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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Topics in Anti-Cancer Research
- Sprache: Englisch
Topics in Anti-Cancer Research covers important advances on both experimental preclinical and clinical cancer research in drug development. The book series offers readers an insight into current and future therapeutic approaches for the prevention of d
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
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PREFACE
Topics in Anti-Cancer Research covers important advances in both experimental (pre-clinical) and clinical cancer research in drug development. The book series offers readers an insight into current and future therapeutic approaches for the prevention of different types of cancers, synthesis of new anti-cancer agents, new patented compounds, targets and agents for cancer therapy as well as recent molecular and gene therapy research.
The topics covered in the seventh volume of this series include the role of inflammation in chemotherapy-induced neuromuscular effects, recent advances in nutrigenomics and relevant anti-cancer patents, nanocarriers for on-demand anti-cancer drug release, biochemical mechanisms that control autophagy for treating esophageal cancer, nano-formulations for cancer therapy and nanotaxol.
The comprehensive range of themes covered will be beneficial to clinicians, cancer pro-fessionals, immunologists, and R&D experts looking for new anti-cancer targets and patents for the treatment of neoplasms, as well as varied approaches for cancer therapy.
We are obliged to the authors for their contributions and to the reviewers for their comprehensive comments for shaping up the chapters and improving their quality. We extend our thanks to Mr. Mahmood Alam, Mrs. Rafia Rehan and other colleagues for their cooperation in the finalization of this volume.
List of Contributors
INTRODUCTION
Topics in Anti-Cancer Research covers important advances on both experimental (preclinical) and clinical cancer research in drug development. The book series offers readers an insight into current and future therapeutic approaches for the prevention of different types of cancers, synthesizing new anti-cancer agents, new patented compounds, targets and agents for cancer therapy as well as recent molecular and gene therapy research.
The comprehensive range of themes covered in each volume will be beneficial to clinicians, cancer professionals, immunologists, and R&D experts looking for new anti-cancer targets and patents for the treatment of neoplasms, as well as varied approaches for cancer therapy.
The topics covered in the seventh volume of this series include:
- ncRNAs in human cancer - Taxol to nanotaxol: A journey towards enhanced drug delivery - Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for on-demand anti-cancer drug release - Harnessing biochemical mechanisms that control autophagy for treating esophageal cancer - Smart nano-formulations for cancer therapy - The role of inflammation in chemotherapy-induced neuromuscular effects - Advances in nutrigenomics and relevant anti-cancer patents
The Role of ncRNAs in Human Cancer and its Related Patents
María I. Navarro-Mendoza1,Carlos Pérez-Arques1,Laura Murcia1,Alfonso F. López-Martínez2,Francisco E. Nicolás1,*Abstract
The development of the new sequencing technologies has unveiled a new world of regulatory non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that is revolutionizing our understanding of the RNA world. New transcripts with non-coding functions are being identified from most of the human genome. Although we have just started to study these ncRNAs, the broad list of regulatory functions assigned to them has assured a prominent role in the regulation of the molecular processes involved in human cancer. This chapter presents a review of the state of the art in the study of ncRNAs and their relationship with human cancer, summarizing the origin, structure and function of the most relevant new classes of ncRNAs. In addition, a selection of recent patents related to ncRNAs and human cancer is included here, analyzing their promising potential in the diagnosis and treatment of human cancer.
1. INTRODUCTION
The elegant hypothesis of the “RNA world” postulates an ancient first kind of living organisms in which basic functions of life were mostly covered by RNA molecules. Thus, the RNA world hypothesis presents RNA as the most likely compound capable of simultaneously containing genetic information, enzymatic activities and structural properties. It is, therefore, the best compound to imagine a feasible origin of life where the dogma DNA-RNA-Protein is fulfilled entirely by RNA molecules. However, the RNA world hypothesis also confined the ancient
RNA based living organisms as an initial stage of life evolution that shortly was replaced by the current axiom of life-based on the DNA-RNA-Protein scheme, relegating the RNA molecules to a simple intermediate that transfers information from DNA to proteins. This simplistic conception has recently been abandoned since the overwhelming amount of new evidence is positioning RNA as a master regulator controlling most of the molecular processes present in living cells. Hence, the RNA molecules found in living cells are an expanding universe that crossed the limits of protein-coding genes a long time ago. Since the discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs), and powered by the new generation deep sequencing technologies and the ENCODE project, an increasing number of new non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are evidencing that our conception of the RNA role in the regulation of cellular processes is not adjusted to the real regulatory capacity of these molecules. Although most of these new ncRNAs have been just discovered and most of their functions are still unknown, their presence in most of the functional genome sequence is manifesting a new RNA world which has assumed predominantly regulatory roles over the majority of molecular processes that confirm a living organism.
