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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Serie: Wiley Handbooks in Education
- Sprache: Englisch
Promotes a model of critique for teachers, scholars, and policy makers to challenge established educational practice in a global context. The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations features international scholars uniquely qualified to examine issues specific to their regions of the world. The Handbook provides readers with an alternative to the traditional texts in the foundations of education by taking aim at the status quo, and by offering frameworks from which teachers and scholars of education can critically evaluate schools and schooling. Throughout, the essays are grounded in a broad historical context and the authors use an international lens to examine current controversies in order to provoke the kinds of discussion crucial for developing a critical stance. The Handbook is presented in six parts, each beginning with an Introduction to the subject. The sections featured are: Part I. Challenging Foundational Histories and Narratives of Achievement; Part II. Challenging Notions of Normalcy and Dominion; Part III. Challenging the Profession; Part IV. Challenging the Curriculum; Part V. Challenging the Idea of Schooling; and Part VI. Challenging Injustice, Inequity, and Enmity. The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations offers unique insight into subjects such as: * Educational reform in India, Pakistan, and China * The global implications of equity-driven education * Teacher education and inclusionary practices * The Global Educational Reform Movement (G.E.R.M.) * Education and the arts * Maria Montessori and Loris Malaguzzi * Legal education in authoritarian Syria The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations is an important book for current and aspiring educators, scholars, and policy makers.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
References
Part I: Challenging the Foundations Narrative
1 A Story of Hegemony
Introduction
Ancient Threads
Thread of Christianity
Threads of Intellectual and Cultural Movements
Thread of Industrialism
The Thread of Free Public Education
Thread of Human Capital
Thread of Accountability
Threads of Global Educational Reform
Threads of Uncertainty
References
2 Community Development
Introduction
Basic Principles and Recent History
Problems with Generalizations
Examples of Inspiring Practice in Latin America
Learning from the Experience of Latin America
Conclusion
Funding
Supplementary Material
References
3 Educational Reform in India and Pakistan
A Historical Perspective
India
Pakistan
India and Pakistan: The Way Forward
References
4 Rethinking African Educational Development
Africa as a European Construction
Slavery, Colonialism, and Racism
Development as Neocolonialism
The Power of A New Discourse
Discourse of an Educational Development Program in Africa: The Macro‐Structural View
Discourse of Development from Below: The Girls’ Voices
Implications for International Educational Work in Africa
References
Part II: Challenging Notions of Normalcy and Dominion
5 Implicit Bias and the Bias Awareness Gap
Implicit Bias and Social Dominance
Implicit Bias – An Overview
Implicit Bias – Quick Facts
Conclusion
Reasons to Ignore Implicit Bias
But What Does This Have to do With
Equity
and
Bias
in a School Setting?
References
6 Linguistic Hegemony and “Official Languages”
The Nature and Characteristics of Language
Languages and Dialects
Linguistic Hegemony and Official Languages
Linguistic Hegemony, and Education
Challenging Linguistic Legitimacy
Language Rights in Education
Conclusion
Bibliography
7 National Education in France
Introduction
Religious and Linguistic Diversity in Education: State and “Private” Schools
New Minorities, New Claims: Pragmatic Adaptations and New Risks in the Education System
Conclusion
References
8 The Move Towards Inclusive Education in Ethiopia
Background
What is Inclusive Education?
Rationale for Inclusion
“Inclusive Education” in Ethiopia
Legal and Policy Background
Education and Training Policy and its Implementation
The Move from Segregation to Inclusion and the Challenges
Concluding Remarks
References
Part III: Challenging the Profession
9 Teacher Education in an Audit Culture
References
10 Teacher Education and Inclusionary Practices
The Idea of Teacher Agency
Teacher Education for Inclusion: Enabling Practices
Empowerment of the Primary Change Agent: The Elementary School Teacher
Academic Empowerment by Critical Engagement and Inclusive Interdisciplinarity
Accommodation of Personal Concerns: Student Teachers Lives as Teaching‐Learning Context
Reflective Practice in the Specific Socio‐political Locale of a School
Student Teachers to Elementary School Teachers: Paradoxes and Possibilities
Acknowledgments
References
11 Teachers’ Work and Teachers’ Unions in the Global Education Reform Movement (GERM)
Understanding the Juggernaut
Rapprochement
Resistance
Renewal
Moving from the Defensive
Conclusion
References
12 Understanding Japan’s
Sensei
Sociological and Historical Context
Foundation of the Modern Education System
Early 1900s: Enormous Growth and Wartime Paralysis
Postwar Education Reforms
The Twenty‐First‐Century Japanese Education System
Contemporary Teacher Education
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Challenging the Curriculum
13 Education and the Arts
The Arts in American Schools
Accountability and the Vanishing Arts
The Arts and Learning
Arts Education and Transfer to Other Domains of Learning
The Arts as an Essential Pedagogical Technique: Arts‐Integration/Arts‐Infused Teaching
The Arts and Student Engagement in Learning
Arts Integration and Long‐Term Retention of Content
Proving Some Causal Connections: Science via the Arts
Creative Thinking and Problem‐Solving
The Arts and Creativity
Changing Times
References
14 Constructivist Foundations, Learning Standards, and Adolescents
Introduction
Elementary vs. Secondary Education
The Beginnings of High Schools in America
Approaches to Education
The Traditional Format
The Constructivist Approach
Definition of Constructivism
Constructivist Roots of American Secondary Education
The Beginnings of Standardization
National Standards of 1980s, 1990s, and Early 2000s
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001
Enter the Common Core
What Else Do We Know About the Common Core?
