworks

Conclusion

References

5 Academic Achievement

Academic Achievement of Homeschooled Students

Discovery Learning

Provision of Structure

Points to Consider When Making an Informed Decision about Homeschooling

References

6 Homeschooler Socialization

Socialization for Personal Interaction

Socialization for Values and Beliefs

Socialization for Civic Identity and Engagement

Opportunities for Further Study

References

7 Homeschoolers and Higher Education

Introduction

Literature Review on Homeschooling and Higher Education

Conclusion: A Balanced Approach

Future Directions of Homeschooling Research

References

8 Homeschooling Motherhood

Maternal Motivations for Homeschooling

Gender Role Ideology in the Family as Facilitator

Challenges in the Homeschooling Experience

Conclusion

References

9 Homeschooling among Ethnic‐Minority Populations

Introduction

What We Know About African American Homeschool Families

Relevant Family Engagement Literature

Relevant Black Homeschooling Literature

What We Know About Latino/Hispanic American Homeschool Families

Directions for Future Research

Conclusion

References

10 Teaching the Child with Exceptional Needs at Home

Introduction

Why Homeschool?: Parental Motivation

Challenges in the Schools

Benefits of Homeschooling

Demands on Parents who Homeschool their Children with Special Needs

Areas of Disability and Exceptionality

Treatments, Strategies, and Programming in Homeschooling

Future Research

References

11 Homeschooling 2.0

Introduction

A Brief History of Online Learning in the United States

Types of Online Schools and Enrollment

General Online Learning Research

Conclusions

References

Part II: Home Education Worldwide

12 Home Education in Canada

Introduction

Understanding Parents

Educational Practices and Outcomes

Political and Legal Aspects

Governance and Democratic Learning

Suggestions for Further Research

References

13 Home Education in the United Kingdom

Introduction

On Not Knowing Your Options

Elective home education in the UK

Why Choose Home Education in the UK at All?

Historical Political Background

The Home Education Politics of England

The Home Education Politics of Wales

The Home Education Politics of Northern Ireland

The Home Education Politics of Scotland

Interpersonal Exchanges in UK Home Education

Safeguarding and Home Education in the UK

Change on the Horizon?

Further Research? Postscript by Helen Lees

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

14 Common Themes in Australian and New Zealand Home Education Research

Introduction

Australian research

The People Who Home Educate – Demographic Information of Home Educating Families in Australia

Student Views and Experience

Special Needs and Home Education

Challenging aspects of Home Education

Home Education in Australia is not a Replica of Practices in the United States

Home Education, Legislation, and Regulations

Distance Education, Collaboration, and Student Transitions

Towards a Theory of Australian Home Education

Problems of Home Education Research in Australia

The New Zealand Research

A Brief History of Australian and New Zealand Home Education Research

The Future of Australian Home Education?

Areas for Further Research of Australian and New Zealand Home Education

Conclusion

References

15 Theories, Practices, and Environments of Learning and Home Education in Latin America

Introduction

The Legality of Descholarization in Latin America

The Current State of the Descholarization Movement

Descholarization in Brazil

Critical Individuals

What Should be Taught?

Sources of Information

Teaching and Learning

Socialization and Affection

Basic Questions

Acknowledgment

References

16 The Legal Situation of Home Education in Europe

Introduction

The Beginnings of Contemporary Home Education in Europe

Selection of Countries

Descriptive Framework

Sources

Home Education in Selected European Countries

A Few Generalizations on Home Education in Europe

Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

17 Home Education Experience in Selected Post‐Communist Countries

Introduction

Homeschooling as Part of Compulsory School Attendance, or Compulsory Education?

Homeschooling Legislative Framework: A Detailed Description

Reasons for Choosing Homeschooling

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Appendix: Reference List of Laws and Other Regulations

18 Home Education in Asia Minor

Introduction

Historical Development and Definition of Home Education

Reasons for Practising Home Education

Home Education in Turkey

Future Research

Conclusion

References

19 Home Education in China

Introduction

Background to the Homeschooling Movement across the World

Legal Situation of Home Education

Main types of home educators in China

The Characteristics of Homeschooling Families

The Reasons for Home Education

Teaching Styles in Home Education

Teaching Content of Home Education

Religious Beliefs and Home Education

Challenges and Concerns of Home Education in China

Areas for Future Research

References

20 Contemporary Homeschooling and the Issue of Racism

Introduction

Contemporary Homeschooling in the Republic of South Africa

Why Some Parents prefer Homeschooling in South Africa

Racism in Post‐Apartheid South Africa

Contemporary Homeschooling in Post‐Apartheid South Africa

The Good and the Bad Sides of Contemporary Homeschooling in South Africa

Some Lessons for other African Nations

Suggestions and Conclusion

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 National cross‐sectional data on homeschooling.

Table 2.2 Percent homeschooled by grade and age range.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Evidence‐based approaches commonly used when teaching children and youths with learning disabilities.

Table 10.2 Evidence‐based methods commonly used when working with individuals with intellectual disabilities.

Table 10.3 Evidence‐based interventions commonly used with children with ASD.

Table 10.4 Strategies and interventions commonly used when working with individuals with emotional and/or behavioral disorders.