The intense structural and functional diversity of ncRNAs define them as a heterogeneous group with a difficult classification. However, among them, there is a subgroup of small RNAs (sRNAs) with constant features that have been deeply studied, these are the sRNAs generated by the RNA interference mechanism (RNAi). RNAi is a negative regulatory mechanism that represses the expression of target RNAs after its activation by the production of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). It was widely studied in the worm Caenorhabditis elegans [1], in plants [2] and fungi [3, 4]. Using mutational studies, the main components of its machinery were identified and characterized [3-6]. Thus, an RNA Dependent RNA Polymerase (RDRP) was the first component of the RNAi machinery that was identified [7, 8]. The role of this enzyme is to generate dsRNA from the aberrant RNAs (aRNAs) that are hypothetically produced from the triggering molecules. The crucial role of dsRNA was demonstrated soon after in C. elegans in a work that was worthy for the Nobel prize in 2006 [1]. The next gene required in the RNAi pathway codes for a ribonuclease type III known as the Dicer enzyme that slices dsRNA into the small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), a specific type of sRNAs with a fixed size between 19 and 25nt, a 5' phosphate and two nucleotide overhang on the 3' ends [9, 10]. The third enzyme of the RNAi core machinery is the Argonaute protein (Ago) which acts downstream of Dicer, loading siRNAs into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). The RISC uses the guide strand of the siRNA to find complementary mRNA molecules, which are either repressed or directly degraded [3, 11]. This is the canonical RNAi pathway which was firstly described as a host defense mechanism to protect the genome from invasive nucleic acids, such as viruses, transposons and transgenes. In addition to the canonical pathway and its defensive role, the discovery of other pathways that are endogenously triggered showed that this mechanism is also a regulatory mechanism that controls different cell functions. Hence, the study of the RNAi mechanism has identified an enormous diversity of regulatory functions, such as posttranscriptional regulation of mRNAs, transcriptional regulation and host genome defense [12, 13].
Among all these functions and diversity of RNAi pathways, one of them outstands regarding posttranscriptional gene regulation. It is the microRNA (miRNA) pathway, which has evolved as a fine-tuned regulating mechanism that controls the expression of thousands of different genes in animals. First miRNAs discovered were Lin-4 and Let-7, which are essential regulators for the normal temporal control of diverse postembryonic developmental events in Caenorhabditis elegans [14]. This was the starting point that later unveiled thousands of different miRNAs in animals, most of them evolutionarily conserved. Currently, miRNAs are defined as endogenous, single-stranded, short (19-21 nucleotides) RNA molecules that regulate the expression of protein-coding genes [15]. The biogenesis and functional mechanism of miRNAs are similar to other small RNAs, being produced from dsRNA and loaded into a silencing complex in which they act as an RNA guide. Nonetheless, these sRNAs also exhibit many specific features that allow for their own classification. Nowadays, thousands of miRNAs have been identified, and many of them have been experimentally validated. Each miRNA can target hundreds of different mRNAs and each mRNA can be targeted by several different miRNAs. This versatility of miRNAs facilitates the construction of complex regulatory networks that involve an elevated portion of total human genes, becoming key regulators in many complex cellular processes such as development, cell identity, cell cycle and disease [16]. Among these complex processes, human cancer represents a multifactorial disease that is strongly affected by the regulatory potential of miRNAs [17-19].