The Plot Thickens
The Textbook Curriculum
The Missing Pieces – The Students
Brain Research, the Prefrontal Cortex, the Amygdala, and Adolescents
Who Are These Adolescents?
The Folly and Fallacy of Learning Standards
The Folly and Fallacy of the Constructivist vs Traditional Dichotomy in Secondary Education
We Don’t Need More Teachers
Teachers and Critical Voices
Teachers and Assumptions
Taming the Chaotic World of American Secondary Education
Recap
References
15 Teaching and Learning with Technology
Origins of Technology in Education
Theoretical Frameworks Guiding Technology in Education
Technologies that Enhance Student Learning
Technology’s Role in Teacher Preparation
Collaborative Problem Solving with Technology
Technologies Can Provide Real‐time, Personalized Assessment
Ethics Considerations in a Networked Classroom
Conclusion
References
16 Advancing Pharmaceutical Health
Incorporating Simulation in Asthma Education for Pharmacy Students
Discussion
Incorporating Medication Management Reviews in Pharmacy Education
Design
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Part V: Challenging the Idea of Schooling
17 Less Stress and More Well‐Rounded Development
Introduction
Educational Reforms for Elementary and Secondary Schools in China
Major Themes of the Reforms
Diminished Emphasis on Standardized Testing
Promoting Non‐Traditional Skills
Creativity and Innovation
Physical Health
Academic Stress: The Driving Force of Reform
Limited Effects and Resistance to Those Reforms
The Gaokao and School‐Choice System: Historical, Cultural, and Political Factors
School‐choice System
Conclusion
References
18 “For a Future Tomorrow”
Literature
Figured Worlds
Isatou
References
19 When More Is Not Necessarily Better
Romanian Higher Education in Retrospective – A Sinuous Path
Present Context – The Anxieties of Adjustment
Reflection and Discussions – The Compliance Syndrome
Final Remarks
References
20 Historical Features of Early Childhood Education
Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work
Loris Malaguzzi: His Life and Works
Part VI: Challenging Injustice, Inequity, and Enmity
21 Legal Education in Authoritarian Syria
Introduction
History
Curricula
Everyday Experiences in the Damascus Law Faculty
The Law Faculty: An Institution to Normalize Exception
The Law Faculty as a Site to Normalize Exception
Concluding Remarks
22 Developing Conscientious Institutions of Higher Education in Southeast Asia
Corruption in ASEAN
Implications of the “Sufficient” and “Competent” Organization DNA for a HEI
References
23 Can Academics Across the Divide Teach Together?
24 Eugenic Ideology and the Institutionalization of the “Technofix” on the Underclass
Theory into Practice
Making the World a Better place Through Eugenics
Education in Service of Eugenics
References
Part VII: PISA Appendices
Appendix A
Appendix B
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Minorities and education: concepts and facts.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Perceived barriers by pharmacy students (n = 78) to using the inhaler devices correctly and hence demonstrating their correct use following in‐class education on correct inhaler technique (Basheti et al.
,
2015).
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Indicators of holistic assessment to evaluate quality of elementary and secondary education (MOE, 2013a).
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Selected basic ASEAN indicators.
Table 22.2 Multidimensional poverty index (MPI).
Table 22.3 ASEAN‘s inequality‐adjusted Human Development Index for 2013.
Table 22.4 ASEAN‘s Human Development Index trend 1980–2013.
Table 22.5 Corruption Perception Index 2014 of ASEAN countries.
Table 22.6 Key Higher Education Indicators in ASEAN countries.
Table 22.7 “Conscientious” teaching competency and sufficiency effectiveness index.
Table 22.8 “Conscientious” student competency and sufficiency effectiveness index.
Table 22.9 Band performance of the course CS 101 based on the MKC SLOs assessment rubrics of a student.
Table 22.10 Academic performance and accountability index (APAI) scorecard of faculty.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Teacher education for inclusion: Enabling practices.
Figure 10.2 Inclusionary curricular practices of elementary teacher education.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Universal design for learning digital supports from the game “Teen Career Pathway.”
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Show and tell technique for device education.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Average estimated full‐time undergraduate budgets by sector, 2014–2015 (enrollment‐weighted).
Figure 22.2 Cumulative debt of 2011–2012 bachelor’s degree recipients by dependency status and family income.
Figure 22.3 Cumulative debt in 2012 dollars for undergraduate and graduate studies: Graduate degree recipients in 2003–2004, 2007–2008, and 2011–2012.
Figure 22.4 Sufficiency and sustainability model for higher educational institutions. While numerous literatures have emphasized the importance of capacities and capabilities, they typically neglect the “real behavior” of the organization and the ways in which they can act in moral ways to benefit others. To address the human side of the organization, Teay (2007) developed the “Sustainability Model for HEI Sufficiency and” (Figure 22.4) based on H.M. King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s (1998) philosophy that stresses the middle path (a secularized normative prescription, and not a religious statement of faith) as an overriding principle for appropriate conduct by the populace at all levels.
Figure 22.5 Conscientious capacity and capability framework.
Figure 22.6 Components of MKC HEI internal and external institutional responsibilities.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Wiley Handbooks in Education
The Wiley Handbooks in Education offer a capacious and comprehensive overview of higher education in a global context. These state‐of‐the‐art volumes offer a magisterial overview of every sector, sub‐field and facet of the discipline‐from reform and foundations to K‐12 learning and literacy. The Handbooks also engage with topics and themes dominating today’s educational agenda‐mentoring, technology, adult and continuing education, college access, race and educational attainment. Showcasing the very best scholarship that the discipline has to offer, The Wiley Handbooks in Education will set the intellectual agenda for scholars, students, researchers for years to come.