Table 10.5 Recommended strategies and approaches for use with children and youths with attention difficulties.

Table 10.6 Recommended instructional interventions and modifications for working with gifted/talented children and youths.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Selected European countries.

Table 16.2 Overview of national regulations on home education (HE).

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Distribution statistics of the population (over age 15) by completed education level and gender in Turkey.

Table 18.2 Outcomes of exploratory factor analysis of the home education scale.

Table 18.3 Significant values for the model data fit after the Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

Table 18.4 Results of t‐test regarding views of prospective teachers by gender on the HE scale.

Table 18.5 Results of t‐test regarding views of prospective teachers by their branches on the HE scale.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 The estimated number of homeschooled children reported by media.

Table 19.2 The primary types of home schooling in China.

Table 19.3 Teaching content of home education in China.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Percent homeschooled 1996–2014.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 State laws on homeschooling as of January 13, 2015 (see hslda.org/laws for current map and details for each state).

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Reasons for homeschooling in the Czech Republic.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Path Diagram of CFA results.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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The Wiley Handbooks in Education offer a capacious and comprehensive overview of higher education in a global context. These state‐of‐the‐art volumes offer a magisterial overview of every sector, sub‐field and facet of the discipline—from reform and foundations to K‐12 learning and literacy. The Handbooks also engage with topics and themes dominating today’s educational agenda—mentoring, technology, adult and continuing education, college access, race and educational attainment. Showcasing the very best scholarship that the discipline has to offer, The Wiley Handbooks in Education will set the intellectual agenda for scholars, students, researchers for years to come.

The Wiley Handbook of Learning TechnologyEdited by Nick Rushby and Daniel W. Surry

The Wiley Handbook of Cognition and AssessmentEdited by André A. Rupp and Jacqueline P. Leighton

The Wiley Handbook of Home EducationEdited by Milton Gaither

The Wiley Handbook of Home Education

Edited by

Milton Gaither

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

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Cover image: © Christopher Futcher/Getty Images, Inc.

Notes on Contributors

Henk Blok is a senior researcher at the Kohnstamm Instituut, the University of Amsterdam’s knowledge and research center in the fields of education, child‐rearing, and child welfare. His research interests include early childhood education, literacy education, and home education. Together with Sjoerd Karsten, he authored a review of home education in Europe, published in the European Journal of Education, 2011.

Christine Brabant is professor of Educational Foundations and Administration at the University of Montreal (Quebec, Canada). Her research interests include educational innovations, governance and change management. Her book L’école à la maison au Québec: un projet familial, social et démocratique (Presses de l’Université du Québec, 2013) presents her home education research since 2002. She is a founding member of the International Center for Home Education Research and associate researcher at the Center for Philosophy of Law at Université Catholique de Louvain.

Marine Dumond is a Masters student in Educational Administration at the University of Montreal. Her research investigates parental autoregulation of home education practices within home education support groups.

Cheryl Fields‐Smith is an associate professor of elementary education at the University of Georgia’s College of Education in the department of Educational Theory and Practice. She earned her degree in 2004 from Emory University under the direction of Dr. Vanessa Siddle Walker. While conducting a study to replicate her dissertation, titled, “After ‘It takes a village’: The Attitudes, Beliefs, Practices, and Explanations for Parental Involvement among Upper and Middle Income African American Families in Elementary School Settings,” Dr. Fields‐Smith encountered a Black family who homeschooled their children. From 2006–2008 she conducted a study of Black homeschooling among forty‐six families with support from a Spencer Foundation Grant. Dr. Fields‐Smith is the 2014 recipient of the College of Education Carl Glickman Faculty Fellow Award.

Wills Emilio Alejandro Fonseca is an independent scholar with a degree from the University of Los Andes. He has an MSc in Information Technology for Education.

Milton Gaither is a professor of education at Messiah College. He has authored two books, including the 2008 Homeschool: An American History, the second edition of which is in press. He is a founding member of the International Center for Home Education Research (ICHER) and maintains the Center’s reviews of recent home education research at icher.org/blog.

Christine E. Gleim is a senior at Messiah College, majoring in biology with minors in education and criminal justice. She also works as a research assistant to the faculty in the education department. After graduation, she plans to earn a Master’s degree in forensic science and then hopes to work in a forensics lab and someday teach high school science classes at a small Christian school.

Karen Hurlbutt‐Eastman, PhD, is a professor at Minnesota State University, Mankato in the department of Special Education. Her areas of expertise and focus of research include autism spectrum disorders, intellectual disabilities, the transition from high school, and pre‐service teacher education.

Eric Isenberg, a senior researcher in the Chicago office of Mathematica Policy Research, has studied homeschooling, access to effective teaching for low‐income students, teacher labor markets, teacher evaluation systems, alternate certification, and induction programs. He has authored many articles, reports, and working papers on subjects ranging from the methodology of value‐added models to a large‐scale randomized evaluation of Teach For America. He has also advised public and charter school leaders in the District of Columbia on teacher evaluation systems.