After the revolutionary discovery of miRNAs, the ENCODE project shocked once again our understanding of the RNA world, reporting that 76% of the human genome's noncoding DNA sequences were transcribed and half of the genome might be accessible to transcription factors and other regulatory proteins. Along with this discovery, researchers are reporting the identification of specific ncRNAs from most of the human genome sequences, including intergenic regions, repetitive DNA, introns, promoters and even sense and antisense gene sequences. Unlike the discovery of miRNAs, this current event of firstly identified ncRNA is reporting the characterization of new players with fewer features in common, presenting divergences not only in their biogenesis but also in their structure, size and function. Accordingly, a rising number of new functions associated to these new players are highlighting the functional relevance of ncRNA in the regular development of cellular processes, as well as in the initiation and progress of the human disease. Among all these new RNA regulators, there are ncRNAs that are being identified as significant contributors to the development of human cancer, such as PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), tRNA derived stress-induced RNAs (tiRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), promoter-associated RNAs, large intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs), Transcribed Ultraconserved Regions (T-UCRs), competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) and other long non-coding RNAs. This chapter focuses on the regulatory functions of ncRNAs and their relationship with human cancer, playing special attention to new developments and associated patents. The most conventional classification of ncRNAs establishes two classes based on sizes that are divided by a threshold of 200 nucleotides (nt): small ncRNAs for those with less than 200nt and long ncRNAs for the remaining ones.
2. SMALL ncRNAs: miRNAs, piRNAs, tiRNAs, snoRNAs AND paRNAs
2.1. miRNAs
miRNAs were the first regulatory short ncRNAs that were found in animals, and therefore, they have been deeply studied and characterized [14]. They are produced by the RNAi machinery, with special particularities during the early stages of their biogenesis. The main function of these short ncRNAs is the regulation of the target RNAs that share complementary sequence with them by inhibition of translation in animals or direct degradation of targets in plants [7]. Transcription of miRNAs genes generates long, capped and polyadenylated RNAs (pri-miRNAs), which form distinctive hairpin structures [9]. Later, these hairpins are sliced by Drosha (a type of ribonuclease III) in partnership with an RNA-binding protein DGCR8 or Pasha (partner of Drosha), generating 60-70nt stem-loop intermediates (miRNA precursor: pre-miRNA) [15, 20, 21]. These precursors are relocated to the cytoplasm, where they are sliced again by Dicer, another RNase III that generates mature miRNAs (19-24bp). Mature miRNAs are transferred to Argonaute proteins, which are the core of the RISC complex [22]. miRNAs generated by Dicer contains two strands: the functional strand (guide strand) that is transferred to Argonaute proteins and the passenger strand, which was considered not functional, though recent studies suggest that some of them might be also active [23]. Once RISC harbors a functional strand of miRNAs, the complex recognizes complementary sequences in the target mRNAs, usually at the 3′-UTR. The process to represses the expression of the targets can use two different mechanisms: slicing and further degradation of the target mRNA or formation of a stable complex RNA-RISC in which translation is blocked [24, 25]. Nowadays, there are hundreds of human miRNA sequences annotated in the databases [26], with thousands of predicted targets, constructing a regulatory network that encompasses more than 60% of protein-coding genes [27]. Consequently, miRNA can be found regulating most of the essential biological processes of living cells, and therefore, mistakes in their regulatory pathways have been associated with a wide list of diseases [28]. In the case of human cancer, miRNAs have been found deregulated in numerous comparative studies between normal tissues and tumors. Since miRNAs present an enormous regulatory spectrum, they have been found acting both as oncogenes and tumor suppressors. Thus, examples of miRNAs functioning as oncogenes are miR-17-92 cluster, miR-155 and miR-21, which after misregulation provoke a transcriptional