Transboundary Water Resources Management E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 650

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Based on an international symposium addressing a key issue in global development, this reference includes both the latest methodologies for and practical examples of effective management of transboundary water resources. Its multidisciplinary approach combines hydrology and environmental science with economic and political approaches, in line with new UNESCO and EU recommendations, which have been formulated and implemented with the active involvement of all three editors.
By providing a theoretical framework as well as abundant case studies from southern Europe, Africa, Asia and South America, this handbook provides hydrologists, geologists, engineers and decision-makers with all the knowledge they need for their daily work.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Related Titles

Title Page

Copyright

Foreword

Preface

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction and Structure of the Book

1.1 Part I – A Global View

1.2 Part II – Physical, Environmental and Technical Approaches

1.3 Part III – Legal, Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches

1.4 Part IV – Bridging the Gaps

Part One: A Global View

Chapter 2: Transboundary Water Resources Management: Needs for a Coordinated Multidisciplinary Approach

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Assessment and Management of Transboundary Waters

2.3 The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Process

2.4 Capacity Building and Human Potential: The Role of Education

2.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 3: Global Challenges and the European Paradigm

3.1 Towards Integrated Management of Transboundary River Basins over the World

Further Reading

3.2 Antarctic Subglacial Lakes and Waters: The Challenge to Protect a Hidden Resource

References

Further Reading

3.3 Progressive Development of International Groundwater Law: Awareness and Cooperation

References

3.4 The Role of Key International Water Treaties in the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity

References

Further Reading

3.5 The European Union Water Framework Directive, a Driving Force for Shared Water Resources Management

References

Further Reading

3.6 Transfer of Integrated Water Resources Management Principles to Non-European Union Transboundary River Basins

References

3.7 Implementation of the Water Framework Directive Concepts at the Frontiers of Europe for Transboundary Water Resources Management

References

Further Reading

3.8 Implementation of the European Union Water Framework Directive in Non-EU Countries: Serbia in the Danube River Basin

References

3.9 Basic Problems and Prerequisites Regarding Transboundary Integrated Water Resources Management in South East Europe: The Case of the River Evros/Maritza/Meriç

References

Part Two: Physical, Environmental and Technical Approaches

Chapter 4: Transboundary Aquifers

4.1 Towards a Methodology for the Assessment of Internationally Shared Aquifers

References

Further Reading

4.2 Challenges in Transboundary Karst Water Resources Management – Sharing Data and Information

References

4.3 The Importance of Modelling as a Tool for Assessing Transboundary Groundwaters

References

4.4 Hydrogeological Characterization of the Yrenda–Toba–Tarijeño Transboundary Aquifer System, South America

References

4.5 The State of Understanding on Groundwater Recharge for the Sustainable Management of Transboundary Aquifers in the Lake Chad Basin

References

4.6 Development, Management and Impact of Climate Change on Transboundary Aquifers of Indus Basin

References

4.7 Natural Background Levels for Groundwater in the Upper Rhine Valley

References

Further Reading

4.8 Hydrogeological Study of Somes-Szamos Transboundary Alluvial Aquifer

References

4.9 Towards Sustainable Management of Transboundary Hungarian–Serbian Aquifer

References

4.10 Transboundary Groundwater Resources Extending over Slovenian Territory

References

Chapter 5: Transboundary Lakes and Rivers

5.1 Do We Have Comparable Hydrological Data for Transboundary Cooperation?

References

5.2 Limnological and Palaeolimnological Research on Lake Maggiore as a Contribution to Transboundary Cooperation Between Italy and Switzerland

References

5.3 Monitoring in Shared Waters: Developing a Transboundary Monitoring System for the Prespa Park

References

5.4 Integrated Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Techniques for Improving Transboundary Water Management: The Case of Prespa Region

References

5.5 Transboundary Integrated Water Management of the Kobilje Stream Watershed

References

5.6 Climate Change Impacts on Dams Projects in Transboundary River Basins. The Case of the Mesta/Nestos River Basin, Greece

References

Further Reading

5.7 Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Vjosa Basin

References

5.8 Identification and Typology of River Water Bodies in the Hellenic Part of the Strymonas River Basin, as a Transboundary Case Study

References

Further Reading

5.9 Calculation of Sediment Reduction at the Outlet of the Mesta/Nestos River Basin caused by the Dams

References

5.10 Methodologies of Estimation of Periodicities of River Flow and its Long-Range Forecast: The Case of the Transboundary Danube River

References

Part Three: Legal, Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches

Chapter 6: Legal Approaches

6.1 The Law of Transboundary Aquifers: Scope and Rippling Effects

References

Further Reading

6.2 Water Management Policies to Reduce over Allocation of Water Rights in the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin

References

Further Reading

6.3 Interstate Collaboration in the Aral Sea Basin – Successes and Problems

6.4 Kidron Valley/Wadi Nar International Master Plan

Acknowledgements

Further Reading

6.5 The Development of Transboundary Cooperation in the Prespa Lakes Basin

References

6.6 International Relations and Environmental Security: Conflict or Cooperation? Contrasting the Cases of the Maritza-Evros-Meriç and Mekong Transboundary Rivers

References

Further Reading

6.7 Delineation of Water Resources Regions to Promote Integrated Water Resources Management and Facilitate Transboundary Water Conflicts Resolution

References

6.8 Transboundary Water Resources and Determination of Hydrologic Prefectures in Greece

References

Chapter 7: Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches

7.1 Social–Ecological Resilience of Transboundary Watershed Management: Institutional Design and Social Learning

References

Further Reading

7.2 How Stakeholder Participation and Partnerships Could Reduce Water Insecurities in Shared River Basins

References

Further Reading

7.3 Transboundary Stakeholder Analysis to Develop the Navigational Sector of the Parana River

References

7.5 Cooperation in the Navigable Course of the Sava River

References

7.5 Transboundary Cooperation through the Management of Shared Natural Resources: The Case of the Shkoder/Skadar Lake

References

7.6 How Far is the Current Status of the Transboundary Shkodra Lake from Requirements for Integrated River Basin Management?