Glenda M. Jackson is the director of Australian Home Education Advisory Service. She maintains a regularly updated list of all available Australian and New Zealand research on home education/homeschooling that is published through major Australian home education networks, titled “Summary of Australian and New Zealand Home Education Research.” She was recently invited to write submissions to NSW Parliamentary Select Committees on Home Schooling and Vocational Education (2014, 2015) and to appear before the NSW Parliamentary Select Committee on Home Schooling (2014) to review Australian research on home education and home‐educated student use of Technical and Further Education colleges (TAFEs).

Sjoerd Karsten is professor emeritus of Policy and Organization of Vocational Education, Adult Education, and Life Long Learning at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He has served as an advisor to the Dutch ministries of Education and of Social Affairs, the national Education Council, and the national Inspectorate of Education, and as an external expert for the European Union. His research centers on education policy, vocational education, parental choice, and home education.

Elife Doğan Kılıç is associate professor and doctor of education administration at the University of Istanbul. Her research interests include organizational behavior, learning organization, leadership, organizational cynicism, and organizational citizenship. Together with Özgür Önen, she authored a study of home education in Turkey, published in the US‐China Education Review.

Antony Barone Kolenc is a professor at the Florida Coastal School of Law, where he teaches Constitutional Law. His scholarly research focuses on homeschooling, constitutional law, and military policy. He also writes a legal column in Practical Homeschooling Magazine. He retired as a Lieutenant Colonel from the US Air Force Judge Advocate General’s (JAG) Corps, where he litigated civil and criminal cases before trial and appellate courts, and taught at the Air Force Academy.

Yvona Kostelecká, PhD, is assistant lecturer at Faculty of Education, Charles University in Prague. Her research interests include home education, the integration of foreigners into the Czech school system, and international migration of researchers and skilled workers.

Robert Kunzman is a professor of education at Indiana University and the managing director of the International Center for Home Education Research (ICHER). He is the author of more than a dozen publications on homeschooling, including Write These Laws on Your Children: Inside the World of Conservative Christian Homeschooling (Beacon, 2009).

Helen E. Lees is a lecturer in Education Studies at Newman University, Birmingham UK and a researcher of the theory and practices of educational alternatives to mainstream school attendance. She wrote Education Without Schools: Discovering Alternatives, published by Policy Press, Bristol, UK (2014) and is co‐editor with Nel Noddings of the Palgrave International Handbook of Alternative Education (2016). She is founding Editor‐in‐Chief of Other Education – The Journal of Educational Alternatives (www.othereducation.org).

Kyle Levesque is a PhD candidate in the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia. His research focuses on language and literacy development across the lifespan.

Jennifer Lois is professor of Sociology at Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington. She studies gender, emotions, and identity ethnographically. Her first project examined these themes among search‐and‐rescue volunteers (Heroic Efforts, 2003, New York University Press); her second project focused on homeschooling mothers (Home Is Where the School Is, 2012, New York University Press). She is currently researching the gendered culture of romance novel writers (with co‐researcher Dr Joanna Gregson, Pacific Lutheran University).

Robert Lyon is a Spanish Education student from Messiah College in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.

Erwin Fabián García López, MEd, is coordinator of the action‐research group on descholarization, collaborative self‐directed learning, homeschooling, and flexible forms of schooling in the Faculty of Human Sciences at the National University of Colombia.

Bryan Mann is a PhD candidate in the Educational Theory and Policy (EDTHP) program at Penn State University. His research focuses on organizational and institutional change, school choice, K–12 online learning, and educational policy in general. His dissertation, “Navigating the Web of School Choice: The Market, Institutional, and Environmental Pressures on School District Responses to Cyber Charters,” considers how school choice policies interact with various environmental pressures to shape adoption or non‐adoption of online learning in traditional school districts. Mann started his career as a teacher at Communications High School in New Jersey.

Sandra Martin‐Chang earned her PhD from the Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behaviour at McMaster University, Ontario. She is now an associate professor and the Graduate Program Director in the Education Department at Concordia University, Montreal. Her main focus of research is on the development of skilled reading in home and school settings.

Michael S. Merry is professor of Philosophy of Education at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He is the author of Culture, Identity, and Islamic Schooling: A Philosophical Approach and Equality, Citizenship and Segregation: A Defense of Separation, and is co‐editor of Citizenship, Identity, and Education in Muslim Communities: Essays on Attachment and Obligation, all of which are published by Palgrave Macmillan.

Joseph Murphy is the Frank W. Mayborn chair and associate dean at Vanderbilt’s Peabody College of Education. His research focuses on school improvement, emphasizing leadership and policy. He has written and co‐authored twenty‐two books in this field and edited twelve others, including the 2012 title Staying Home: Homeschooling in America.

Fiona Nicholson is an independent home education consultant based in the North of England. Fiona analyses the diversity of policy and practice in local government’s dealings with home educators and has provided evidence to a number of government committees. Fiona’s research also informs the work of the All Party Parliamentary Group for Home Education at Westminster. She maintains several websites, including Ed Yourself (www.edyourself.org).

Michael Olalekan Olatunji holds a PhD in Education Foundations from the University of Port‐Harcourt, Nigeria and specializes in Philosophy of Education. Over the years he has worked as a lecturer in universities and colleges of education in Nigeria, Zambia, and Botswana. He is accredited by the Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) as a trainer and is currently a senior lecturer at Botswana Institute for Leadership Development. His areas of research interest include Teacher Education, Philosophical Analysis, Critical Thinking and Professional Ethics.