activation of their corresponding targets in lung, breast and colon cancers [29]. Inversely, miRNAs miR-15a/16-1, let-7 family and miR-34 family function as tumor suppressors when their targets are repressed [29]. More specific studies have found miR-145 directly involved in the onset and development of colorectal cancer by regulation of MAPK signaling cascade and RNA-RNA crosstalk [30]. Conversely, mir-192 have been found acting as a tumor suppressor thanks to its ability to repress angiogenic pathways in cancer cells by regulation of EGR1 and HOXB9 [31]. Accordingly, with the high number of studies relating miRNAs and cancer, an equivalent of new developments and patents have been published and extensively reviewed [1, 28, 32-37]. In this sense, we will review only the most recent advances in the field of miRNAs and their use in cancer therapy (Table 1). The diagnosis of a specific type of cancer is the field in which most of the miRNA related advances are being developed. Thus, these new developments are mostly based on the identification of a singular profile of miRNAs in a specific type of sample that can be correlated with a particular type of cancer. Among these new advances, different patents presented methodologies to diagnose the most frequent types of malignancies, including breast [38], lung [39, 40], colorectal [41-43], gastric [44] and ovarian cancer [45]. In addition, other new advances are presenting methodologies based on the use of miRNAs to treat specific types of cancer. One of them is the work presented by Leedman et al., which proposed a methodology to sensitize cancer cells using miR-7-5pmiRNA. Using this sensitization, and after a DNA alkylating chemotherapeutic agent, the authors claim a significant improvement in the prognosis of melanoma cancers [46]. Another work designed for the treatment of liver cancer presents a combination of miRNA inhibitors (peptide nucleic acid, small interfering RNA, aptamers or antisense RNAs) that act as a repressor of mirRNA-30b, mirRNA-133a and mirRNA-202-5p. This inhibition leads to the repression of cell proliferation through the activation of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), which were downregulated by hypoxic conditions [47].
2.2. piRNAs
PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs produced in the germline cells that inhibit transposons expression in order to maintain genome integrity [48]. They are produced from piRNA precursors that are usually transcribed from intergenic piRNA clusters by a specific mechanism that generates mature piRNAs of 24-30nt in length. The mechanism of action of piRNA-mediated transposon silencing is similar to that of other RNAi pathways in the sense of small RNAs that guide effector complexes to repress target gene transcripts via RNA-RNA base pairing. However, the pathway for the biogenesis of piRNAs presents several differences with the canonical RNAi pathways, such as uniqueness of the specific interaction with PIWI subfamily of Argonaute proteins and Dicer-independence during their generation. Their genomic loci are regions that contain repetitive elements and transcribed transposable elements. Another uniqueness of piRNAs biogenesis is an amplification pathway called “ping-pong”, in which the primary piRNAs target their transcripts and induce the recruitment of PIWI proteins to cleave the target transcript and produce secondary piRNAs. The inhibition of transposons and other genetic elements in germline cells during spermatogenesis is accomplished by both epigenetic mechanisms (DNA methylation) and post-transcriptional gene silencing. In consequence of their activity, tumors associated with defects in the normal functioning of piRNAs and piRNA-like transcripts are mainly related to testicular tissues, though have also been linked to other tumor types [49-51]. Deregulation of proteins of the piRNAs machinery, such as PIWIL1 and PIWIL2, has been related to several types of tumors and cell cycle arrest [52], anti-apoptotic signaling, and cell proliferation [53]. Due to the limited number of functions associated with these sRNAs, most of the applied advances related to piRNAs are associated with their potential in diagnosing some specific types of cancer (Table 1). A specific application by Zhengdong et al. described 197 piRNAs as new biomarkers for diagnosis of bladder carcinoma [54]. However, most applications reporting new uses of piRNAs include these sRNAs in general expression profiles that also describe others ncRNAs as important indicators of cancerous malignancies [55-57].