References

Further Reading

7.7 Economic Governance and Common Pool Management of Transboundary Water Resources

References

Further Reading

7.8 Water Resources Management in the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin Using Cooperative Game Theory

References

7.9 Conflict Resolution in Transboundary Waters: Incorporating Water Quality in Negotiations

References

7.10 The Johnston Plan in a Negotiated Solution for the Jordan Basin

References

Further Reading

Part Four: Bridging the Gaps

Chapter 8: Capacity Building and Sharing the Risks/Benefits for Conflict Resolution

8.1 Capacity Building and Training for Transboundary Groundwater Management: The Contribution of UNESCO

8.2 A Risk-Based Integrated Framework for Conflict Resolution in Transboundary Water Resources Management

References

Chapter 9: The Thessaloniki Statement

At the IV International Symposium on Transboundary Waters Management held in Thessaloniki, Greece, from 15 to 18 October 2008

We the Participants from 42 Countries and International and Regional Organizations, Having

Are of the View that in Order to Face the Above Challenges and Maximize the Advantages from Cooperation Amongst Countries

Index

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Foreword: Transboundary Water Management A Multidisciplinary Approach

For centuries, political and strategic considerations have been the major drivers behind the delineation of boundaries across the globe. Mountains, rivers, lakes and entire ecosystems (not to mention human settlements) have been assigned to the jurisdiction of different states, provinces and other administrative entities with little regard to their environmental cycles or effective management. Yet natural resources, and freshwater in particular, know no man-made boundaries, and indeed require internationally coordinated actions to be sustainably and effectively managed. It is only in recent years that transboundary waters, both surface and groundwater, have taken centre stage in international dialogue, as issues of water and food security force policy makers to take a more holistic view. Climate and global change are rapidly placing added pressures on the world's water reserves and the time has come to strengthen cooperation and build peace amongst states.

UNESCO's mission to ‘contribute to the building of peace, eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and information’ is achieved fully through its international water initiatives coordinated by the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP). UNESCO-IHP, established in 1975, is the only global scientific intergovernmental programme of the UN system devoted entirely to water resources, emphasizing the formulation of policy-relevant strategies for their sustainable management. Through its ISARM (Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources Management) and PCCP (From Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential) programmes, UNESCO provides Member States with high level expertise and knowledge and assists them in the elaboration of policies for the sustainable management of transboundary waters.

Transboundary Water Management, edited by J. Ganoulis, A. Aureli and J. Fried, is the result of several years' of research in the field of international water resources. The UNESCO Chair that coordinates the International Network of Water-Environment Centres for the Balkans played an important role in organizing both the compilation of existing knowledge and the elaboration of sound policy recommendations. It is with great pleasure, therefore, that I welcome the publication of this title and commend it to Member States. A multidisciplinary approach to the management of shared natural resources is indeed paramount to finding solutions to multi-faceted challenges and I trust that future water managers, policy-makers and academics will find pleasure in reading this publication as well as benefit from its findings.

Gretchen Kalonji UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Natural Sciences

Preface

This book uses the term ‘transboundary waters’, as in Transboundary Waters Resources Management (TWRM), to mean waters crossing the borders of different riparian countries, which therefore are by definition countries sharing common surface and/or groundwater resources. The term is synonymous with ‘internationally shared waters’ and is in accordance with the terminology used by UNESCO in its international hydrological initiatives, such as the UNESCO/ISARM (Internationally Shared-Transboundary-Aquifer Resources Management) and the UNESCO/PC-CP (Potential Conflict-Cooperation Potential) programmes. It is considered to be a better choice than other similar expressions such as ‘international waters’, ‘multinational waters’ or ‘regional waters’, and avoids misunderstandings due to political sensitivities over national sovereignty in regions located near the borders.

‘Boundaries’ may also exist with different connotations between administrative regions or between cultural or ethnic entities located within the same country. In these cases both surface waters (rivers and lakes) and groundwaters (aquifers) may involve different administrations or various communities and their shared management should aim to resolve issues of potential regional or local conflicts in terms of water needs, water quality, environmental preservation or differences in legislation and economic issues. When the boundary is international and waters cross the borders of different riparian countries, then TWRM faces the major challenge of potential political conflicts and even war. The main issue in this case is how to convert these potential conflicts into collaborative actions. Such global TWRM challenges and general tools with which they may be addressed are explained in Part I: A Global View.

The book aims to serve as a practical guide for enhancing models of collaborative activities between riparian countries. In this context ‘collaboration’ means the active involvement of partners and institutions from both sides of the border, which includes exchange of information, interaction and dialogue between partners, in order to reach common decisions and find unified solutions to TWRM problems. In this sense, ‘collaboration’ is considered to be a more advanced stage of ‘cooperation’ or ‘coordination’. The first step in cooperation can be achieved by a simple exchange of information with no further interaction between partners; this may be called ‘passive cooperation’. A more advanced second step is engaging in dialogue and developing a consultation process; this may be called ‘coordinated cooperation’ and is a prerequisite condition for the third step, which is ‘active collaboration’. Only with active and effective collaboration can sustainable governance of transboundary water resources be achieved.

