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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The rapid development of new technologies in the industry of the future implies a major evolution in the industrial safety measures needed to be met, such as societal requirements. Towards Process Safety 4.0 in the Factory of the Future presents the concept of Safety 4.0 from the point of view of process safety, occupational safety and health, as well as systems' cyber security. Numerous examples illustrate the different approaches of the identified methods and techniques of Safety 4.0. Their concepts, paradigms, structural bases, couplings, complexities and flaws are systematically analyzed. This comprehensive approach to Safety 4.0 is aimed at the wide variety of actors working in the industry of the future.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Notations
1 The Industrial Revolution 4.0
1.1. A history of industrial revolutions
1.2. Defining the factory of the future
1.3. Technology used in Industry 4.0
1.4. Attempts at structuring technologies
1.5. Conclusion
2 The Concept of Safety 4.0
2.1. Context and definition
2.2. The history of the evolution of safety
2.3. Safety framework
3 Occupational Safety and Health
3.1. Impact of Industry 4.0 work conditions
3.2. Definitions
3.3. OSH versus process safety
3.4. OSH assessment of occupational hazards
4 Process Safety and Cybersecurity
4.1. Reviewing risk analysis methods in process safety: example of the bow-tie method
4.2. Risk-evaluation matrix in process safety
4.3. Risk analysis methods for industrial information systems: example of the EBIOS and attack tree method
4.4. Cybersecurity risk-assessment matrix
4.5. Coordinating risk analysis methods
4.6. Reconciling process safety and cybersecurity methods
4.7. Concatenation of matrices
4.8. Reasoned use of risk matrices
5 Examples: Safety 4.0 and Processes
5.1. Distillation column control
5.2. Attempt to classify the applications of a digital twin in the field of Safety 4.0
5.3. Modernization of a pilot installation of an ejector pump
5.4. Model for developing a digital twin to prevent OSH in the process industry
5.5. Custom manufacture of food product by project development
5.6. Impact of the design of a cyberphysical system on an industrial process
5.7. Principle for redesigning a process in a cyberphysical production system
5.8. Systematic integrated approach to improve the processing of contaminated sediments
5.9. Digitalization to benefit safety management
5.10. Detection of deviations in the functioning of a heat exchanger through an artificial neural network
5.11. RFID applied to the prevention of occupational hazards
5.12. How RFID contributes to industrial engineering safety
5.13. Exploring the idea of a socially safe and sustainable workplace for an Operator 4.0
5.14. Industry 4.0 challenges related to safety and the environment in the leather industry
5.15. Safety 4.0: metrics and performance indicators
6 Intensification and Inherent Safety: Myth or Reality?
6.1. A review of essential elements in process intensification
6.2. Some examples of process intensification
6.3. An attempt to rationalize intensification equipment
6.4. Concept and application of a general methodological framework for the synthesis and design of processes that integrate intensification
6.5. Reality or myth? Safety 4.0 in intensification processes
Conclusion
References
Index
Other titles from in Chemical Engineering
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1
Design principles based on the selected technologies (Hermann et a
...
Table 1.2
Advantages and drawbacks of the six chosen technologies in terms
...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
A few differences between OSH and process safety (EPSC 2021)
Table 3.2 Common and distinct features of the roles of OSH professionals and ...
Table 3.3
Inventory of different risk analysis methods and techniques (Adriae
...
Table 3.4
Summary of part of some existing methods and approaches
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Comparison of the characteristics of process safety and cybersecur
...
Table 4.2
Inventory of events on the bow-tie model (Laurent 2011)
Table 4.3
Example of a complete probability–severity matrix (Michel 2010)
...
Table 4.4
Principal methods for cybersecurity risk analysis
Table 4.5
Severity levels of the classes of a system (Flaus 2019)
Table 4.6
The ANSSI likelihood scale
Table 4.7
Simple likelihood scale (after Flaus (2019))
Table 4.8
Cybersecurity risk matrix. The color code for each cell qualitativ
...