The Wiley International Handbook of Educational FoundationsBy Alan S. Canestrari (Editor) and Bruce A. Marlowe (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Violence in Education: Forms, Factors, and PreventionsBy Harvey Shapiro (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Ethnography of Educationby Dennis Beach (Editor), Carl Bagley(Editor) and Sofia Marques da Silva (Editor)
The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learningby Scott Alan Metzger (Editor) and Lauren McArthur Harris (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Christianity and Educationby William Jeynes (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Diversity in Special Educationby Marie Tejero Hughes (Editor) and Elizabeth Talbott (Editor)
The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Leadershipby Duncan Waite (Editor) and Ira Bogotch (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Social Studies Researchby Meghan McGlinn Manfra (Editor) and Cheryl Mason Bolick (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of School Choiceby Robert A. Fox (Editor) and Nina K. Buchanan (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Home Educationby Milton Gaither (Editor)
The Wiley Handbook of Cognition and Assessment: Frameworks, Methodologies, and Applicationsby Andre A. Rupp (Editor) and Jacqueline P. Leighton (Editor)
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The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations
Edited by Alan S. Canestrari and Bruce A. Marlowe
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Names: Canestrari, Alan S., editor. | Marlowe, Bruce A., editor.Title: The Wiley international handbook of educational foundations / edited by Alan S. Canestrari, Bruce A. Marlowe.Other titles: International handbook of educational foundationsDescription: 1st edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2018. | Series: The Wiley handbooks in education | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2018023893 (print) | LCCN 2018024523 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118931813 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781118931820 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118931806 (hardback)Subjects: LCSH: Critical pedagogy. | Comparative education. | BISAC: EDUCATION / Higher.Classification: LCC LC196 (ebook) | LCC LC196 .W558 2018 (print) | DDC 370.115–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018023893
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To children without access to an education.
“The educator has the duty of not being neutral.”Paulo Freire, We Make the Road by Walking: Conversations on Education and Social Change
About the Editors
Alan S. Canestrari earned his EdD. at Boston University. He is a Professor of Education at Roger Williams University, Bristol, Rhode Island. Together with Bruce Marlowe, he is the co‐editor of Educational Foundations: An Anthology of Critical Readings (SAGE 2004, 2010, 2013) and Educational Psychology in Context: Readings for Future Teachers (SAGE 2006). Educational Foundations was awarded the 2005 American Educational Studies Association Critics Choice Award. Professor Canestrari has had a long career in public schools and universities as a history teacher, department chair, adjunct professor at Rhode Island College, and the Brown University Masters of Teaching Program. He was the RI Social Studies Teacher of the Year in 1992.
Bruce A. Marlowe, PhD is Chair of the Department of Education, and Professor of Educational Psychology and Special Education, at the University of South Carolina Beaufort. Over the course of a 35‐year career in education, Dr. Marlowe has worked as a high school English teacher, a ‐12 special educator, and a special education consultant. He has served as an interim university Dean, a Coordinator of Graduate Education, and as a Professor of Special Education and Educational Psychology. Dr. Marlowe earned his PhD in Educational Psychology and Evaluation in 1991 at the Catholic University of America in Washington, DC. He is the co‐author of Creating and Sustaining the Constructivist Classroom (2005), and the co‐editor of Educational Psychology in Context: Readings for Future Teachers (2006) and Educational Foundations: An Anthology of Critical Readings, 3rd Edition (2013). Dr. Marlowe has presented at 41 academic conferences throughout the United States and in Canada, Finland, France, Italy, Malta and Turkey. He is the author of seven book chapters and forewords, and 18 periodicals or proceedings in academic publications.
About the Contributors
Samim Akgönül, PhD Historian and Political Scientist, is a Professor at Strasbourg University and a researcher at the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS). His main research field is religious minorities, especially non‐Muslim minorities in Turkey, Muslim minorities in the Balkans, and New Minorities in Western Europe.
Iman A. Basheti, BPharm, MPharm, PhD is Associate Professor in Clinical Pharmacy Education and Dean of the Faculty of Pharmacy at the Applied Sciences University in Amman, Jordan.
Nicola S. Barbieri is an Associate Professor in the Department of Education and Human Services at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy.
Alexander Bean was born and raised in southern Maryland. He is a student in the Elementary Education Certification track at the University of South Carolina Beaufort in Beaufort, South Carolina.
Mary Compton is Past President of the UK National Union of Teachers, the largest teacher union in Europe.
Karin M. Fisher, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Exceptional Education at Georgia Southern University and a former secondary special education teacher and FIRST robotics coach. Her research interests include increasing students with disabilities’ participation in extracurricular STEM activities.
Margaret M. Foster is an undergraduate Educational Studies and Psychology major at Roger Williams University in Bristol, RI. She is passionate about equity, social justice, and multicultural education.
Ben Gallegos, PhD is a postdoctoral scholar of Exceptional Education at the University of Central Florida. His research is on providing students, especially those from low socio‐economic communities, academic support using virtual learning environments.
Jordene Hale, PhD is Chief of Party at Reading for Ethiopia's Achievement Developed (READ) Monitoring and Evaluation Project in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Ali Hamza, MA works as a Research Manager at Georgetown University. His primary focus is on education and financial inclusion in South Asia and East Africa.