Since there is no single universal model for a collaborative approach to TWRM, this book presents an analysis of various effective models illustrated by case studies from around the world. Even though case studies are particular and not easily transferred to different situations, they are very helpful in showing relationships between different more or less independent variables, such as physical, hydrologic, hydrogeological, ecological, socio-economic conditions, institutional structures, stakeholders participation, legal agreements and political willingness. The main dependent variable that emerges from this process is the need for active collaboration and effective governance in TWRM.

Models of collaborative actions in TWRM depend on the approach used, for example, whether the model is developed by a particular scientific discipline, by a professional community or by different kinds of scientists.

For engineers, hydrologists, hydrogeologists or environmental professionals emphasis is placed on modelling the physical and ecological transboundary hydro-systems in terms of (i) delineating their natural borders (hydrologic basins for transboundary rivers and lakes or hydrogeological boundaries for groundwater aquifers), (ii) analysing relationships between physical and ecological variables such as precipitation, river flow, pollutant inputs, lake water quality, biodiversity or groundwater recharge and (iii) suggesting structural or non-structural measures in order to obtain solutions and improve TWRM. These models, conceptual or mathematical, are more or less accurate subject to data availability and precision and various assumptions and simplifications in modelling. They are useful for understanding how the physical and ecological transboundary systems behave under natural and anthropogenic inputs in terms of water quantity and environmental impacts. These kinds of models for transboundary aquifers, lakes and rivers are presented in Part II: Physical, Environmental and Technical Approaches.

For lawyers and social scientists (geographers, economists, sociologists) emphasis is placed on human factors, which can be very complex and difficult to analyse or predict, such as institutional cooperation, stakeholder participation and negotiation strategies. For lawyers the emphasis is on regulating provisions and duties of riparian countries in terms of access, utilization, protection, preservation and management of transboundary waters. The codification of such legal rules is very useful to the international community, even though this process may be somewhat general and unable to cover all specific cases. The main challenge is whether different national administrations will agree to implement international rules at the national level and at the same time coordinate their activities with riparian countries through bilateral or regional collaborative agreements. This challenge may be faced by raising public and stakeholders' awareness in participatory processes involving national institutions, academic partners and international organizations. All these approaches are presented in Part III: Legal, Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches.

In the real world all the above issues and approaches coexist and are interrelated. To achieve effective TWRM these models, whether descriptive or prescriptive, should merge. In Chapter 8 of Part IV: Bridging the Gaps, two main strategies for achieving such integration are presented: (i) through effective capacity building and training in TWRM and (ii) by analysing a general framework of conflict resolution, based on how riparian countries may share benefits and risks. Both these strategies are supported by UNESCO's ISARM and PC-CP programmes.

The main contents of the book are based on updated papers first presented at the ‘IV International Symposium on Transboundary Water Management’, Thessaloniki, Greece, October 2008. Recommendations of this Conference on how to bridge the gaps are summarized in the ‘Thessaloniki Statement’, which is reported in Chapter 9 of Part IV.

I am very grateful to all authors and contributors to this book for their excellent collaboration during and after the conference. Personally and on behalf of my co-editors, Alice Aureli and Jean Fried, I would like to thank Dr. Frank Weinreich, manager of Wiley-VCH Water & Environmental books programme, for giving us the opportunity to publish this book, and to Lesley Belfit, Project Editor at Wiley-VCH, for her help with the publication process. My appreciation and special thanks go to Katie Quartano at the UNESCO Chair, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, for her professional contribution to the reviewing and proofreading processes.

Thessaloniki, Greece January 2011

Jacques Ganoulis

List of Contributors

Thomas K. Alexandridis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Agriculture Laboratory of Applied Soil Science Thessaloniki Greece

Manolia Andredaki Democritus University of Thrace Department of Civil Engineering Vas. Sofias 12 67100 Xanthi Greece

Francesca Antonelli World Wildlife Fund European Policy Office Via PO, 25/C 00198 Rome Italy

Bo Appelgren UNESCO International Hydrological Programme N. Colesanti 13 01023 Bolsena Italy

and

UNESCO International Hydrological Programme 1 rue Miollis 75732 Paris France

Majed Atwi Saab University of Zaragoza Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Department of Economic Analysis Gran Vía 2 50005 Zaragoza Spain

Marina Babi Mladenovi ‘Jaroslav Cerni’ Institute for the Development of Water Resources Jaroslava Cernog 80 11226 Belgrade Serbia

Alexey V. Babkin State Hydrological Institute Laboratory of Water Resources and Water Balance Second Line, 23 V.O. 199053 St. Petersburg Russia

Evangelos A. Baltas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Agriculture Department of Hydraulics, Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering Laboratory of General and Agricultural Hydraulics and Land Reclamation 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Djana Bejko University ‘Luigj Gurakuqi’ Faculty of Natural Sciences Sheshi ‘2 Prilli’ L. Qemal Stafa, Rr. Vasil Shanto, Nr 21 4001 Shkoder Albania

Georg Berthold Hessian Agency for Environment and Geology (HLUG) Rheingaustraße 186 65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Roberto Bertoni C.N.R. Institute of Ecosystem Study Largo Tonolli 50 28922 Verbania Pallanza Italy