2.3. tiRNAs
Another important class of small ncRNAs is those derived from tRNA, the so-called tRNA-derived stress-induced RNAs (tiRNAs), which are one of the newest members of the ncRNA repertoire. tiRNAs were firstly identified in cells under physiological conditions of stress (human fetus hepatic tissue and human osteosarcoma cells), though they have been found later in other tissues and conditions [16, 58, 59]. These ncRNAs can be generated by a cleavage close to the anticodon position of mature tRNAs, producing two halves (5'-htRNAs and 3'-htRNAs) of 30-40nt length. The enzyme that produces the endonucleolytic cleavage is Angiogenin (ANG), a pancreatic RNase that was previously described for its prominent role in cancer and neurodegenerative disease [60]. Regarding the function of tiRNAs, they have been involved in the inhibition of protein synthesis and the consequent activation of apoptosis [58, 61]. The mechanism of action of tiRNAs during tumor growth and cancer progression is still unknown, though their prominent role in human cancer has been suggested in several studies. For instance, a recent study proposed that tRNA fragments might play important roles in breast and prostate cancer, provoking dissociation of YB-1 from its oncogenic substrates by competitive binding, leading to the destabilization and downregulation of these substrates. Consequently, when these sRNAs are inhibited using anti-sense locked-nucleic acids (LNA)s, in vitro cultured cells show an increased cancerous phenotype [16]. Two recent applications propose using tiRNAs for the diagnosis and treatment of human cancer (Table 1). The application presented by Kirino et al. proposes a new methodology for the quantification of 5'-htRNAs and 3'-htRNAs in patient samples, which is later used for diagnosis and prognosis [17]. The second application claims to treat and prevent tumors using a pharmaceutical composition based on tiRNAs molecules, which are designed to inhibit protein synthesis and induce apoptosis of cancer cells [18].
2.4. snoRNAs
snoRNA is the only sRNAs found in eukaryotes and in archaea, but not in bacteria (Griffiths-Jones, Nucleic Acids Res, 2005). They are originated from intron sequences of rRNA transcripts, which can generate two groups of snoRNAs based on their secondary structure: C/D-box and H/ACA-box snoRNAs. The C/D-box snoRNAs bind to rRNAs through a typical 10-21bp double helix, and their main function is to promote 2'-O-methylation five bases upstream of the binding site. The H/ACA-box snoRNAs promote base editing (pseudouridylation) after binding to rRNAs sequences (Mattick, Hum Mol Genet, 2005). snoRNAs form complexes with small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins (snoRNPs) and guide them to the target RNAs. These post-transcriptional modifications, methylation and pseudouridylation, facilitate the folding and stability of the target RNAs. Malfunctioning of ribosomes has been previously associated with the transformation of normal cells into tumor cells [62], which correlates with the results of several studies associating defects in the levels of snoRNA to the same alterations provoked by ribosome malfunction [63-66]. One of these studies compared 5,473 tumor-normal genome pairs to identify snoRNAs alterations [67], finding that SNORD50A-SNORD50B snoRNA locus was deleted in 10-40% of 12 common types of cancers, and these deletions were associated to reduced survival. Further studies of SNORD50A and SNORD50B RNAs found that they interact with K-Ras, and if this interaction fails, a hyperactivated Ras-ERK1/ERK2 signaling is detected after an overproduction of GTP-bound active K-Ras [67]. In relation to the unbalanced levels of snoRNAs and cancers, most recent patents include snoRNAs in their general methods of cancer diagnosis based on ncRNAs expression profiles (Table 1) [55, 56, 68] More specifically, Foster and Seedhouse presented an application only devoted to uses of snoRNAs regarding the diagnosis of human cancer. This new development is focused on the snoRNA HBII-52, also known as SNORD115, which has been found overexpressed in prostate cancer. Thus, the application relates SNORD115 to the diagnosis of prostate cancer, though the disclosure also presents a methodology to identify candidate patients for therapy based on the administration of an effective amount of antagonists against this snoRNA [69].