Xiaoming Sheng, PhD, works in the area of sociology of education and has experience in social stratification, gender and women’s studies, and homeschooling. She currently is on the Faculty of Education at the University of Cambridge, UK. She is the author of Higher Education Choice in China: Social Stratification, GenderandEducational Inequality and Learning with Mothers: A Study of Home Schooling in China.

Marc Snyder received his EdD in Higher Education Leadership from Nova Southeastern University, Florida, in 2011. He is currently Headmaster of True North Classical Academy in Miami, Florida and was previously the Upper School Principal of Aquinas American School in Madrid, Spain. His research interests are centered on homeschooling and its impact on higher education. His most recent publication, a study comparing the academic achievement of homeschooled students with that of traditionally schooled students attending a Catholic university, appeared in Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice.

Diego Fernando Barrera Tenorio is a lawyer, researcher, and member of the action‐research team on homeschooling at the University of Colombia. In the action‐research project, he contributed on the legal and political status of homeschooling in Colombia.

Kaitlin Wingert is a senior at Messiah College in Grantham, Pennsylvania. She is currently pursuing degrees in both English and French.

Introduction to The Wiley Handbook of Home Education

Milton Gaither

Home education, which is frequently labeled “homeschooling” (especially in the United States), “home‐schooling,” and “home schooling,” has grown since the 1970s into an established phenomenon around the world. Given its dynamic growth, its intrinsic interest as an alternative to conventional schooling, and its association with political protest and countercultural ideologies, it has increasingly been attracting scholarly attention around the world. Scholarly study of home education has grown with the movement, from a small handful of studies focused almost exclusively on the United States in the 1980s to a sprawling literature today that varies profoundly by discipline, methodology, topic, geographic location, and academic quality. Twenty years ago scholars studying home education could without too much trouble stay abreast of the entirety of this literature on their own, but now the subject has matured to the extent that no single individual can master it all. The rapid proliferation of scholarship has also made it difficult for popular media outlets and interested citizens to know where to look for reliable and up‐to‐date information. Furthermore, ignorance of the scholarship already done has contributed to the unfortunate tendency of graduate students to conduct predictable studies on time‐worn topics that merely replicate what others have done before. There is a clear need for a single, authoritative source that both synthesizes the extant literature and sets an agenda for future study. That is the purpose of this book.

This handbook comprises twenty original, newly commissioned essays, each one providing comprehensive coverage of a particular topic within the larger world of home education scholarship. Some of the chapters cover topics that have long interested both scholars and the general public, such as the demographic make‐up of homeschoolers, motivations parents have for choosing home education, the academic achievement of home educated students, the performance of homeschooled children at colleges and universities, and the impacts of home education on children’s socialization. Other chapters engage themes researchers have been studying with care but that have received less popular attention, including the impact of home education on family dynamics and mothers’ lives, home education among minority populations, homeschooling of children with special needs, and the emergence of hybrid home–school arrangements abetted by technology. Still other chapters introduce to an English‐speaking audience the scholarship available on home education outside of the United States. Throughout, all authors have sought to provide a roadmap to help readers develop the ability to be discriminating in their consumption of home education scholarship. It is unfortunately the case that for decades a good bit of what has passed for homeschooling research has been little more than thinly veiled advocacy or opposition. The goal of these essays is to summarize the best scholarship available on the widest range of topics possible to provide the reader with the most comprehensive and authoritative coverage of home education scholarship ever produced.

While each chapter functions as a stand‐alone essay fully comprehensible on its own terms, there is a logic to the overall arrangement of the chapters. Home education emerged at roughly the same time in many parts of the world, but it has always been most popular and hence most studied in the United States. In the States the practice galvanized a powerful political movement by the late 1970s, attracting a wide range of anti‐establishmentarian adherents from both the ideological Left and Right. The United States’ decentralized educational laws blended with social trends ranging from Cold War‐era animus against centralized government, to gains in women’s education, to a resurgent religious right emphasizing the nuclear family, to suburban prosperity and privatization, all of which combined to produce a large population of (mostly) mothers able and eager to remove their children from public and private schools to teach them at home.

Because the home education movement has always been largest and strongest in the United States, the lion’s share of the scholarship has been produced by scholars in the United States studying US homeschooling. Scholarship in other countries, while growing every year, has not as yet reached the volume and specificity of US scholarship, and in fact much of the literature coming from scholars around the world often draws heavily from US sources. Given this empirical reality it was deemed best to separate this handbook into two parts. Part I contains a series of chapters summarizing the academic literature on various topics related to homeschooling in the United States. Readers interested in home education in other countries, the subject of Part II, will likely find it helpful to become familiar with this US literature, for it often forms the contextual background of studies done elsewhere. Familiarity with the US literature also helps develop awareness of comparative possibilities. Despite the significant influence of the US homeschooling movement on other parts of the world, home education is not simply a North American export. It is a truly global movement, with each region developing its own unique legal and political framework, set of parent motivations, and familial/communal educational practices.