Adriane Blum Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM) 3 avenue Claude-Guillemin 45060 Orléans France

Ognjen Bonacci University of Split Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture Matice hrvatske 15 21000 Split Croatia

Sabine Brels University of Laval Faculty of Law 2325 rue de l'Université Québec Québec City, Québec Canada G1V 0A6

Mitja Brilly University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Serge Brouyere University of Liège HG-GeomaC 4000 Sart Tilman, Liège Belgium

Anne Browning-Aiken University of Arizona Udall Centre for Studies in Public Policy Tucson, AZ USA

Brilanda Bushati University ‘Luigj Gurakuqi’ Faculty of Economic Sciences Sheshi ‘2 Prilli’ L. Qemal Stafa, Rr. Zog i Pare, Nr. 37 4001 Shkoder Albania

Zsuzsanna Buzás Ministry for Environment and Water Futca 44-50 1011 Budapest Hungary

Devinder Kumar Chadha Global Hydrogeological Solutions G-66 (Ground Floor) Vikaspuri New Delhi - 110 018 India

Eleni Charou National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos” Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications 153 10 Aghia Paraskevi Greece

Ioannis Chronis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Agriculture Laboratory of Applied Soil Science Thessaloniki Greece

David Coates Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 413 Saint Jacques Street Montreal, Québec Canada QC H2Y 1N9

Ana Carolina Coelho Colorado State University Department of Civil Engineering Engineering Building - Campus Delivery 1372 Fort Collins, CO 80523-1372 USA

Alain Dassargues University of Liège DepartmentArGEnCo 4000 Sart Tilman, Liège Belgium

Hubert Machard de Gramont BRGM Water Division 3 avenue Claude Guillemin BP 36009-45060 Orléans France

Lilian Del Castillo-Laborde University of Buenos Aires School of Law Av. Figueroa Alcorta 2263 1425 Buenos Aires Argentina

Mónica D’Elia National University of El Litoral Faculty of Engineering and Water Sciences Ciudad Universitaria Ruta Nacional 168-Km 472 S3000 Santa Fe Argentina

Eglantina Demiraj Polytechnic University of Tirana Institute of Energy, Water and Environment Durresi Street 219 Tirana Albania

Milan Dimki ‘Jaroslav Cerni’ Institute for the Development of Water Resources Jaroslava Cernog 80 11226 Belgrade Serbia

Dragan Dolinaj University of Novi Sad Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Climatology and Hydrology Research Centre Trg Dositeja Obradovica 3 21000 Novi Sad Serbia

Jean-François Donzier International Network of Basin Organizations c/o International Office for Water 21 rue de Madrid 75008 Paris France

Radu Drobot Technical University of Civil Engineering Bd. Lacul Tei 124, Sector 2 020396 Bucharest Romania

Viktor A. Dukhovny Scientific Information Centre of Interstate Coordination Water Commission of Aral Sea Basin (SIC ICWC) Massiv Karasu 4, Building 11 100187 Tashkent Uzbekistan

Eleni Eleftheriadou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Civil Engineering Department Hydraulics Laboratory 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Zsuzsanna Engi West-Transdanubian Environmental and Water Directorate[JA20] Department for Prevention and Protection from Water Damages Gyor Hungary

Darrell Fontane Colorado State University Department of Civil Engineering Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA

Jean Fried University of California School of Social Ecology Department of Planning, Policy and Design Irvine, CA 92697 USA

and

UNESCO Paris France

Hans-Gerhard Fritsche Hessian Agency for Environment and Geology (HLUG) Rheingaustraße 186 65203 Wiesbaden Germany

Jacques Ganoulis UNESCO Chair and Network INWEB Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Department of Civil Engineering Division of Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Miltos Gletsos Society for the Protection of Prespa 530 77 Aghios Germanos Greece

Piero Guilizzoni C.N.R. Institute of Ecosystem Study Largo Tonolli 50 28922 Verbania Pallanza Italy

Bojan Hajdin University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

André Hernandes Ministry of Transport National Department of Transport Infrastructure (DNIT) Parana Waterway Administration (AHRANA) Av. Brigadeiro Faria Lima SP-CEP 01451-000 Sao Paulo Brazil

Vlassios Hrissanthou Democritus University of Thrace Department of Civil Engineering Vas. Sofias 12 67100 Xanthi Greece

Natacha Jacquin L’Office International de l’Eau OIEAU 15 rue Edouard Chamberland 87065 Limoges Cedex France

Andreas Kallioras Technical University of Darmstadt Institute of Applied Geosciences Hydrogeology Group Karolinenplatz 5 64289 Darmstadt Germany

Kamal Karaa Litani River Authority Bechara el Khoury Street Ghannageh Buld. 3732 Beirut Lebanon

Katharina Kober Mediterranean Network of Basin Organizations Avda. Blasco Ibañez 48 46010 Valencia Spain

Elpida Kolokytha Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Department of Civil Engineering Division of Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Stanka Koren Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia Vojkova 1b 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Vladimir Kotov EcoPolicy Research and Consulting Moscow Russia

Nikolaos Kotsovinos Democritus University of Thrace Department of Civil Engineering Vas. Sofias 12 67100 Xanthi Greece

Alexei V. Kouraev Université de Toulouse UPS (OMP-PCA) LEGOS 14 Av. Edouard Belin F-31400 Toulouse France

and

State Oceanography Institute St. Petersburg Branch St. Petersburg Russia

Balázs Kovács University of Szeged Department of Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Petrology Egyetem 2-6 6722 Szeged Hungary