2.5. Small Promoter Associated RNAs
After the use of new generation technology on massive sequencing for the discovery of new transcripts, one of the first surprises was to find thousands of non-coding RNAs transcribed from promoter regions. These searches revealed the production of several types of RNAs associated with the Transcriptional Start Sites (TSSs) of genes. Some promoter-associated RNAs can be longer than 200nt, however, these long RNAs usually overlap with intergenic regions outside of the promoter, being classified as long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs). The different types of promoter-associated RNAs were classified into three groups of ncRNAs: promoter-associated small RNAs (PASRs), TSS-associated RNAs (TSSa-RNAs) and promoter-upstream transcripts (PROMPTs). The main differences between these three classes of promoter-associated RNAs are the position of the promoter where the transcription starts and the size and structure of the mature RNA. PASRs show different sizes, but always present a modified 5'- (capped) end and their transcription starts downstream of TSSs. Their transcription is bidirectional and weak, though they are produced from promoters of highly expressed genes [70, 71]. Similarly, TSSa-RNAs are also weakly produced in both directions from promoters of highly expressed genes. Their unique features are their presence in mouse ES cells and a usual localization between -250 to +50 of TSSs [72]. PROMPTs, however, are produced 0.5 to 2kb upstream of TSSs in a variety of sizes that are never longer than 200bp. They can be easily detected when the RNA exosome is depleted (either naturally or using RNAi) [73]. The transcription origin of promoter-associated RNAs immediately suggests a possible role in the regulation of the same promoter region where they are produced, however, the current lack of evidence is clouding the actual function of these ncRNAs. Nevertheless, their assumed regulatory role and the elevated number of sequences identified in humans (more than 10,000 for TSSa-RNAs and PASRs) indicate a link between diseases and malfunction of these ncRNAs. Accordingly, a recent study found that lack of a HIF-2α promoter PROMPTs downregulates the expression of HIF-2α, affecting the cancerous cell properties associated with colorectal cancer stem cells [74]. Most of the applications associated to the three types of promoters associated RNAs are all restricted to the diagnosis of cancer-based on specific expression profiles of these RNAs in patient samples (Table 1) [75]. However, due to their regulatory potential, other new developments related to promoter associated ncRNAs described uses for both TSSa-RNAs and PASRs in the regulation of gene expression [76].
2.6. Other Small ncRNAs
Y RNAs are another type of interesting non-conding RNAs (84-113nt) that were found studying autoimmune antibodies against small nuclear RNAs forming ribonucleoprotein in patients with systemic lupus [77]. There are four different Y RNAs (Y1, Y3, Y4 and Y5) transcribed by RNA polymerase III, generating hairpin structures that can interact with Ro60 and La proteins to form Ro-RNP (Ro60 containing ribonucleoprotein complex) [78, 79]. These hairpin structures are similar to pre-miRNAs, and equally can be processed into smaller RNAs (22-36nt), however, their biogenesis does not depend on the silencing machinery [80]. Y RNAs have been mainly involved in DNA replication [81], although misregulation in their production also has been related to cancer [82]. A recent patent based on the detection of circulating Y RNAs proposed them as RNA markers to detect cancerous malignancies [83].
Other interesting small non-coding RNAs are the so-called vault RNAs (vtRNAs), a name assigned to these RNAs since they interact with vault proteins to form vault complexes. These complexes are found associated with nuclear membranes where they may function helping in processes involving transport between cytoplasm and nucleus [84]. Vault RNAs present a size between 86 and 141 nucleotides and are transcribed by polymerase III [85]. The main role of vtRNAs in cancer is a relation with their function helping nucleus-cytoplasm transport since this activity might influence the export of chemotherapeutic drugs out of the nucleus, inducing drug resistance [86]. A recent patent related to vtRNAs found that they can interact with p62, an important factor of cellular autophagy. This invention proposes to modulate the binding of vtRNA to p62 as a novel strategy to influence autophagic flux in cells, which could help in the treatment of diseases associated with reduced autophagy-like cancer [87].