Table 4.9
Partial example of the use of keywords and deviations in the CHAZ
...
Table 4.10
a) Process safety risk matrix; b) cybersecurity risk matrix: gree
...
Table 4.11
Extended concatenated process safety risk matrix. The color code
...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Qualitative analysis of improvements resulting from the reconfigur
...
Table 5.2
Digital solutions that could improve specific steps of the projec
...
Table 5.3
Digital solutions chosen on priority to initiate the system desig
...
Table 5.4
Summary of the specifications required for the cyberphysical prod
...
Table 5.5
Methods used in the CPPS retrofitting platform (Lins and Oliveira
...
Table 5.6
Pre-specified data for normal operation of a heat exchanger (Himme
...
Table 5.7
Example of the neural network classification, for fouling in the
...
Table 5.8
Contribution of the RFID method compared to the traditional metho
...
Table 5.9
The main challenges hindering the application of digital technolo
...
Table 5.10
Ranking of challenges based on difficulty of application, as per
...
Table 5.11
Final result of the optimal average weights of the multi-criteri
...
Table 5.12.
Functions of safety performance indicators (Rogers et al. 2009)
Table 5.13
Key areas for the development of leading indicators of process s
...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Estimation of the operating time based on the type of reactor (Lom
...
Table 6.2
Inventory of simple and complex limitations (Commenge and Falk 201
...
Table 6.3
Inventory of intensification strategies (Commenge and Falk 2014)
Table 6.4
Simplified diagram of the similarities on the molecular and process
...
Table 6.5
Comparison of the three units for the synthesis of isopropyl acetat
...
Table 6.6
Summary of the characteristics, conditions and parameters of an inh
...
Table 6.7
List of guide or key words of the HAZOP-LIKE method for micro-equip
...
Table 6.8
Some inherent safety advantages and drawbacks of alternative proces
...
Table 6.9
Comparison of the dynamic behavior of the C2 column as a function o
...
Table 6.10
The respective operating parameters for a plant with a single reac
...
Table 6.11
Probabilities of top events in each VOC treatment unit (Baldissone
...
Table 6.12
Data-driven methods in process safety analysis (Wen et al. 2022)
Table 6.13
Commonly noticed myths and misconceptions (Wen et al. 2022)
1
Table C.1.
The relevance of digital technologies in 2025 for industrial engine
...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
The chronology of industrial revolutions
Figure 1.2
Pertinence of digital applications and their development (Keller
...
Figure 1.3
The architecture of the structure of solutions, dimensions and ca
...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Historical overview of the evolution of safety
Figure 2.2
Framework for the convergence of the factory of the future and sa
...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
Generic representation of accident scenarios based on the bow-tie
...
Figure 4.2
Organigram of the steps in the EBIOS method (EBIOS 2018)
Figure 4.3
(a) The Swiss Cheese model of an operational scenario; (b) exampl
...
Figure 4.4
Comparison and interactions between organigrams for risk analysis
...
Figure 4.5
Example of a bow-tie graph illustrating a scenario where a histor
...
Figure 4.6
Schema showing the principle of a cyber bow-tie graph coupling cy
...
Figure 4.7
Model showing the interdependence of aspects of safety and cybers
...
Figure 4.8
Organigram for the simultaneous ATBT procedure for cybersecurity
...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1
The 3D representation of a framework to assess the capabilities o
...
Figure 5.2
PID diagram of the initial configuration of the vacuum ejector pu
...
Figure 5.3
PID drawing of the reconditioned configuration
Figure 5.4
Reference model for a digital twin used as a prevention support b
...
Figure 5.5
Generic scheme of the principle underlying a plan to develop a pr
...
Figure 5.6
Overview of the impact of the implementation of the cyberphysical
...
Figure 5.7
Comparison of the different technologies in three industrial syst
...
Figure 5.8
Core of the risk management model (Jones 2019)
Figure 5.9
Cluster representation of barriers (Jones and Menon 2021)
Figure 5.10
Architecture of the neural network used to train for the detecti
...