Péter Kozák ATIKOVIZIG Directorate for Environmental Protection and Water Management of Lower Tisza District Stefania 4 6701 Szeged Hungary

Neno Kukuric IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre 3508 AL Utrecht The Netherlands

Ralf Kunkel Research Centre Jülich Agrosphere Institute (ICG-4) Leo-Brandt-Strasse 52425 Jülich Germany

Richard Laster Hebrew University Faculty of Law and Faculty of Environmental Studies Jerusalem Israel

and

Laster Gouldman Law Offices 48 Azza Street 92384 Jerusalem Israel

Efthalia Lazaridou Omikron LTD Environmental Department Agricultural Road Straitsa 57001 Thessaloniki Greece

Maria Lazaridou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Department of Biology Laboratory of Zoology Thessaloniki Greece

Milojko Lazi University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

Louis Lebel Chiang Mai University Unit for Social and Environmental Research 239 Huay Kaew Road 50200 Chiang Mai Thailand

Lászlò Lenart University of Miskolc 3515 Miskolc-Egyetemvaros Hungary

Flavia Rocha Loures World Wildlife Fund (WWF) International Law and Policy Freshwater Program 1250 24th Street, NW Washington, DC 20037-1193 USA

Rodrigo Maia Universidade do Porto Department of Civil Engineering Rua Dr. Roberto Frias 4200-465 Porto Portugal

Sotir Mali University of Elbasan Rruga Rinia Elbasan Albania

Daphne Mantziou Society for the Protection of Prespa 530 77 Aghios Germanos Greece

Daene C. McKinney The University of Texas at Austin Center for Research in Water Resources 10100 Burnet Rd., Bldg 119 Austin, TX 78703 USA

Petra Megli Geological Survey of Slovenia Dimieva ulica 14 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Saša Milanovi University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

Dragana Milovanovi Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Water Management Directorate for Water Bulevar umetnosti 2a 11070 Belgrade Serbia

Miodrag Milovanovi ‘Jaroslav Cerni’ Institute for the Development of Water Resources Jaroslava Cernog 80 11226 Belgrade Serbia

Marin-Nelu Minciuna National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management Sos. Bucuresti-Ploiesti 97 013686 Bucharest Romania

Jean-Marie Monget Mines ParisTech Earth & Environmental Sciences 60 Boulevard Saint-Michel 75272 Paris France

Barbara J. Morehouse University of Arizona Institute of the Environment Marshall Building 845 N. Park Avenue Tucson, AZ 85721 USA

Rosario Mosello C.N.R. Institute of Ecosystem Study Largo Tonolli 50 28922 Verbania Pallanza Italy

Jacques Mudry University of Besançon UMR Chrono-Environnement F-25030 Besançon France

Yannis Mylopoulos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Civil Engineering Department Hydraulics Laboratory 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Udaya Sekhar Nagothu Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research (Bioforsk) Fr. A. Dahlsvei 20 1432 Ås Norway

Miriam Ndini Polytechnic University of Tirana Institute of Energy, Water and Environment Durresi Street 219 Tirana Albania

Benjamin Ngounou Ngatcha University of Ngaoundéré Faculty of Sciences B.P. 454 Ngaoundéré Cameroon

Elena Nikitina Russian Academy of Sciences Institute for World Economy and International Relations Prosouznaya st. 23 117997 Moscow Russia

Dragana Ninkovi ‘Jaroslav Cerni’ Institute for the Development of Water Resources Jaroslava Cernog 80 11226 Belgrade Serbia

Jožef Novak Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia Vojkova 1b 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Petar Papic University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

Marta Paris National University of El Litoral Faculty of Engineering and Water Sciences Ciudad Universitaria Ruta Nacional 168-Km 472 S3000 Santa Fe Argentina

Milana Panteli University of Novi Sad Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Trg Dositeja Obradovica 3 21000 Novi Sad Serbia

Didier Pennequin BRGM Water Division 3 avenue Claude Guillemin BP 36009-45060 Orléans France

Christian Perennou Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc 13200 Arles France

Marcela Perez National University of El Litoral Faculty of Engineering and Water Sciences Ciudad Universitaria Ruta Nacional 168-Km 472 S3000 Santa Fe Argentina

Andrej Perovic University of Montenegro Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics 20000 Podgorica Montenegro

Sotiris Petropoulos Harokopio University of Athens Department of Geography 70 El Venizelou Str. 17671 Athens Greece

Fotis Pliakas Democritus University of Thrace Civil Engineering Department Engineering Geology Laboratory Vas. Sofias 12 67100 Xanthi Greece

Dušan Polomi University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

Irina Polshkova Russian Academy of Sciences Water Problems Institute 3 Gubkina Street 119333 Moscow Russia

Joerg Prestor Geological Survey of Slovenia Dimieva ulica 14 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia

Samir Rhaouti Sebou River Basin Organization BP 2101 Rue Abou Alaa Al Maari VN30000 Fes Morocco

Lena Salame UNESCO Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential (PC-CP) Programme Paris France

Julio Sánchez Chóliz University of Zaragoza Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Department of Economic Analysis Gran Vía 2 50005 Zaragoza Spain

Samuel Sandoval-Solis The University of Texas at Austin Center for Research in Water Resources 10100 Burnet Rd., Bldg 119 Austin, TX 78703 USA