3. LONG ncRNAs: lincRNAs, T-UCRs, ceRNAs AND OTHER lncRNAs
3.1. LincRNAs
Long intergenic ncRNAs (lincRNAs) are transcript higher than 200nt that are transcribed from the intergenic region, however, beside that premise, they do not share any other feature. LincRNAs are a diverse group of lncRNAs, ranging in sizes from a few hundred to tens of thousands of nucleotides. In humans, more than 3,000 lincRNAs loci have been found thanks to the massive sequencing technologies, though most of them remaining uncharacterized [88]. Some of these lincRNAs present cell-type specific expression and subcellular compartment localization and many of them control the expression of both neighboring genes and distant genomic sequences [89, 90]. The high number of lincRNAs identified and their regulatory functions suggest that they confirm a new regulatory layer which is barely explored and represent a promising field for future discoveries. As expected, the high number of lincRNAs and their regulatory functions shortly led to the discovery of several lincRNAs related to the regulation of genes involved in cancer. For instance, lincRNAs related to the regulation of processes involving the development of cancer are HOTAIR, lincRNA-p21, and MALAT-1 [91-95]. Chromatin target changes of polycomb proteins have been observed after HOTAIR overexpression, which is associated with increased invasiveness and propensity to metastasize in epithelial cancer cells. Oppositely, downregulation of HOTAIR decreases invasiveness, suggesting a strong regulation of cell transformation [91]. Another lincRNA called LINP1 has also been found overexpressed in cancerous tissues, specifically in human breast cancer. LINP1 is involved in DNA reparation, serving as a scaffold to link Ku80 and DNA-PKcs in the Nonhomologous End Joining (NHEJ) pathway. Thus, repression of LINP1 increases the sensitivity of the tumor-cell response to radiotherapy in breast cancer, since target cells are unable to repair the damage associated with the radiation [96]. Overexpression of lincRNAs in tumor cells tissues seems to be a constant in the role of these lncRNAs in cancer. Thus, another lincRNA that has been found overexpressed in tumor cells is NEAT1, which helps to the progression of gastric cancers. Similarly to LIMP1, repression of NEAT1 is associated with the suppression of tumorigenic features in gastric cancer cells [97]. Inventions related to lincRNAs proposed treatments based on the downregulation and targeting of known lincRNAs such as HOTAIR and LIVE (Table 2). Thus, the potential use of HOTAIR-inhibiting small RNAs in the preparation of anti-prostate cancer drugs is exploited using a formula of different siRNAs against the sequence of HOTAIR, which is proposed to inhibit cell invasion and migration ability of cancer cells [98]. Regarding LIVE lincRNA, a recent application showed its involvement in the promotion of angiogenesis. This application proposes to arrest tumor growth by inhibition of angiogenesis after silencing of LIVE in the affected area [99].
3.2. T-UCRs
Ultraconserved Regions (UCRs) are genomic sequences with 100% identity between orthologous regions of human, mouse, and rat genomes. These sequences are frequently located at fragile sites and other cancer-associated genomic regions. Transcription of UCRs generates noncoding RNAs known as T-UCRs, which can be expressed either ubiquitously or in a tissue-specific pattern [100-102]. The misregulation of T-UCRs expression and their role in human cancers depend on two different mechanisms of action: they can serve as direct targets of miRNAs, acting as a decoy for those miRNAs [103] (described in the next section: ceRNAs); or by epigenetic hypermethylation of CpG island promoters [104]. When T-UCRs act as a decoy for miRNAs, they share significant antisense complementarity with the target miRNAs, thus miRNAs form stable complexes with T-UCRs and remain functionally blocked. Hypermethylation of UCR CpG islands has been found in a large number of primary human tumors, revealing that these regions might play a general role regulating different types of cancers, such as hepatocellular carcinoma, prostate cancer, neuroblastoma, colorectal cancer and leukemia [105] (revised in [104]). More specifically, a study focused on bladder cancer found that ultraconserved RNA uc.8+ was highly expressed in these tissues. When uc.8+ was downregulated by RNA silencing, cancerous features like cell invasion, migration, and proliferation were reduced. The action mechanism of uc.8+ is to block the function of miR-596, which results in an increased expression of MMP9 and its consequent improved invasiveness in bladder cancer cells [106]. Similarly, a more recent study found that increased transcription of uc.339 is upregulated in non-small cancer lung cells results in the repression of miR-339-3p, -663b-3p, and -95-5p. Consequently, expression of Cyclin E2, a direct target of all these microRNAs is increased, promoting cancer growth and migration [103]. Although T-UCRs are well-known lncRNAs compared to other groups of ncRNAs and despite the numerous links between them and different types of cancer, only a few patents are dedicated to their uses in human cancer. One of these inventions described the uses of thirteen T-UCRs in the diagnosis and treatment of colon cancer [107]. Other general patents include T-UCRs in their claims, though as a part of many other ncRNAs that are used as diagnostic marker of human cancers (Table 2) [75, 108].