Figure 5.11
Relationships between performance indicators, metrics and data (
...
Figure 5.12
Relationships between performance indicators, metrics and data (
...
Figure 5.13
Relationships between performance indicators, metrics and data (
...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Classification of tools and intensification (Devries 2007)
Figure 6.2
Illustration of the position of process intensification within a
...
Figure 6.3
Functioning in a batch reactor (Englund 1990)
Figure 6.4
Functioning of a semi-batch reactor (Englund 1990)
Figure 6.5
Scheme of the principle for the internal structure of the OPR pla
...
Figure 6.6
Scheme depicting the principle for the pilot reactor for the demo
...
Figure 6.7
Photograph of the rack containing the compact micro-unit (Matlosz
...
Figure 6.8
Scheme showing the principle behind the intensified process for m
...
Figure 6.9
(a) Arrangement of a microstructured reactor with catalytic walls
...
Figure 6.10
Sketch of the configurations of a falling film microreactor (a)
...
Figure 6.11
Schematic structure for the methodological selection method
Figure 6.12
Schema showing the principle of the semi-batch reactor (a) and t
...
Figure 6.13
Schemes showing the principle of the fixed-bed reactor (a) and t
...
1
Figure C.1.
Relationship between the annual incomes of different professional
...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Preface
List of Notations
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Conclusion
References
Index
Other titles from in Chemical Engineering
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Series EditorJean-Claude Charpentier
Towards Process Safety 4.0 in the Factory of the Future
André Laurent
First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George's RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.iste.co.uk
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2023The rights of André Laurent to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022952100
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-847-4
Foreword
Experts in the field of safety in process industries have seen their discipline evolve since the mid-2000s. The arrival of Industry 4.0, with its entirely digital control systems, communicating over the Internet, has made it possible to remotely integrate and control production units. This has resulted in significant efficiency and reduced costs; however, it has also opened up inroads for malevolent actors operating anywhere in the world. There is no longer any way of looking at process safety without looking at cybersecurity. Of course, traditional OSH (occupational safety and health) must be also be included in these steps. Thus, industry 4.0 needs a global approach to safety: “Safety 4.0”.
This book, intended for an international audience, attempts to demonstrate the importance of this integration and to define the elements that compose it. It offers examples taken from different points in the highly diversified process industries. These invite the reader to learn general lessons applicable to many other activities. The main point the reader must retain from these examples is the need to involve safety experts from the very beginning of the design of new systems, or to update existing systems. It is not enough to invite them to validate, or worse, add in a “safety” layer to systems designed with no contribution from a safety expert.
Further, and this is also something clearly defined in this book, we will not stop with looking at Industry 4.0 as it exists today in 2022. It is already possible to see examples of the intensification of the process industries and we will undoubtedly discover others, whether this is miniaturization, discontinuous processes being replaced by continuous processes, multi-functionality, or other disruptive approaches and technology. This may pose a considerable challenge to safety – one of the IMPULSE project reports cited in this book declares that “the range of optimal reaction conditions is almost congruent with the danger of a non-controlled reaction”. There is no doubt that some of these developments will contribute directly to safety – the keywords are “intrinsically safe” and “personal safety" – but this book will also show some of the difficulties associated with these keywords.
A final consideration, even with the analytical tools described in this book, is there is a fundamental component of risk management that requires human imagination and the widest possible experience: the identification of dangers. The experience of the European Commission's Major Accident Hazard Bureau shows us that many accidents in process industries involved a hazard that was not considered during the initial risk analysis.
There is, therefore, quite some work to be done!