Spase Shumka Agricultural University of Tirana Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Koder-Kamza Tirana Albania

Bach Tan Sinh National Institute for Science and Technology Policy and Strategy Studies Science and Policy Studies Centre Hanoi Vietnam

Eva Skarbøvik Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research (Bioforsk) Fr. A. Dahlsvei 20 1432 Ås Norway

Stylianos Skias Democritus University of Thrace Civil Engineering Department Engineering Geology Laboratory Vas. Sofias 12 67100 Xanthi Greece

Charalampos Skoulikaris Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Civil Engineering Department Hydraulics Laboratory 54124 Thessaloniki Greece

Alkis Stamos Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration Department of Geology and Geological Mapping Olympic Village, Entrance C 13677 Acharnae Greece

Marianthi Stefouli Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration Department of Geology and Geological Mapping Olympic Village, Entrance C 13677 Acharnae Greece

Raya Marina Stephan Water Law expert International consultant 38 rue du Hameau 78480 Verneuil sur Seine France

Zoran Stevanovi University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining & Geology Department of Hydrogeology Djusina 7 11000 Belgrade Serbia

Pierre Strosser ACTeon s.a.r.l., Le Chalimont BP Ferme du Pré du Bois 68370 Orbey France

Galina Stulina Scientific Information Centre of Interstate Coordination Water Commission of Aral Sea Basin (SIC ICWC) Massiv Karasu 4, Building 11 100187 Tashkent Uzbekistan

János Szanyi University of Szeged Department of Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Petrology Egyetem 2-6 6722 Szeged Hungary

Peter Szucs University of Miskolc 35152 Miskolc-Egyetemvaros Hungary

Rebecca L. Teasley The University Of Minnesota Duluth Department of Civil Engineering 221 SCiv 1405 University Drive Duluth, MN 55812 USA

József Török ATIKOVIZIG Directorate for Environmental Protection and Water Management of Lower Tisza District Stefania 4 6701 Szeged Hungary

Nikolaos Tsotsolis Region of Central Macedonia Thessaloniki Greece

Ofelia Tujchneider National University of El Litoral Faculty of Engineering and Water Sciences Ciudad Universitaria Ruta Nacional 168-Km 472 S3000 Santa Fe Argentina

and

National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) Av. Rivadavia 1917 C1033AAJ Buenos Aires Argentina

Guido Vaes HydroScan Ltd. Tiensevest 26/4 3000 Leuven Belgium

Anastasios Valvis University of Peloponnese Department of Political Science and International Relations Corinth Greece

Jac van der Gun IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre 3508 AL Utrecht The Netherlands

Slavek Vasak IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre 3508 AL Utrecht The Netherlands

Evan Vlachos Colorado State University Department of Civil Engineering Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA

Frank Wendland Research Centre Jülich Agrosphere Institute (ICG-4) Leo-Brandt-Strasse 52425 Jülich Germany

Rüdiger Wolter Federal Environmental Agency (UBA) Wörlitzer Platz 1 06844 Dessau Germany

George Zalidis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Agriculture Laboratory of Applied Soil Science Thessaloniki Greece

Chapter 1

Introduction and Structure of the Book

Jacques Ganoulis

This book is a practical guide that suggests methodological tools and answers to different questions related to Transboundary Water Resources Management (TWRM), including both surface and groundwater aquifer resources. Some of these questions may be formulated as follows:

How could data and information from riparian countries be harmonized to better understand the physical characteristics of transboundary hydro-systems?Are hydrological and hydrogeological models available to predict different scenarios in TWRM?What methodology is available to delineate transboundary aquifers?What is the current status of international law in terms of sharing transboundary surface waters and groundwater aquifers between riparian countries and what are the main legal issues?How could international law improve the utilization and effective protection of shared water resources?How could public and stakeholder participation contribute to the implementation of integrated TWRM?What methodology is available for integrating different collaborative models of TWRM?How could potential conflicts in sharing transboundary waters be transformed into collaborative actions?

In this practical guide, different collaborative models and TWRM tools are identified and explained, not just theoretically or conceptually but through specific case studies from around the world. These case studies are grouped together in such a way that the wide range of tools available to effectively explain, address, assess, understand and resolve TWRM problems in the real world become apparent.

The book is organized in four parts, which are described below.

1.1 Part I – A Global View

Part I is divided into two chapters (Chapters 2 and 3). Chapter 2 presents the importance of transboundary waters worldwide and the need for collaborative approaches to address global challenges of TWRM. The role of different disciplinary tools and regulatory instruments (technical, environmental, legal and socio-economical) for an effective collaborative approach is also explained.

Chapter 3 describes significant worldwide initiatives, such as the INBO (International Network of Basin Organizations) network, the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) Transboundary Waters Convention (1992), the UN Watercourses Convention (1997), the UN International Law Commission articles on shared natural resources (oil, gas and including shared groundwaters in 2002), UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme (IHP) components dealing with transboundary surface and groundwater resources, the UN CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992) and the European Union Water Framework Directive (EU-WFD, 2000). The importance of building international cooperation and management networks at the transboundary river catchment scale is emphasized (Chapter 3.1) and the role of international laws for transboundary water courses and aquifers is analysed (Chapters 3.2–3.4). The EU-WFD as a driving force for implementing the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in transboundary regions is further explained (Chapters 3.5 and 3.6) and illustrated by characteristic case studies both from the EU and non-EU countries (Chapters 3.7–3.9).