Mariale M. Hardiman, EdD is Interim Dean of the School of Education the Johns Hopkins University where she has served as Vice Dean of Academic Affairs, and Professor of Clinical Education. She is the co‐founder and Director of the School of Education’s Neuro‐Education Initiative (NEI).
Manuel Hassassian, PhD is the Palestinian ambassador to the United Kingdom. He has held various roles at Bethlehem University including Professor, Dean of Students, Dean of Faculty of Arts and Chair of the Humanities Department and Executive Vice President.
Alemayehu Tekelemariam Haye, PhD is Associate Professor, and former Chair, Department of Special Needs Education at Addis Ababa University in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He has worked as a curriculum expert and a researcher at the Institute of Curriculum Development and Research (ICDR) and as a Head of Educational Programs and Teacher Education in the Ministry of Education.
Gloria Graves Holmes, PhD was Chairwoman of Quinnipiac University’s Master of Arts teaching program and Associate Professor of Middle Grades and Secondary Education.
Maya Israel, PhD is Assistant Professor of Special Education at the University of Illinois. Her primary areas of specialization include supporting students’ meaningful access to STEM learning with an emphasis on computational thinking and computer programming.
Liam Kane is a linguist who has lived, worked and travelled extensively in Latin America. He was a development education worker for Oxfam in the 1980s when he first encountered the Latin American approach to popular education. He is currently a lecturer in the Department of Adult and Continuing Education in the University of Glasgow where he teaches about and researches popular education.
Edward (“Edy”) Kaufman, PhD is Senior Research Scholar, Department of Government and Politics at the Center for International Development and Conflict Management (CIDCM), University of Maryland, College Park, MD. He has directed the Truman Institute at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and has held various leadership positions on the International Committee of Amnesty International.
Matthew T. Marino, PhD is Associate Professor of Exceptional Education at the University of Central Florida and a former secondary special education, science, and technology teacher. His research has been supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, the Office of Special Education Programs, and the National Science Foundation.
Ryan Monahan graduated from Roger Williams University with a double major in English and Secondary Education. With his eye on improving the future of the American public school system, he is currently teaching English in Ehime, Japan with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program.
Marilyn Monks Page, EdD began her career as a high school social studies and Spanish teacher and taught in every grade 7 through 12, at every academic level, in rural, suburban, and urban school systems in different parts of the United States. She is a retired Associate Professor at Johnson State College, Johnson, VT and retired graduate faculty in Curriculum and Instruction at the Pennsylvania State University.
Samantha Painter, is currently an undergraduate student at Roger Williams University. She is majoring in Secondary Education and English Literature with a minor in Gender and Sexuality Studies and intends to pursue a career in teaching. She is research assistant, editing assistant, and co‐author with Page and Lloyd.
Jyoti Raina, PhD is Associate Professor, Department of Elementary Education, Gargi College (University of Delhi). Her research interests include cognitive education, initial teacher certification, and science pedagogy.
Timothy Reagan, PhD is the Dean of the College of Education and Human Development at the University of Maine in Orono. Previously, he held a variety of senior faculty and administrative positions at institutions in the United States, South Africa, and Kazakhstan, including at Gallaudet University, the University of Connecticut, Roger Williams University, Central Connecticut State University, the University of Witwatersrand, and Nazarbayev University.
Rachel Rush‐Marlowe, MA is an Education Program Analyst at Quality Information Partners, Inc. (QIP) in Washington, DC and a Teaching Associate at the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University.
Bandana Saini, BPharm, MPharm, MBA, PhD is Professor and Senior Lecturer, Pharmacy Practice at the University of Sydney. Dr, Saini trained as a pharmacist at the University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chandigarh, India (1990)
Abdulhay Sayed, LLM, DES, PhD is an independent Syrian lawyer, and has been a Lecturer in Law in the Damascus Faculty of Law from 2005 to 2011. He is author of Corruption in International Trade and Commercial Arbitration, Kluwer Law International, 2004.
George L. Şerban‐Oprescu, PhD is an Associate Professor with the Department of Theoretical and Applied Economics, Faculty of Economics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, where he teaches courses on Economic Doctrines and Epistemology. An advocate of interdisciplinary research, Professor Şerban‐Oprescu’s interests range from history of economic thought and economic methodology to quality of life studies and higher education issues.
Teodora A. Şerban‐Oprescu, PhD is Associate Professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Business Communication, School of International Business and Economics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies in Bucharest, Romania. She teaches courses in Business Communication, Intercultural Communication, and Research Methodology.
Teay Shawyun is an Associate Professor in Strategic Management with a previous Assistant Professorship in Management of Technology. Since 2009, he has been emploed as Consultant by King Saud University, Saudi Arabia to develop the university’s IQA (Internal Quality Assurance) system. He is in his third term as President of SEAAIR (South East Asia Association for Institutional Research).
Eleazar Vasquez III, PhD is Associate Professor in the Department of Child, Family, and Community Sciences Exceptional Education Program, iSTEM Fellow, and Affiliate Faculty of Lockheed Martin UCF Academy at the University of Central Florida in Orlando, Florida. His current research focuses on the evaluation of academic and behavioral outcomes for students with autism utilizing technology to enhance instruction.
Divyanshi Wadhwa, MA is a Research Assistant at the Center for Global Development, and is a former consultant at the World Bank. She performs evidence‐based research on several international development issues, ranging from education and health to financial inclusion and technology.
Elsa Wiehe, EdD is a Teaching and Learning Specialist at Navitas, a company which promotes the internationalization of university campuses. Previously, she has worked as a professor of education and as an international educational consultant in the monitoring and evaluation of a large‐scale program on gender and education in West and Southern Africa.