Neil MITCHISON
Former Head of the Major Accident Hazard Bureau, European Commission Former President, Scientific Council, INERIS
Preface
The concept of an industry of the future is based on a combination of digital technologies, whose point of intersection is that they make it possible to integrate digital techniques within the functioning of a production unit. This digital integration is an important factor in the development of a new process and for adapting or reconfiguring an existing process as needed. These Industry 4.0 technologies include, among others, equipment and equipment design, as well as systems for acquiring and processing data from the process. The use of these technologies is not risk free. An assessment must be carried out, examining the emergence of new risks and an increase or shift in existing risks. In traditional industrial installations, there are several protection measures in place, especially modern advanced process control (APC) systems, decompression systems and automatic trigger systems, which prevent risks. However, there continue to be incidents related to the safety of processes. They tend to be more frequent during the start-up phases, as most APC systems are deactivated and factory processes are carried out in manual mode. Alarms are probably deactivated or ignored, as these warnings have been designed to watch for variations in the process in a continuous regime. Sometimes, in order to achieve production, units may function at the limit of the zone of operational functioning, at the threshold for the alarm, before triggering it, which generates further halts and creates more “restarts". A lot of information and data about the process is collected. However, most of them are held in different data silos and are poorly analyzed or integrated in a way that would allow an efficient surveillance of the risks related to process safety. With the rise in new digital technology in the Industry of the Future, these data silos can now be combined and analyzed. This data integration may show, for example, which parts of the factory are vulnerable and subject to more problems or subject to a greater risk. The data may also indicate the set of optimal parameters to avoid any problems, and may help in predicting the next malfunction. Creating virtual environments can also allow operators to acquire practical experience through simulation to identify the right settings for temperature, pressure, flow rate, the position of the valves, etc. These virtual reality methods help operators in making decisions in a variety of scenarios to reduce errors, confusion and risks.
The aim of this book consists of identifying and listing the various attributes and elements that are essential for industrial safety to contribute to raising awareness among the various stakeholders, emphasizing the implication of Safety 4.0 in processes in Industry 4.0.
Chapter 1, “The Industrial Revolution 4.0", begins with a chronological summary of the different industrial revolutions. The definition of the factory of the future is provided. The digital technologies leading to rupture or innovation, related to communication, and the interconnection and management of data from Industry 4.0 are then presented. Finally, the potential impact on the safety of the structure of digital technologies is discussed.
Chapter 2, “The Concept of Safety 4.0”, defines the concept of Safety 4.0, examines the history of the evolution of industrial safety and offers a framework for the convergence of the factory of the future and new safety management.
Chapter 3, “Occupational Safety and Health", first identifies the impact of digital technologies on the working conditions of stakeholders. There is then a detailed review of the common and distinct characteristics of health and safety at work, and process safety. This is followed by a list of the different traditional industrial risk analysis methods and techniques. The concepts, paradigms, structural bases and the ways in which they are coupled and the associated complexities are explained in detail. The chapter then comments on the applicability of the methods related to both types of safety (occupational safety and health, and the safety of processes).
Chapter 4, “Process Safety and Cybersecurity”, begins by comparing the points of view of cybersecurity and safety processes, respectively. The EBIOS and attack tree risk analysis methods are described. A coordinated approach to reconcile the risk analysis methods for process safety and cybersecurity shows the richness of the synergy and interactions of these methods. Many analogies, like the preliminary hazard analysis and Cyber PHA, the HAZOP and Cyber HAZOP methods, the bow-tie graphs and cyber bow-tie charts, the LOPA and Cyber LOPA methods and the integrated ATBT method, are all highlighted. Finally, it is recommended that it is prudent to use risk matrices and concatenated matrices.
Chapter 5, “Examples: Safety 4.0 and Processes”, brings together various examples in a novel way, illustrating the place and influence of Safety 4.0 in the design, implementation, use and reconfiguration and re-designing the processes of the future. The diversity of the 16 examples chosen practically demonstrate the specificity of each approach and the plurality of the digital technologies implemented.