1.2 Part II – Physical, Environmental and Technical Approaches

Part II is divided into two chapters, the first of which (Chapter 4) describes physical, environmental and technical approaches for transboundary aquifers, and the second (Chapter 5) covers transboundary lake and river basins. Chapters 4.1–4.3 are quite general and explain how hydrologic and hydrogeological approaches may be used to assess not only porous transboundary aquifers (Chapter 4.1) but also karst aquifers, which are globally very important sources for water supply (Chapter 4.2). The need to share information between neighbouring countries and to harmonize data is emphasized in these sections and the use of mathematical modelling as a tool for assessing groundwater hydrodynamics in transboundary aquifers is highlighted (Chapter 4.3).

Characteristic case studies from around the world, illustrating the application of the hydrogeological and scientific tools previously analysed, are reported in the second part of Chapter 4. In these case studies further details are given on how to assess and model transboundary aquifer systems, with examples from South America (Chapter 4.4), Africa (Chapter 4.5), Asia (Chapter 4.6) and Europe (Rhine Valley, Chapter 4.7), an aquifer shared by Hungary and Romania (Chapter 4.8), an aquifer shared by Serbia and Hungary (Chapter 4.9) and aquifers around Slovenia (Chapter 4.10).

For transboundary surface waters (Chapter 5), such as lakes and rivers, the hydrological monitoring data collected by individual countries are usually non-comparable, and even incomplete. This unfortunate situation is documented in (Chapter 5.1) and is also the case for the majority of hydrogeological data of groundwater aquifers. The non-comparability of monitoring data is a major obstacle in harmonizing information available from individual countries and applying global directives like the EU-WFD. International guidelines, such as those published by UN organizations like the WMO (World Meteorological Organization), could help remediate this situation.

However, despite the lack of systematic comparable monitoring systems, three case studies illustrating successful collaboration models are presented in Chapter 5: Lake Maggiore, shared between Italy and Switzerland (Chapter 5.2), Prespa Lakes, shared between Greece, Albania and FYR of Macedonia (Chapters 5.3 and 5.4), and the Kobilje River, shared between Slovenia and Austria (Chapter 5.5). This chapter also illustrates other problems in transboundary river basins, such as impacts from climate change (Chapters 5.6 and 5.7), identification of water bodies according to the EU-WFD (Chapter 5.8), sediment transport (Chapter 5.9) and river flow periodicities (Chapter 5.10).

1.3 Part III – Legal, Socio-Economic and Institutional Approaches

This part is also divided into two chapters (Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6 deals mainly with legal approaches; in Chapter 6.1 explanations are offered as to how international law on transboundary aquifers may be used. In Chapter 6.2 it is shown how adequate water policies may reduce over use of water in agriculture.

Regional and bilateral legal agreements can enhance effective cooperation between countries. Examples of this are given for the Aral Sea basin, Central Asia (Chapter 6.3), for the Kidron Valley, Middle East (Chapter 6.4) and for the Prespa Lakes basin in the Balkans (Chapter 6.5). A comparison between the rivers Mekong in SE Asia and Maritsa/Evros/Meriç in SE Europe illustrates how regional agreements can contribute to transform conflicts into cooperation (Chapter 6.6).

Adequate delineation of water resources regions adapted to specific regional conditions is also an important issue. The EU-WFD stipulates that water resources management should be performed on a river basin basis. Different criteria may be used to define water resources management regions in order to better promote the application of IWRM and contribute to transboundary water conflicts resolution. Examples are provided from the USA (Chapter 6.7) and Greece (Chapter 6.8).

Chapter 7 focuses on socio-economic and institutional approaches, which are very important for the implementation of technical and legal collaborative models in transboundary waters. Stakeholder participation, social learning and institutional design are important tools for achieving effective TWRM and reducing water insecurities and this is analysed in Chapters 7.1 and 7.2. Case studies from South America (Chapter 7.3) and the Balkans (Chapters 7.4–7.6) demonstrate particular issues and problems in transboundary cooperation.

Economic governance, such as the model of common pool management of transboundary water resources (Chapter 7.7) and applications of game theory (Chapters 7.8–7.10), all important tools for facilitating negotiations in conflict resolution issues, is also discussed.

1.4 Part IV – Bridging the Gaps

To deal with the complexity of real world problems, where no distinction is made between different dependent physical and socio-economic processes, there is a need for the various approaches described in Parts II and III to be integrated. This process of integration could be facilitated in two main ways. Firstly, through education and capacity building, where special training programmes can show how multidisciplinary approaches can be coordinated to achieve an integrated view of a problem and solve it effectively in the real world (Chapter 8.1). Secondly, by taking into account a general framework for risk analysis in conflict resolution, where risks and benefits could be shared between riparian countries and “win-win” solutions to transboundary disputes can be achieved (Chapter 8.2). Both these processes are based on specific programmes developed by UNESCO.

Figure 1.1 illustrates a collaborative model for TWRM based on the various contributions to this book. This uses the following seven steps and may be adapted to any particular case study of transboundary waters:

1. Stakeholder consultation and collaboration, social issues, legal and institutional agreements: this should interact with every one below;

2. problem definition: Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA);

3. agree on data collection, common monitoring and data sharing;

4. develop a common vision and common Strategic Action Plan (SAP);

5. physical and environmental assessment and modelling;

6. scenario analysis and Decision Support Systems (DSS);

7. transfer of models and DSS to stakeholders, applications.