Lois Weiner, EdD is a College of Education Professor and Coordinator of the MA Program in Teaching/Learning in Urban Schools at New Jersey City University. She brings to her wide‐ranging scholarship first‐hand experience as a classroom teacher and union officer.
Ann G. Winfield, PhD is Associate Professor of Educational Foundations at Roger Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island. Dr. Winfield’s research focuses on curriculum history and the history of education with a specific focus on eugenic ideology and its influence on our modern system of public education.
Gaoming Zhang, PhD is Assistant Professor in the School of Education at the University of Indianapolis. Her research interests include technology integration, teacher preparation, and comparative education. She was born in China and received her K‐16 education in China.
PrefaceThe Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations
Samantha Painter and Maia Lloyd
During our daily “googling” we stumbled upon an internet article posted by a foundation interested in the promotion of education in Pakistan. Here is a brief excerpt:
Pakistan’s youth, making up the majority of the population, must be educated and provided with the necessary skills to become a viable workforce and produce the next generation of innovators. In its current state, the education system fails to provide real‐life skills and opportunities to talented students who have the potential to become the next Bill Gates (p. 1).
Bill Gates? To us, this sounded very much like an American approach to educational reform. Is education simply about providing children with the requisite skills to enter the workforce? While most would agree that education is a fundamental human right, there is much less agreement about what it should look like and in whose interests it should be designed. And, there is considerable disagreement as well, about whether the ultimate measure of a nation’s educational system should be the number of corporate titans it produces.
Yet, nations increasingly dance to the tune of worldwide competition, eager to celebrate (or, conversely, commiserate) over their standings in international testing regimens, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
For children, the performance rankings are irrelevant. As nations call for reform to improve their position in the world educational order, millions remain unable to access even a basic education. For the poor, their lack of educational access is centuries old. As suggested above, while compulsory education, in all its cultural variations, has become the global standard, quite a large number of children on the planet – a disproportionate number of whom are poor, female or both – still have little or no access to schooling. Few, if any, educational opportunities exist in places torn by civil wars, sectarian violence, and abject poverty. Worse, in many places, precisely because of their gender, religious beliefs, and/or longstanding ethnic prejudices, children are deliberately denied access to an education. In many places, these circumstances are centuries old and appear intractable. In contrast, citizens of advanced, highly technical nations, enjoy the abundant prospects of a twenty‐first‐century future, where geographic barriers seem to collapse, where the flow of information encircles the Earth as if in orbit, where communication is instantaneous. And yet, large numbers of the Earth’s children remain confined by an imposed “otherness,” even in the world’s most prosperous nations.
But there are changes afoot, many of them quite promising. What does the global educational landscape look like if we gazed down from our satellite as it circled Earth?
Enter Southeast Asia. Along outstretched plains and colossal mountains, immerse yourself into Chinese culture, where students devote more time to schoolwork than in any other country. At 8:00 a.m., a sixth‐grader sits down at his desk with 45 of his peers, ready for a day of math, technology, Chinese, English, music, physical education, crafts, and ethics. Classes end at around 4:00 p.m., but most students stay at school to participate in activities like the Chinese Folk Music Orchestra, Calligraphy and Painting Club, or Ping Pong Club. And, schoolwork is not over when students get home. At an average of 14 hours a week, teenage students in China receive the most homework worldwide (Darell, 2016). A lot of schools also offer weekend classes such as Olympic Math, Chinese Chess, and Badminton. Once students reach high school level, evening classes – which often last until 11:00 p.m. – are tacked onto their day (Butrymowicz, 2011). It is constant competition, with the best universities as the almighty prize.
Two thousand eight hundred sixty‐four miles west, an Iranian girl arrives at school around 7:30 a.m. and plays with other girls in the schoolyard. Her female teacher will call the girls into the classroom for their day to begin. She will spend her entire education with girls, as boys and girls are educated separately until they reach university level (Darell, 2016). Many Iranian policy‐makers, determined to keep Iran as a traditional Islamic state, have banned co‐education, assigned male and female teachers to classes of their corresponding gender, changed textbooks to show people participating in roles that fit their gender binary, and shifted women away from stereotypically masculine disciplines at universities (Mehran, 2003, p. 19). In more recent years, the Ministry of Education has pushed for policies that give women equal opportunities in education, such as revising textbook images to portray more female participation in traditionally masculine tasks (Mehran, 2003, p. 15). The efforts to close the Iranian gender gap have made a significant difference in the number of women attending universities; but, even with proportional enrollment numbers, unemployment for women after graduation was as high as 52.3% in 2008. Unemployment for men with tertiary education leveled at around 14.9% (International Labour Organization, 2008). In this example, the push for equality in education has not yet extended into the workforce.
Just southeast of the Iranian border, Pakistani children have a very different relationship with education. These children have no legal right to a free education. Compulsory education only occurs between ages five and nine (Darell, 2016); Pakistan’s school life expectancy is eight years, but many children do not attend school at all (Central Intelligence Agency, 2017). In fact, one quarter of 7–16 year olds have never been to school (UNESCO, 2012). This is largely attributed to the lack of government spending on education. More recently with the War on Terror, children who do attend school face danger from terror attacks. With bag checks, constant safety drills, and sometimes school closure, education is frequently put on the back burner for Pakistani youth (Ansari, 2014).