Chapter 6, “Intensification and Inherent Safety: Myth or Reality?”, first reviews some essential elements of the intensification of processes. It then describes nine examples of the intensification of processes, systematically highlighting Safety 4.0 aspects. There is an attempt to rationalize and create a general framework for the synthesis and design of intensified equipment, integrating complex indicators and limitations of safety. The myth and/or reality, a priori, of Safety 4.0 are methodically examined using tools and methods dedicated to intrinsic safety. Applying these to six examples, provided in detail, reveals the conflicts within Safety 4.0 with respect to processes, especially when studying the dynamic behavior of intensification processes.
The demands of the challenges related to products and processes in Industry 4.0 simultaneously involve good practices around risk prevention, occupational safety and health, process safety and cybersecurity, as well as social acceptance and environmental responsibility. The contents of this book are meant to promote a reciprocal dialogue between digital technology professionals and actors within the field of industrial safety. The diversity in the many examples provided here should make it possible to look at analogical problems and questions around Safety 4.0 with respect to new processes emerging from the industry of the future. All stakeholders must take charge of the concept of Safety 4.0 and its implementation.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my wholehearted gratitude and friendship to Jean-Pierre Corriou, Professor Emeritus at the University of Lorraine, who shared all the scientific and material uncertainties throughout the progression of this book with exceptional availability. His pragmatic and semantic contributions, in response to my endless requests and questions, were very stimulating.
I am very honored that Neil Mitchison acceded to my request to kindly write the preface to this book, for which I thank him very warmly. I was lucky enough to have shared and appreciated his internationally renowned skill and knowledge in the field of safety, within INERIS, in his various professional roles within the European Community in Brussels (Belgium), Edinburgh (Scotland), as well as in the Ispra Joint Research Center (Italy).
I would also like to express my deep gratitude to Roda Bounaceur, Bruno Delfolie, Gérard Verdier and Valérie Warth, engineers working in the Network, Administration, Computer and Development department of LRGP, whose professionalism in setting up robust hardware and software environments helped me to work remotely.
I would also like to include Laure Thomas-Geoffroy for her resilient assistance in scientific documentation.
I would like to acknowledge the faithful support of my colleagues Laurent Perrin and Olivier Dufaud, Professors of the Process Safety at the University of Lorraine, who welcomed me to the SAFE group.
I could not have completed this work without the constant support of my family.
February 2023
List of Notations
AI
Artificial intelligence
AIoT
Artificial Intelligence of Things
ALARA
As low as reasonably achievable
ALARP
As low as reasonably practicable
ANSSI
Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes d'information –
National Agency for the Cybersecurity of Information Systems
APC
Advanced process control
AT
Attack tree
ATA
Attack tree analysis
ATBT
Attack tree bow-tie
BBN
Bayesian belief network
BDMPs
Boolean-logic driven Markov processes
BO
Bulletin officiel
– Official bulletin
BPCS
Basic process control system
BWM
Best worst method
CCE
Center critical event (top event)
CCPS
Center for Chemical Process Safety
CHAZOP
Computer HAZards and OPerability analysis
CPS
Cyberphysical system
CPPS
Cyberphysical production system
CSTR
Continuous stirred tank reactor
CYPSec
CYber Physical Security
DREAL
Direction Régionale de l'Environnement, de l'Aménagement et du Logement
– French Regional Management of the Environment, Development and Housing
DRT
Direction des relations du travail
– French Regional Management of Labor
EAST
Easy attractive social timely (cognition)
EBIOS
Expression des besoins et identification des objectifs de sécurité
– Expression of needs and identification of security objectives
EDD
Étude de dangers
– Study of the hazards
EFCE
European Federation of Chemical Engineering
EPSC
European Process Safety Centre
ERP
Enterprise resource planning
ETA
Event tree analysis
EV
Source of threats
FMEA
Failure mode and effect analysis
FMECA
Failure modes, effects and criticality analysis
FRAM
Functional resonance analysis method
FTA
Fault tree analysis
GTST-MLD
Goal tree-success tree and master logic diagram