A second factor influencing the content and arrangement of these chapters is the fact that the scholarship on home education outside of the United States has not been equally distributed around the world. In some countries home education scholarship has been produced in significant quantities for many years. In others there is only a handful of scholarly works. It can roughly be asserted that the phenomenon of home education has been most popular in English‐speaking countries like the United Kingdom, Australia, and bilingual Canada. Not surprisingly, the scholarship on the phenomenon in those countries is the most robust. In Part II, therefore, chapters covering Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia precede those on other countries. Even the English‐speaking countries, however, have not yet produced enough scholarship to justify several chapters devoted to separate topics as is done with the United States in Part I. In Part II each chapter will cover the totality of home education scholarship for the given country.

Home education has emerged in non‐English speaking parts of the world as well. It has done so, however, on a smaller scale in some locales, in the more recent past in others, or facing effective opposition from government or the broader society in still others. As such there are both fewer practitioners and less scholarship to survey for many parts of the world. For many countries, in fact, there exists no scholarly literature at all. While the chapters included in this handbook do not cover every country, they provide as complete a survey as the current scholarly landscape permits of home education research for important parts of Central and South America, Western and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. All of these chapters were either written by English‐speaking scholars or translated into English, and in some cases scholarship that has heretofore been unavailable to an English‐speaking audience is made accessible for the first time.

The authors of each chapter were given substantial freedom to construct their essays as they deemed best within the general parameters that each chapter synthesize the best scholarly literature on the topic and suggest needs and opportunities for future study. No singular organizational structure or criterion for selecting sources was imposed on the authors, largely because the topics engaged in this volume differ so widely in terms of the amount and level of scholarship devoted to them. In some cases authors have synthesized scores of peer‐reviewed quantitative and/or qualitative articles and books. In others authors have had to dabble in more popular sources or unpublished primary references to provide the most complete picture possible. Each author’s voice remains as well. Though spelling and punctuation were Americanized, effort was made not to edit out individual authors’ rhetorical particularity. It is hoped that this approach results in a volume that can be read with benefit both in its individual parts and as a whole.

Part IHome Education in the United States

1The History of Homeschooling

Milton Gaither

Introduction

When discussing the history of homeschooling two distinctions need to be made at the very outset. First, it is important to distinguish, as some do not (Jeynes 2012; Hill 2000), between homeschooling as a deliberately chosen alternative to institutional schools on the one hand and, on the other, the pragmatic use of the home to educate children. The latter practice has been central to many if not most human societies from ancient times. In this chapter we will label this “domestic education” and only deal with it cursorily. What we are mostly concerned with is the self‐consciously alternative practice, and this emerged only in the 20th century in reaction to compulsory school laws and public school bureaucracies, at first in isolated instances but coalescing into a discernible political movement by the late 1970s.

The second distinction that needs to be made is between history as an academic discipline and history as an argumentative tool. Many polemics by homeschoolers against schools and by advocates of schools against homeschooling include historical claims. Many scholarly articles on homeschooling, especially those making legal or philosophical arguments, include historical claims or narratives as part of their overall argument. But very few polemicists or academics have approached the topic of homeschooling history from within the discipline of historical study itself with its requisite attention to primary source documentation, its careful consideration of context, and its feel for nuance and complexity. The result has been a series of oft‐repeated but false claims about the homeschooling movement or some aspect thereof. Many of the most egregious and frequently reiterated false claims pertain to the legal history of homeschooling, including inaccurate assertions about the degree to which homeschooling was illegal in the past (Somerville 2001), misleading claims about the basis for and easy acceptance of compulsory school laws (Curren and Blokhuis 2011), or misinterpretations of the meaning and scope of key Supreme Court cases such as Pierce v. Society of Sisters and Wisconsin v. Yoder (Kreager, Jr. 2010; Olsen 2009).

In what follows we will, after briefly discussing the historiography of home education outside the United States and the historiography of domestic education within the United States, survey all of the available scholarship on the history of the modern American homeschooling movement. We will not cover the many articles that contextualize their theme by providing a brief and entirely derivative historical introduction (e.g., Vieux 2014).

The History of Home Education Outside the United States

As of this writing no major work concerning itself exclusively with the history of the home education movement in any country outside of the United States has been published. As most European nations and their colonies had longstanding traditions of domestic education, there has been good recent work done on the pre‐homeschooling period. English‐language examples include articles about visual learning in the homes of early modern Italians (Evangelisti 2013), tutors in 19th century Brazil (Vasconcelos 2013), the British and French tutors and governesses of the Russian Aristocracy (Staroverova 2011) and rural Mongolia in the early 20th century (Marzluf 2015). Such work is typically performed by specialists in various historical fields and is typically not connected explicitly to home education movements in their respective countries today, though sometimes the connection is made (Staroverova 2011).