Northwest 3,683 miles, a student in France sits feet shaking, palms sweating, as he takes a test that determines not only what he knows, but where he will go to next. In France, secondary school is divided into two sections, lower schools (collèges) and upper schools (lycées). At the end of lower secondary school, students take a national test in one of three tracks: Academic, technological, or vocational. If students pass, they receive a Diplôme National du Brevet (DNB), and if they fail, they receive a Certificat de Formation Générale (CFG). All students with a DNB are permitted to enroll in upper secondary school, but only a select few with a CFG are able to continue. A student decides the track (academic, technological, or vocational) they will take at the end of their first year, and spends the rest of his time at upper school preparing for his particular baccalauréat exam. The scores received on the academic bac exam determine students’ entry into higher education (Magaziner, 2015). Central European countries follow a similar education system as France. Germany and Belgium also allow parents and students to decide the specific educational track they would like to follow at a young age; students are assessed rigorously throughout their time in school (Angloinfo, 2017).
Across the Atlantic Ocean, 4,248 miles west, children are learning history, English, and French simultaneously. In Canada, there are two official languages: French and English. Because of this, students in Canada take some of their lessons in both French and English. Bilingual education does not exist in areas of Canada where English is more prominent than French, but most Canadian students take steps to become bilingual in their national languages (Darell, 2016). Many countries require students to learn a second language at a young age, but others, like the United States, typically exclude bilingual education from school curricula. In American cities like Los Angeles, many students are considered English Language Learners (ELL), but bilingual education has been defunded and foreign language studies are not a priority. In contrast, for Canadian students, bilingualism remains a highly valued skill.
Another 3,878 miles back across the Atlantic Ocean, a seven‐year old Finnish child walks into her very first day of school. Starting school at an older age is just one element that makes Finland’s education system quite unconventional. Children are not just sitting at home during their first seven years, however; every Finnish child has the legal right to free childcare and preschool. Preschool educators all hold bachelor’s degrees and prepare children with the skills they need when entering primary school (Sanchez, 2014). There is a strong emphasis on exploration and play in Finland, and delaying a child’s scholastic start time allows for both more time for play and more time outdoors. By the time they are adolescents, students in Finland choose a specific secondary school that will prepare them for their future, whether it be higher education or the workforce. Unlike France, and every other Western nation, Finnish students are rarely tested during their time in primary and secondary school. Finnish education also values in‐depth learning. Students spend a longer time learning fewer subjects, and they do so typically in inquiry‐based environments that stress critical thinking, and result in considerably less stress than is seen in adolescents in other parts of the world (Day, 2015). Students in Finland also benefit from small class sizes and they have substantially shorter school days and virtually no homework in the elementary grades. Even at the secondary level, Finnish students have the lightest homework loads in the world.
Three thousand miles south, the literacy rate for children under the age of 18 is under 50% for parts of the African continent, in stark contrast to rates in Europe and South America, where youth literacy rates are among the highest at 90–100 (Do Something, 2017). Nevertheless, despite the visual that relief organizations typically paint in somberly serenaded commercials, Africa is not an entirely barren continent where tribes live peacefully among giraffes and chimpanzees; educational issues in African countries are multifaceted and remarkably dissimilar depending where one finds oneself on the continent. One particular issue that Sub‐Saharan Africa faces which echoes across the globe is religion. While many countries must grapple with the challenges of meeting the needs of a diverse student body that might embrace different religious beliefs and traditions – particularly in history, science, and health classes – Sub‐Saharan African education is notable for some dramatic differences in the experiences of children, depending on whether they attend Christian or Muslim schools. The distribution of Christian missionary schools in predominantly Muslim areas explains some of these differences and Muslim education tends to be more attainable in areas where Muslims are a local minority, compared to areas where they are the majority. But, Africa is a vast continent with many varieties of educational experiences in this context. For example, Muslims in Rwanda receive more education, on average, than do Christians, although the reverse is true in Nigeria (Murphy, 2016).
How do we make sense of it all? What questions can inform discussion, debate, and good policy? Despite the remarkable diversity of educational experience across the globe, most discussions about schooling and schoolchildren – both within and between nations – lack depth and validity. A heavy weight lies on the shoulder of the educator; yet in virtually every country, those most intimately involved in the education of young people have little input into the educational laws, policies, and standards that will be instrumental in shaping the outcomes of the next generation. Education is perhaps more political than ever before, and we believe it is for this reason that educators must be more politicized than ever before.
As suggested above, we live in a rapidly changing, increasingly connected world; a place where disagreements abound, especially with respect to how children and young people should be prepared for adulthood, by whom and for what purpose. Particularly in comparison to previous generations of educators, new teachers – and scholars of education both – need frameworks from which they can critically evaluate schools and schooling in this larger, global context. Wherever they find themselves on the planet, few of today’s teachers are capable of standing up to state‐mandated, top‐down, rigid curricular and instructional mandates. They are often out of play, constrained by state or school bureaucracies demanding compliance and uniformity. We need critically literate teachers capable of mediating the technocratic demands of mandated curricula. Preparing such teachers must begin at the pre‐service level or new teachers will find themselves looking very much like the old ones, mindlessly going through the motions without question and reflection. And, equally important, a new generation of scholars in the field of education will require a foundation from which they may help beginning educators frame the difficult decisions they must navigate.
There are precious few handbooks on the foundations of education that speak to the needs of today’s scholars because of the parochialism of the textbook market. Indeed, the educational foundations bazaar is awash with books that either focus narrowly on the American experience or seek to explain the varieties of international educational arrangements from a decidedly ethnocentric, American, or Western point of view. Virtually all of the best‐selling foundation texts that either include an international section, or take international education as their primary focus, are written by Americans. In contrast, the book you hold in your hands features chapters from international scholars uniquely qualified to examine issues specific to their regions of the world, but which are grounded in a broad historical and global context.