HAZAN
HAZard ANalysis
HAZOP
HAZard and OPerability analysis
HF
Human factor
HOF
Human and organizational factors
HSE
Health, safety and environment
HW
Hardware
ICCA
International Council of Chemical Association
ICEP
Installation Classified for Environmental Protection
IChemE
UK Institution of Chemical Engineers
IDS
Intrusion detection system
IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission
IIoT
Industrial Internet of Things
ILO-OSH
International Labour Standards On Safety and Health
IMPULSE
Integrated Multiscale Process Unit with Locally Structured Equipments
INERIS
Institut national de l'environnement industriel et des risques
– French National Institute for the Industrial Environment and Risks
INRS
Institut National de Recherche et de Sécurité
– French National Institute of Research and Security
INSET
INherent SHE Evaluation Tool
INSIDE
INherent SHE In DEsign
IOHI
Inherent occupational health index
IoS
Internet of Systems
IoT
Internet of Things
IOW
Integrity operating window
IPL
Independent protection layer
IS
Information system
ISA
International Society of Automation
ISC
ICheme Safety Center (UK)
ISD
Inherently safer design
ISHE
Indicators for safety, health and environment
IT
Information technology
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
L
Likelihood
LOPA
Layer of protection analysis
LOTL
Living Off The Land (cybersecurity)
MASE
Manuel d'amélioration de la sécurité des entreprises
– Manual to Improve Safety in Companies
MES
Manufacturing execution system
MoC
Management of change
MS
Management system
NFR
Non-functional requirements
NIST
National Institute of Standards and Technology
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OHSAS
Occupational health and safety assessment series
OPR
Open Plate Reactor
OSH
Occupational safety and health
OSHA
Occupational safety and health administration
OT
Operational technology
OVI
Operator of vital importance
OV
Targeted objective
P
Probability
PAH
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCRDT
Programme cadre de recherche et développement technologique
– Framework programmes for research and technological development
PEEK
PolyEther Ether Ketone
PHA
Preliminary hazard analysis
PID
Piping and instrumentation diagram
PPE
Personal protection equipment
PRA
Preliminary risk analysis
PPRT
Plan particulier des risques technologiques
– Specific plans for technological risks
RAMI 4.0
Reference Architectural Model Industry 4.0
RCPA
Réacteur continu parfaitement agité
– Perfectly stirred continuous reactor
REX
Return of Experience (feedback)
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification
RMM
Risk management measures
RRF
Risk reduction target factor
SCADA
Supervisory control and data acquisition
SIL
Safety integrity level
SIS
Safety instrumented system
SL
Security level
SME
Small and medium enterprise
SMS
Safety management system
SR
Source of risk
SSM & IFD
Six-step model and information flow diagram
STAMP
Systems-theoritic accident modeling and process
STPA
Systems-theoritic process analysis
SW
Software
UD
Unique document
V
Vulnerability
VOC
Volatile organic compounds
WHSV
Weight hourly space velocity
1The Industrial Revolution 4.0
Process industries that transform matter into energy, implementing chemical or physical processes, manufacture essential and innovative products that can improve well-being and the quality of everyday life in society.
Despite their indisputable contribution to the advances in standard of living, from the very beginning, all these activities have included intrinsic hazards and potential risks that must be managed. However, the implementation of these risk management measures is a difficult and demanding task. Our vision of this risk must not only be understood and viewed from an industrial or technological point of view, but must also include the choices made by people, citizens and society as a whole.
However, the problem must first be situated within the current industrial context.
1.1. A history of industrial revolutions
The various industrial revolutions have always been preceded by scientific, technological and organizational advances and innovations (André 2019). We present a brief overview of these earlier revolutions before introducing Industry 4.0.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the chronology of these different revolutions. It must be pointed out that the exact dates of the transitions related to each can fluctuate a little across literature.
Figure 1.1.The chronology of industrial revolutions
The first Industrial Revolution, or Industry 1.0, which begins here around 1750, was based on coal mining, metallurgy, the emergence of the weaving industry and the steam engine.