While we lack any complete account for a particular country, region, or continent, in general it can be asserted that movement homeschooling emerged in many countries outside the United States at roughly the same time as it did in the States, though usually on a much smaller scale. Occasionally the influence of the American movement was discernible; occasionally developments seemed to be more autochthonous. Until a fuller and richer historiography emerges it will be difficult to say with precision exactly what happened when and why. Until that literature emerges interested readers will have to make do with historical material that occasionally shows up in more general pieces about home education in particular countries. Recent examples of English‐language works that include at least some information about the history of home education in a given locale include Olatunji’s robust account of the emergence of home education in South Africa (2014), Paciorkowski’s detailed description of the legal history of home education in Poland (2014), Drabsch’s brief discussion of the history of home education in Australia (2013), Martin’s summary of the history of the unique situation in Germany (2010), Staroverova’s description of the reemergence of domestic education among the new Russian plutocrats who have emerged since the fall of communism (2011), and Zur Nedden’s account of pioneering Canadian home educator Wendy Priesnitz (2008). This is not by any means an exhaustive list. It is very common for articles about home education in some country other than the United States to include at least a brief history of the practice in the region under discussion.

Domestic Education in the United States

Like their European, African, Asian, and South American counterparts, specialists in various periods of American history have occasionally studied the use of the home to educate children. Huge fields of historical inquiry devoted to the history of childhood, of the family, and of femininity and masculinity, have all on occasion explored the use of the home as an educative institution. Most of this historical scholarship was synthesized by Gaither in 2008 in what remains the most complete account of the home as an educational institution. The first three chapters of that book deal respectively with domestic education in the colonial period, the early national and antebellum periods, and the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This chapter will not review the secondary works upon which that synthesis was based. Interested readers are invited to consult the endnotes therein for the sources available as of 2008 for such an account (Gaither 2008).

Since 2008 a fair amount of high level scholarship has been published on related themes that adds even more to our knowledge of domestic education practices prior to the expansion of compulsory schooling in the mid‐20th century. Herndon and Murray’s 2009 book Children Bound to Labor brings together the work of thirteen scholars who collectively tell the story of pauper apprenticeships in early America. The book’s many case studies draw on archival and other primary sources to bring the common practice of placing orphaned, neglected, or simply poor children in the homes of other families to be taught trades. One component of the apprenticeship model was the requirement that host families teach basic literacy and numeracy to their charges, and the book provides a more detailed look at how various families did and did not do this than anything before it (Herndon and Murray 2009).

Several other recent works have examined various aspects of family life, all of which have connections with domestic education. Wilson emphasizes the degree to which stepfamilies were a pervasive phenomenon in colonial New England due to frequent spousal death dislocation (2014). Glover provides rich detail about the family lives of many of the United States’ founding fathers, many of whom were taught at home and/or had their own children taught at home (2014). Hyde provides a remarkable synthesis of the history of the American West, using the family as organizing principle and revealing along the way how fluid were the boundaries between home and school on the frontier (2011). King’s revised and expanded version of her classic study provides much new information about the lives of slave children in both the South and North (2011). del Mar’s sweeping synthesis of US family history provides a fitting context for both the domestic education of early centuries and the emergence of homeschooling in more recent times (2011). Hampel investigates the dramatic rise of correspondence study‐at‐home programs in the early 20th century, some sponsored by universities but many by profit‐seeking firms often engaging in dubious practices (2010). Morice provides an early 20th‐century case study of progressive home education as a reaction against industrialized institutional schooling (2012). Many other works could be listed, but these are standout examples of recent historiography with direct bearing on various aspects of domestic education.

History of The Homeschooling Movement – Early Contributions

For this chapter we will take Gaither’s book Homeschool: An American History as a pivot point. Historical accounts written prior to Gaither’s book will not be discussed in detail as they are all parsed and synthesized in that work (2008). Briefly, the most notable early works that tried to provide a history of the modern homeschooling movement fall into two categories. In the first place there are accounts of the early years of the national homeschooling movement or its manifestation in a particular locale by movement activists. While there is much of value in these memoirs and first‐person narratives, they must be read with scholarly discernment. For the national movement standout examples of the genre include Klicka’s celebratory account (2006) and Seelhoff’s more critical appraisal (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). Many local accounts by movement insiders, some book‐length (Richman 1989; Meighan 2007; Griffith 2007), most brief (e.g., Lambert 1997; Smith 2007) have been published, though often only in a transient online format (Lepore 2015).

Very few scholarly works dealing exclusively with the homeschooling movement’s history were published prior to 2008. Perhaps the most widely cited has been Knowles, Marlow, and Muchmore (1992), which laid out a five‐phase model of the development of homeschooling in the United States. Their basic narrative structure was one of conflict between homeschooling advocates and public school personnel that gave way gradually to cooperation as laws were changed to make the practice more clearly legal, culminating in the consolidation of the movement as national networks emerged to group like‐minded homeschoolers into rival camps. Carper’s work, published in several articles, has also been influential, describing a grand, three‐act historical arc beginning with educational pluralism in the colonial and early national periods, moving to the near‐universal establishment of public schools in the mid‐19th to mid‐20th centuries, and concluding with a growing dissent against that establishment in the late 20th century (1992, 2000). Finally, a few early works provide good coverage of particular states or regions. McIlhenny (2003)’s study of the early history of Texas homeschooling is a standout example, as is Tyler and Carper’s (2000) study of South Carolina.