The intention of this text is to provide readers with an alternative to the traditional texts on the foundations of education. The Wiley International Handbook of Educational Foundations takes an innovative approach to the fundamentals of education – one that uses an international lens to examine current controversies, with the aim of provoking the kind of discussion that is crucial for developing and maintaining a critical stance. The contributors ask, how and why has education come to function the way it does in different regions of the world? And, more critically: How should education work?
Most textbooks explore these questions in more neutral ways, spreading a singular polemic, which depoliticizes education for future educators. In contrast, this textbook aims at skepticism in order to promote a model of critique; only then can aspiring teachers reflect upon their own critical viewpoints and encourage the children and young people in their future classrooms to do the same.
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Acknowledgments
This book began with a request from Wiley‐Blackwell Publications to edit a foundations of education handbook. As we spoke about the project with Jayne Fargnoli – who eventually became our acquisitions editor, guide and most enthusiastic supporter – we settled upon an alternative to the typical, overly tedious, ethnocentric, and uncritical texts to which we have become accustomed. Instead, we offer here an unconventional foundations of education book, based upon the notion that we must challenge what for so long has been considered foundational and we must do so in the voices from scholars from around the globe. So, to begin, we offer a well‐deserved thank you to each of our contributors for their scholarly manuscripts and patience over the past several years as the work unfolded.
We would also like to acknowledge and thank all of the Wiley professionals who have shepherded us through the process and publication of this text including Janani Govindankutty and Denisha Sahadevan, project editors and Commissioning Editor, Haze Humbert, Roshna Mohan and Nivetha Udayakumar.
Thank you to our reviewers for their scholarly review, constructive criticism, and suggestions to our proposal and final manuscript.
We would also be remiss if we did not express our sincere appreciation to three students from Roger Williams University, who were instrumental in the publication of this volume. Margaret Foster, Maia Lloyd, and Samantha Painter provided essential, research assistance, editing, and writing from the project’s inception.
Finally, we are extremely fortunate to have spectacular administrative support at the University of South Carolina Beaufort. Myke McCutcheon is an absolute gem. It was because of her efforts that we were able to so smoothly assemble, sequence, and format the chapters, keep track of author permissions, and get the final manuscript into presentable shape (concurrent with her other responsibilities as the Administrative Assistant for the Departments of Education and Business).
Part IChallenging the Foundations Narrative
Has education taken an evolutionary wrong turn? Will the historical, philosophical, and sociological foundations of education that have developed over the centuries continue to provide educators with a sustainable developmental path towards praxis now and in the future? Might there be alternative pathways upon which praxis and reform be built? Should educators challenge the status quo and move purposefully, critically in another direction?
We offer the following readings as a catalyst for discourse about the provocative questions above and others that may be framed, limited only by one’s willingness to discuss, debate and defy conventional dogma.
In “A Story of Hegemony: The Globalization of Western Education,” Canestrari and Foster trace the foundations of education in the West from its ancient Greek and Roman roots to the current wave of global educational reform. Along the way, the authors illuminate the threads of the past that still can be found in the fabric of education today. The editorial essay springs from the perspectives of critical pedagogy that the authors have embraced.
In the second chapter, Kane asks the reader to consider the experience of so‐called “popular education” in Latin America, an approach to teaching and learning based on participatory community development, rather than top‐down directives from state bureaucracies. In the context of his examination of the 40‐year history of this Latin American movement, Kane examines how popular education movements are related to larger social movements and reflects on the potential of these approaches outside this region of the world.
In their discussion of educational reform in Southeast Asia, Hamza and Wadhwa begin with the history of British occupation and the ways in which the residue of English notions of colonial schooling permeate regional conceptions of teaching and learning. And, they use this history as a point of departure to examine how the meaning of access to education has evolved to include the inclusion of girls, ethnic minorities, and children on reservations. Throughout, their concern is with the fundamental issues that are driving the most recent wave of educational reform: the right to an education; the difference between learning and schooling; the purposes of education.
In “Rethinking African Educational Development,” Elsa Wiehe writes about her own experiences within the context of a girls’ scholarship program that was implemented in over 40 African countries. Wiehe investigates the way in which African educational development has been historically portrayed. She notes that in her discussions with the girls, they often describe their experiences using the same narrative employed by the organizations that provide educational opportunities for them.
Figure I.1 Reproduced with permission of Elsa Wiehe.
1A Story of Hegemony: The Globalization of Western Education
Alan S. Canestrari and Margaret M. Foster
Introduction
Recently, Tumeko, a bright, young, beginning South African teacher was chosen to present at a “youth movement” conference in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As she lamented the re‐emerging xenophobic violence and misunderstanding in Alexandra, her home township outside of Johannesburg, she called upon young people everywhere to re‐direct their energies and voices for peace, understanding, and tolerance. She urged her generation to lead their nations into a future of economic prosperity, political stability, and social justice through participatory governance and development. In post apartheid South Africa, this is no easy task. Tumeko’s generation, like others around the world, remains marginalized, still struggling for adequate basic public education and equality. Tumeko, targeted to attend the LEAP Math and Science School, is one of the high potential students to be selected. Publicly funded, and privately managed, every LEAP performance‐based contract school is partnered with a more privileged school and one other township school. As is often the case, schools like LEAP are also supported by grants from charitable foundations whose mission is to help transform the lives of poor children through a variety of global health and educational initiatives. LEAP, and many programs like it, draws support from a variety of sources in South Africa. It partners with Teach for Africa, Bridge International Academies, and the South African Extraordinary Schools Coalition (SAESC) among others. The SAESC was first formed in 2010 and initially funded by the Michael and Susan Dell Foundation, one of the organizations that is investing billions of dollars to help transform the lives of children living in poverty. Tumeko is one of the fortunate who have been granted this opportunity (LEAP, 2015).