The second Industrial Revolution, or Industry 2.0, which began around 1840, was founded on electricity, oil wells and the birth of the mechanical and chemical industries. The earliest means of communication appeared around this time, with the first operational telegraph line (1833) and the telephone (1876). The railways became a means of public transport. In 1911, F.W. Taylor pioneered the scientific management of organizations. Henry Ford launched the assembly line manufacturing of an automobile.
The third Industrial Revolution, or Industry 3.0, began around 1960, with the emergence of electronics (transistors and integrated circuits), computer science, telecommunications, audiovisual and the nuclear industry. Industrial production was especially impacted by automation and robotics.
The latest and current Industrial Revolution, Industry 4.0, began in 2010. A new cyberphysics system brought together software, sensors and means of communication to manage complexity, anticipate malfunctioning and steer performance in real time. For the first time, resources, information, machines, tools and workers were connected in a network to create an industrial Internet of Things (IoT).
Breque et al. (2021) have already initiated a new transition toward Industry 5.0. According to the authors, Industry 5.0 will recognize industry’s capacity to achieve According to the authors, Industry 5.0 will recognize industry’s capacity to achieve of prosperity. Production will respect the needs of the planet by placing the well being of stakeholders, including workers, at the heart of production and manufacturing processes.
In France, the new Pacte Law (2019) aims to establish Corporate Environmental and Social Responsibility by creating the status of “Entreprise à mission”, a legal framework whereby companies set environmental and social goals that they must achieve. The benefit of this framework is that it allows companies to frame their statutes around a mission made up of a set of freely chosen objectives that work for the greater good. For example, the company Danone, the only one of France's CAC 40 companies to have chosen this status, committed to several goals, including the promotion of best food practices, supporting a better and more sustainable mode of regenerative agriculture, giving each salaried employee the chance to weigh in on company decisions, as well as providing support to the most vulnerable actors in the company's ecosystem. The recent leadership crisis (2021) at the head of this food group will probably allow us to judge the robustness of this sociolegal innovation.
1.2. Defining the factory of the future
The technological advances in the fourth Industrial Revolution resulted in a new generation of factories, which have been given various labels: the factories of the future, smart factories, digital factories, cyberfactories, integrated factories, innovative factories, Factory 4.0, and even Industry 4.0. The concept of “Industry 4.0” was born out of a strategic initiative announced by the German government at the Hanover Trade Fair in 2011(Kagermann et al. 2013).
Following a bibliographic analysis, Hermann et al. (2016) considered that factory 4.0 is a collective term denoting the technologies as well as the concept of the organization of the value chain. In the smart factories with a modular structure, in Industry 4.0, cybersystems monitor physical processes, creating a virtual copy of the physical world and taking decentralized decisions.
By using the IoT, cybersystems communicate and cooperate with each other and with humans in real time. Internal and inter-organizational systems have been offered via the Internet of Systems, and these systems are used by members of the value chain.
1.3. Technology used in Industry 4.0
To clarify the semantics of the terminology relating to technologies in Industry 4.0, Julien and Martin (2018) have suggested categorizing digital technologies into three categories:
disruptive technologies;
technologies for communication and interconnection;
data management technologies.
1.3.1. Disruptive technology
A disruptive technology or innovation is an innovation (often technological) related to a product or a service that ultimately replaces an existing technology that had dominated the market thus far. It gives rise to a new category of products or services that had not previously existed.
1.3.1.1. Additive manufacturing: 3D and 4D
The NF-E-67-001 standard defines 3D additive manufacturing or 3D printing as the set of manufacturing processes that enable joining materials to create physical objects from 3D model data, layer by layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies.
4D additive manufacturing, or 4D printing, consists of adding a new dimension to 3D printing or 3D manufacturing. The fourth dimension aims to bring in scalable functionalities that evolve over time based on the input of external energy from various sources. This fourth dimension is most often obtained by using smart materials, which most often correspond to active, transformable or programmable hardware. This involves adding information to the material, or endowing it with specific properties so that it can respond to stimuli that are electrical, magnetic, chemical, thermal, vibratory, etc., and can transform itself and cause the product to change (properties, shape, color, conductivity, etc.).