Other scholarly works not explicitly devoted to history nevertheless contained a good bit of historical information or analysis. Influential examples include Van Galen’s many articles laying out her landmark dichotomy between “ideologues” and “pedagogues” (1986, 1987, 1988, 1991) and Stevens’ pioneering ethnographic study full of detail about homeschooler politics and practice in the 1980s and 1990s (2001). Provasnik’s remarkable work on the legal history of compulsory education legislation is an important resource for the legal history of homeschooling in the United States (2006). Finally, a few of the many dissertations conducted on homeschooling during the 1990s and 2000s provided rich historical accounts of local homeschooling histories. Examples here include Bloodworth’s study of North Carolina (1991), Cochran’s study of Georgia (1993), and Kelly’s study of Hawaii (2008).

All of this work and much else besides was synthesized in Gaither’s 2008 Homeschool: An American History. The first three chapters of that book deal with domestic education in the colonial and early national periods and explain how and why nearly all Americans chose institutional schooling over the home in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Gaither draws on a wide range of historiography from various subfields of US social history to tell this story. Chapter four, with the help again of a large bibliography of US political and social history, lays out three broad contextual changes in the mid‐20th century that set the stage for the homeschooling movement: the growth of the postwar suburbs and the anti‐institutional ideologies they helped establish, the Civil Rights and women’s movements, which popularized organized protest against the established order, and the polarization of the electorate into right and left wings in the late 1960s and 1970s, both of which were skeptical about established institutions like government schools. Chapter five provides detailed biographies of pioneer homeschooling leaders John Holt, Raymond and Dorothy Moore, and Rousas J. Rushdoony. Chapter six chronicles the rise of the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in the mid‐1980s and the fissuring of the homeschooling movement into rival camps of conservative Christians and everyone else. Chapter seven details the history of the legal and legislative battles fought over homeschooling in the 1980s and 1990s, and a final chapter describes trends in homeschooling up to 2008 (Gaither 2008).

Since Gaither’s book a small but significant number of works on the history of homeschooling in the United States have been published. The rest of this chapter will summarize them. Some of the most interesting works in this regard make broad theoretical arguments. Historians regularly deal with the tension between constructing a coherent narrative or argument on one hand and faithfully reproducing the complexity and detail of the past on the other. In the next section we will summarize works that provide some sort of overarching argument or master story for the history of homeschooling. In subsequent sections we will turn to works that emphasize various details.

The Homeschooling Movement, Theoretical Constructs

Jones (2008) examines three traditions of private education crafted in opposition to the dominant US Public School system – 19th century Catholic parochial schools, mid‐20th century Jewish day schools, and the contemporary homeschooling movement. For each his claim is that arguments made for and against the practice have been remarkably consistent over time. Jones’ account of the history of homeschooling in chapter one offers nothing new, but situating it in a longer tradition of oppositional education movements is enlightening, most notably his finding that for all three of his examples large, nationwide organizations and leadership were crucial for success.

Chapter two finds two common philosophical assumptions to undergird all religious private education, be it Catholic, Jewish, or Protestant homeschooling. First, all groups have argued that their faith traditions give them unique access to truth, for truth comes from God. Second, all of these religious traditions believe that God has charged parents, not the State, with the task of educating their young.

Chapter three looks at the continuity over time of arguments made against private religious education. There are two basic arguments. First, it has consistently been argued that private schooling and homeschooling pose a threat to public education by taking away both fiscal resources and social support from public schools. Second, critics claim that sectarian religious education poses a threat to the nation by isolating and segregating young Americans by creed even as it prepares these divided children to hate and fear people who disagree with them, and possibly to try to take over the country and impose their theocratic vision on all.

Chapter four shows that the various religious groups have responded to the arguments summarized in chapter three in remarkably similar ways over time. Catholics, Jews, and Protestants have all made the case that their efforts in no way drain resources from public schools. They have always argued, on the contrary, that they pay taxes to support public education even though they do not use the benefit. Their lack of support for public education is actually a civic good, they argue, for government‐run public education is inefficient and ineffective. As for the charge that religious education threatens to balkanize and radicalize the country, private advocates have typically responded in two ways. They first point out that public schools are by no means models of diversity themselves – they are often just as segregated by race and class as are private schools. Advocates also argue that in fact it is they who are safeguarding the heritage of American democracy by “providing competition to the government monopoly” and thereby “protecting and ensuring” diversity and freedom (Jones 2008, 101–102).

Chapter five finds another longitudinal continuity in popular history textbooks from all three traditions, all of which both celebrate the United States and celebrate the particular religion’s contributions to that greatness. For homeschooling Jones provides a careful examination of A Beka and Bob Jones, two of the most popular Christian curricula among homeschoolers. These books, like the Catholic and Jewish texts before them, encourage children reading them to believe that their particularistic tradition was “an integral part of American life all along” and that they are therefore “every bit as American as [their] public school counterparts” (Jones 2008, 131).

Andrade (2008) tests the thesis that homeschooling might not really have been a movement at all but was perhaps simply an inevitable outcome given “convergence of several global forces” (Andrade 2008, 12). Some of these forces include the rising cost of schooling, the emergence of radically individualist notions of intelligence and self‐fulfillment, the politics of privatization, the evolution of copyright law, and the changing status of women. But the changes in information and communications technologies that have transpired in the past three decades are Andrade’s main target.