What should Tumeko and others make of this? How have she and others become intertwined in the global goals of the LEAP Math and Science Schools, the Dell Foundation, and larger global forces? To what extent do all benefit from the relationship? Might this relationship, and others like it, shed light on the historical impact and aims of Western education? Do the aims offer transcendence and transformation for people and society? Or, are they purposes shaped by oligarchical responses to shifting social, political, and economic developments of the time? Finally, have the aims of Western education always been defined and controlled by dominant forces for the purposes of social, political, economic, and or moral control?
To answer these and related questions, we must investigate the emergence and current domination of neoliberal free‐market ideology and the process of globalization, what Chomsky pointed to as the “defining social, political economic paradigm” of our time (Chomsky, 1999, p. 7). We define globalization as an intentional plan for global interconnectedness. It has evolved as a strategy to control cultural, political, and economic outcomes around the world. Still unfamiliar to most, the term neoliberalism, remains mostly unknown to many of the very merchants that market it. Make no mistake, the power brokers who promote their neoliberal principles hope to develop what is already an evolving grip on the world economy. The executors support its underlying imperatives to reduce the size of government, expand global markets, lower taxes on the wealthy, increase profit, attack collective bargaining, reduce regulations, dismantle social welfare programs, and privatize what we have historically referred to as public education.
The latter twentieth century witnessed increasing alarm, as did Milton Friedman in Capitalism and Freedom (1962), that the creation of wealth and the resulting profit is the essence of democracy. A government that pursues anti‐market policies is antidemocratic. In many ways, capitalism has become synonymous with democracy, an idea that evidently has been embraced by political parties in the United States and elsewhere. It is spread by powerful global forces and facilitated by technology and education in order to effect cultural, political, and economic outcomes around the world. For certain, the blurred line between capitalism and democracy has undermined participatory democracy: This is not new, nor has it ever been neutral.
For centuries, the powerful have attempted to exert spheres of influence over the less powerful. The foundational elements of neoliberalism and globalization are similar to the forms of domination of the past. It is marked by a broadening of the laissez‐faire economics and an extension of the colonization and imperialistic models of the past but with a more, subtle, nuanced, but is no less a dangerous physical and ideological model of domination. The teachers, students, and members of communities around the world, including Tumeko’s, are influenced by this educational feature of neoliberalism and globalization to set aside their customs, beliefs, and experiences in order to accept the best way to live, to learn, to teach, and to prosper. Education is offered, as it always has been, as an amelioration, as an instrument of social and economic justice but, it is, of course, defined and operationalized by powerful forces and institutions. It is Western education that has become one of the vehicles that spread this ideology internationally. So, how has Western education, as an instrument of domination, always been one of the tools of empire building? How has it been used as a means of socialization and acculturation of the dominated to take their intended roles for the purposes of cultural reproduction and the common good of the state or empire and preservation of the status quo?
A “great arc of potentialities” exists for the West, as in all cultures, to develop its own unique “personality writ large” that will be transmitted by various instruments of acculturation (Benedict 1959, p. 46). The unfolding history of the West provides us with some clues to the roots of education that have evolved and still underpin contemporary educational goals, policies, and practices. For the West, education has always been an instrument of social change but, in its varied forms, it has also promoted social control and cultural reproduction; a hegemony defined by powerful people, organizations, and institutions. Our intention in this chapter is to illuminate, through the lens of historical moments, the aims of Western education by linking these historical moments with contemporary educational events in order to demonstrate their relevance and connections to modern day education. These threads, woven through the fabric of the very foundations of education provide points that frame the discourse of ideological hegemony, compliance, accountability, national interests, and economic imperatives which have deep historical roots; characteristics of the past that remain relevant to the modern day underpinnings of education.
Ancient Threads
Tracing its foundations to Greek and Roman origins, provides the opportunity to discover some of the structures, methods, and themes, or, the cultural threads so firmly woven into Western civilization and its educational systems. For most of us, the history of ancient Greece began in school with our first introduction to the vivid, enchanting world of the immortal Greek gods. We imagined Zeus hurling thunderbolts at monsters, Hercules engaged in impossible labors, and we learned of the fate of Medusa’s vain struggle with Athena. We recited, “sing in me muse and through me tell the story of that man…” from Homer’s Odyssey as we were captivated by the “song” of the adventures of our tormented hero. Generations of schoolchildren delighted in these magical images, tales of strength, and beauty (Gombrich, 1985). Later, we were introduced to the Greek philosophers’ views on the nature of man; the start of our own completive thoughts on the meaning of life.
There is no debate over what might be considered the most influential of all Greek contributions to Western thought. It is the establishment of a logical, orderly, and methodological study of philosophy (Cahill, 2003). Initially, delineated by the works of pre‐Socratic philosophers and later made permanent by the classical reasoning of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the wisdom and the force of Western philosophy holds permanent sway in educational curricula and instruction.
Socrates, often considered one of the first documented teachers of the youth, impressed upon his students the importance of experience and an encouragement of a love of learning (George, 2015