1.3.1.2. Robotics
Robotics is made up of the scientific and industrial fields that are related to design, study and creation of robots and their applications. In the industrial domain, robotics results in automatons that carry out precise functions in assembly chains. Robotics also produces devices that can move around in different hazardous environments: polluted, radioactive, aerial, submarine, in outer space, etc. Apart from industries, robotics is also used for scientific research, space exploration, military defense, and maintaining law and order. It is also used in the medical sector for prostheses and assisting healthcare workers. Robotics is also now available to the general public through autonomous devices that carry out specific tasks (vacuum cleaners, lawn mowers) or through entertainment devices (robotic toys).
1.3.1.2.1. Cobot
“Cobot” is a neologism formed from the words “cooperation” and “robotics”. The cobot is a small and light robot that works directly with the operators, helping them by carrying out the most thankless and cumbersome tasks. The main distinguishing feature of the cobot is that it interacts with a human, hence the name “collaborative robot”. This technology, which is already all the rage within Factory 4.0, allows the operator to gain in productivity and presents absolutely no danger in the workplace. It is especially likely to open up avenues for robotic applications within small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
Blaise et al. (1993) published an interesting guide to better understand what consequences the use of a cobot has on the health and safety of its operators.
In the sixth chapter of their book, Julien and Martin (2018) offer a highly pedagogic introduction to the methodology for using a cobot, illustrated with an example of an end-of-line packaging workstation that has been automated.
1.3.1.2.2. Exoskeletons
Exoskeletons and other physical assistance devices, first developed for the medical sector, are used more and more frequently within companies. They were introduced as systems that made it possible to complement efforts to assist operators. Exoskeletons are defined as external structures worn by the operator, designed to provide physical assistance in carrying out a task. They may be powered (active exoskeletons) or non-powered (passive exoskeletons). These devices make it possible to enhance mobility and, sometimes, even improve physical capabilities. From the point of view of prevention of occupational diseases, it is hoped that these systems will compensate for the efforts put in by operators and thus limit the development of musculo-skeletal problems.
1.3.2. Technologies used for communication and interconnection
1.3.2.1. Web and mobile applications
Devices and solutions in this category include mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, laptops, drones and mobile applications. The use of 5G technology in mobile networks is expected to facilitate and accelerate digitization and the transformation toward Industry 4.0. However, 5G, which is accessible to the general public, has proven to be the continuation of a movement that had already been initiated. The general public is likely to see this new standard as an evolution from 4G, rather than as a revolution. For companies, on the other hand, 5G is a revolution as its more global approach to information system analysis and the solutions that it can offer in the long term bring in potentially significant changes. On the other hand, the fundamental question of long-term cybersecurity of systems is an urgent one, both in terms of development as well as implementation.
1.3.2.2. The Internet of Things
The IoT brings together objects and equipment connected to the Internet as well as the technologies used in the network and software related to these devices. The International Telecommunications Union defines the IoT as a “global infrastructure for the information society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies”.
1.3.2.3. Industrial Internet of Things
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is the use of sensors and smart devices to improve manufacturing processes and industrial processes. It is also known as the Industrial Internet or Industry 4.0. The IIoT uses the power of smart machines and real-time analysis to make use of data produced by machines in industrial environments over years.
Although the Internet of Objects and the Industrial Internet of Objects have many technologies in common, especially cloud platforms, sensors, connectivity, machine-to-machine communication and data analysis, they are used for different purposes. IoT applications connect devices in various sectors, especially smart agriculture, healthcare, companies, consumers and public services, as well as city administration. IoT devices include smart accessories, like widely available fitness bands and other applications. On the other hand, IIoT application connect machines and devices in sectors such as oil and gas, public services and the manufacturing industry. System failure or down time in IIoT deployments could lead to high-risk situations or even life-threatening situations. IIoT applications are more concerned with improving efficiency and with health or safety than the user-centered IoT applications.