To justify his suggestion that homeschooling emerged not out of the dedicated work of grassroots organizers but as the inevitable outcome of social changes, Andrade notes that many countries outside of the United States have seen a sharp rise in homeschooling as well. He describes in great detail the rise of the post‐industrial, communication technology‐driven workforce and its trenchant critique of industrial‐era public schools. He also cites much secondary literature that has stressed the technological savvy of homeschoolers.

To test his technological change hypothesis Andrade does not engage in conventional historical inquiry but conducts focus‐group and individual interviews with 27 New York homeschoolers, carefully compiling and coding their responses. Few of those in his sample began homeschooling prior to 2000, and none of them mentioned technology as a factor in their journey to homeschooling until prompted by the researcher. Once prompted, many of his subjects did acknowledge the role computers played in teaching them about the topic of homeschooling, in connecting to other homeschoolers, and in providing some curriculum options. Veteran homeschoolers on the whole acknowledged the complementary role technology has played in helping homeschooling flourish, but they tended to cite other sources for the movement’s true power.

Even with this lackluster finding in his own data Andrade persists in his deterministic conviction that technological change is what really caused homeschooling to emerge when it did. Andrade makes this claim despite the fact that his own subjects (none of whom were homeschooling when the movement really took off in the 1980s and early 1990s) failed to cite this as a factor and despite his lack of attention to forms of evidence most historians would find imperative for such a thesis as this – things like documents, visual and material culture, oral histories of actual participants in the period under discussion, and so forth, all of which would show that back when the movement was changing state laws and winning court cases all around the nation it was phone trees, mailing lists, newsletters, and conventions that informed and connected people, not personal computers.

Greenfield (2009) recapitulates the thesis of Ferdinand Tönnies, who argued that modernization causes society to move from what he termed Gemeinschaft, or tribal codes of honor and status appropriate to rural, agricultural living, passed down from generation to generation through osmotic folkways, to Gesellschaft, or modern, industrialized, urban codes of living premised on individualism, acquired through deliberate and systematic cultivation of the young in formal institutions. Greenfield summarizes many anthropological studies conducted among a wide range of population groups and finds that in general as societies move away from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft family practices shift significantly, profoundly affecting child development. Family size shrinks. Nuclear family is less connected to extended family. Formal schooling increases. Literacy rates climb. IQ scores go up. Children’s individuality is nurtured even as familial commitments (such as that older children care for younger or that children care for elderly relatives) wane.

The shift from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft does not occur overnight. It has a generational component. Adults who were raised in a more Gemeinschaft context often try to parent in the old way even though the broader social context has shifted. This can lead to tensions within families. For example, parents may seek to perpetuate the ethos of a subsistence village by requiring all sorts of chores of their children when what the children really want is remunerative work so they can buy consumer goods. As the cultural shift takes place, children change. Gesellschaft children become better at recognizing abstractions (as opposed to memorizing details), handle novel situations more nimbly, think of themselves more as individuals (especially the girls, whose life choice options are significantly expanded), value sharing less and ownership more.

If Greenfield’s grand theory is correct, homeschooling turns out to be a rear‐guard effort by partisans of various Gemeinschaft virtues to pass those on to children who inhabit an increasingly Gesellschaft world. This explains in good measure both the countercultural vibe of so many homeschoolers and their political anxieties. It does not, however, apply to those families who choose homeschooling for its curricular flexibility and technological opportunities. For such “Creative Class” families, homeschooling more fully embodies Gesellschaft values than industrial‐era formal schools (Gaither 2009; Griffith 2007). Another potential problem for this analysis is in its forecasting implications. Though Greenfield is clear in her text that she does not see Gesellschaft as inherently superior or historically inevitable, the general tenor of this distinction does suggest that Gemeinschaft practices are residual and headed for extinction. Yet homeschooling continues to grow every year. There must be more going on than mere pastoral nostalgia.

Wilhelm and Firmin (2009) provide a brief and derivative synthesis of the history of homeschooling in the United States. Given their audience in a journal devoted to Christian education, they stress the Christian foundations of both early American schooling and the public schools that emerged in the 19th century. In the late 19th century, however, bureaucratic and industrialized trends began to corrode this Christian influence, at least in some locales. It was not until the 1960s, however, especially with the key Supreme Court cases declaring school‐sponsored prayer and devotional Bible reading unconstitutional, that Biblical authority was truly abandoned. As a result, homeschooling emerged as an alternative, first among leftists led by John Holt but then by a growing group of conservative Christians fleeing secularism, values‐clarification, and other ills of the public schools.

Krause (2012) draws on literature about dissent traditions to argue that the homeschooling movement is a democratizing trend in an educational landscape that has in the past several decades grown increasingly bureaucratized and alienated from participation by ordinary citizens. She makes this argument by emphasizing two domains. First, she provides detailed examination of much of the legal and legislative history of the movement, with a special focus on the Leeper case and the experiences of homeschooling pioneers in Texas, all of which show the power of grassroots activism and networking. Second, she provides a close reading of several Christian curricula, including Diana Waring, Beautiful Feet, Cadron Creek Christian Curriculum, and Cornerstone Curriculum, arguing that these illustrative cases represent homeschoolers’ spirit of dissent against the system and repudiation of elite management. Homeschoolers’ refusal to accept dominant epistemologies puts them at the heart of the democratic tradition, according to Krause.

Murphy (2012)