3.3. CeRNAs
Competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of lncRNAs that act as decoys or molecular sponges with the ability to sequester the active pool of miRNAs, preventing their action on the canonical target mRNAs. The sequence of ceRNAs contains numerous target sequences that are recognized by miRNAs (called miRNA response elements, MRE) in which miRNAs remains blocked. Structurally distant molecules with different biogenesis origins such as circular RNAs (circRNAs), pseudogene transcripts and other lncRNAs are part of the group ceRNAs, sharing all of them the same function: repression of miRNAs. Since miRNAs possess a fundamental role in the development of several types of cancer, ceRNAs also become an important key element regulating the molecular processes involved in this disease. Several studies have dissected the role of specific ceRNAs the regulation of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. For instance, the ceRNAs CNOT6L, VAPA, and ZEB2 can act as regulators of PTEN, a key tumor suppressor gene that is associated with multiple human cancers, as well as its own non-coding pseudogene PTENP, which at the same time also can function as a ceRNAs [109, 110]. Similarly, there are other pseudogenes acting like ceRNAs, such as BRAFP1 and KRAS1P, corresponding to the oncogene BRAF and the proto-oncogene KRAS, respectively [110, 111]. A prominent example of patented applications related to ceRNAs is a recent patent dedicated to a lncRNA called BARD1 9′L, which is a ceRNA functioning as a decoy for miRNAs targeting the oncogene BARD1. BARD1 9′L is transcribed from within an intron of BARD1 that has its own promoter and possess several MREs in a region similar to the 3′UTR region of BARD1. These MREs are targets for microRNAs miR-203 and miR-101, which can repress the expression of BARD1 and other cancer-associated mRNAs, antagonizing the tumor suppressor effect of these miRNAs. The application proposes BARD1 9′L as a new promising treatment target since it has been found abnormally over-expressed in several human cancers [112].
3.4. Other lncRNAs
LincRNAs, T-UCR, and ceRNAs can be classified in specific groups of lncRNAs using criteria such as the origin of transcription, conservation or function, respectively. However, many other single lncRNAs have been found with no common features to be associated with a specific group. One of these lncRNAs is XIST, a long RNA of 17kb that is involved in the X chromosome inactivation that occurs in mammals. A high expression level of XIST in one the two X chromosomes will determine its silencing by recruitment of the polycomb complex. Conversely, a low expression level of XIST in the other X chromosome-mediated by another lncRNA called TSIX, which is the antisense version of XIST, will assure the activation of this chromosome [113]. Besides X chromosome inactivation, XIST has also been found related to human cancer. Thus, XIST transcript might repress the function of miR-152, helping tumor progression in human glioblastoma [114]. Similarly, overexpression of XIST has been associated with BRCA1-like breast cancer, correlating with a poor outcome [115]. Another well-studied lncRNA is the telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA), an RNA transcribed from the ends of the chromosomes, that is involved in the maintenance of the correct length of the telomeric regions by regulating telomerase activity and heterochromatin formation in these regions. In this process, the length of shortened telomeres is increased by homologous recombination with other telomeres, promoted by TERRA DNA-RNA hybrid formed at chromosome ends [116]. Similarly to XIST, alterations in TERRA expression have also been related to cancerous processes. TERRA misregulation might be behind of genome-wide alteration of gene expression in telomere-elongated cancer cells. For instance, up-regulated TERRA and elongated telomeres suppress genes involved in the innate immune system (STAT1, ISG15, and OAS3), which counteracts and represses cancer malignancy [117]. Since changes in the expression levels of XIST and TERRA have been related to human cancers, both of them appear included in patents describing new biomarkers for the diagnosis of different types of cancer (Table 2) [118, 119]. In addition, recently discovered ncRNAs like SAILOR have been found expressed in aggressive cancer, with an associated application providing methods and compositions for evaluating these new players and their role in the aggressiveness of cancer [120]. Another interesting lncRNA is PANDAR (the promoter of CDKN1A antisense DNA damage-activated RNA), which has been involved in cisplatin resistance in ovarian cancer. Recent studies have found that overexpressed PANDAR correlates with cisplatin resistance, although the exact mechanism for this chemoresistance is still unclear. These studies also found that misregulation of PANDAR might be dependent on p53 and SRFS2 [121].