Figure 1.1 Seven steps of the TWRM collaborative model, showing the relevant chapter/section numbers of the individual contributions from this book.

Part One

A Global View

Chapter 2

Transboundary Water Resources Management: Needs for a Coordinated Multidisciplinary Approach

Jacques Ganoulis and Jean Fried

2.1 Introduction

The global increase of population together with steady socio-economic development, especially of emerging economies, and the subsequent increase in water demand combined with the acceleration of water pollution from various point and diffuse sources, mean that transboundary water resources, located both on the surface (rivers and lakes) and in groundwater aquifers, are very important sources of water for different uses at global and regional scales, and form a significant part of the precious available water on earth.

Although the total amount of water on earth is substantial, only a very small fraction of it is not saline and can be directly used by man. According to the latest UN World Water Development Reports [1, 2] this amount is only 2.5% of the total water available on earth. When economically available renewable water resources are taken into account, global water availability is estimated at about 13 500 km3 per year that is only 2300 m3 per person per year. This is approximately 37% less than in 1970.

About 60% of global river flow lies within transboundary river basins [3], the surface area of which amount to almost half of the world's land surface (Figure 2.1). The significance of transboundary waters may be seen from the following data [3, 4]:

40% of the world's population lives within these watersheds;45% of the total land surface of our planet lies in this area;263 major internationally shared basins are reported;approximately one-third of the 263 transboundary basins are shared by more than two countries;145 countries have territory within transboundary river basins;21 countries lie entirely within one transboundary river basin;more than 95% of the territory of 12 countries lies within one or more transboundary basins;19 basins involve five or more different countries.

Figure 2.1 Distribution of transboundary river basins worldwide [3].

The distribution of transboundary basins per continent by number and as a percentage of the continent's surface, based on data revised in 1999 [3] and 2003 [4], is given in Figure 2.2. It can be seen that Europe has the greatest number of internationally shared basins (69), while in comparison with the others Africa's transboundary basins cover the greatest part of the continent (62%).

Figure 2.2 World's transboundary river basins by continent [4].

The actual number of transboundary basins may change not only because new political states emerge or in some cases, for example, Germany, become unified, but also because cartographic methods improve. As shown in Table 2.1, the number of transboundary basins varies over time in all continents. Owing to the collapse of the Former Republic of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, the number of transboundary basins in Europe as a whole increased from 48 in 1978 to 69 in 2002; in South East Europe (SEE) alone this meant that the number of transboundary basins almost doubled [4, 10]. Globally in 2002, there were 263 transboundary basins listed, compared to 261 in 1999 and 214 in 1978 (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Number of transboundary river basins by continent and as a percentage of the total surface [4].

Maps of the world's transboundary aquifers were updated in 2007 by the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR)/Worldwide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP) [5], and, as shown in Figure 2.3, in 2009 by the International Groundwater Resources Centre (IGRAC) [6]. Transboundary fresh groundwater resources offer much higher volumes than transboundary river water flow. On a global scale, the importance of fresh groundwater resources is predominant. According to estimations by the United States Geological Survey, 99% of the available fresh water on the planet is stored in the ground. About 69% is stored in glaciers and permanent snow cover and is practically inaccessible for human use. Interestingly, while rivers and lakes hold only 0.3% of the total amount of the available fresh water, fresh groundwater represents about 30% of global fresh water, with the remainder being stored as soil moisture. This groundwater is located at depths up to 4000 m and half of this quantity is technically available at depths of less than 800 m.

Figure 2.3 World's transboundary aquifers [6].

The main characteristics of transboundary aquifers worldwide are not very well known because of the lack of joint monitoring systems, limited data sharing between neighbouring countries and a low degree of political commitment. This is why UNESCO, and more specifically UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme (IHP) (Paris), having recognized that transboundary aquifer systems are important sources of fresh water in many regions of the world, decided in June 2002 to launch a new initiative to promote studies in regard to transboundary aquifers called the ‘Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources Management’ programme (ISARM) [7].

Since 2002 UNESCO has been implementing ISARM in different parts of the world. The first phase of the UNESCO/ISARM programme was initiated in Africa in 2002. In the same year, a project was prepared by the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UN/ESCWA) and UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme (IHP) on the ‘Sustainable Management and Protection of Internationally Shared Groundwater Resources in the Mediterranean Region’.

The second phase of ISARM was started in 2003 in the American continent in cooperation with OAS (Organization of American States). The first UNESCO/OAS ISARM-Americas Workshop was held in Montevideo, Uruguay from 24 to 25 September, 2003. Participation at the workshop was strong: 20 countries were represented, including Haiti and the Dominican Republic. After a series of annual workshops, UNESCO/OAS published in 2007 an inventory and a preliminary assessment of transboundary aquifers in America [8], followed in 2008 by the legal and institutional framework of these aquifers [9].

The third phase of ISARM was launched in South Eastern Europe (SEE – the Balkans) and the Mediterranean in 2004 by UNESCO/ISARM and the UNESCO Chair/International Network of Water-Environment Centres in the Balkans (INWEB) at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. In close cooperation with the International Association of Hydrogeologists/Transboundary Aquifer Resource Management Commission (IAH/TARM), INWEB held a workshop in Thessaloniki in October 2004 to present and assess its results. INWEB also cooperated closely with UNECE: Working Group on Monitoring & Assessment, Switzerland, to follow up the European inventory previously compiled by UNECE [10], as well as with UN/ESCWA, and the Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS), for the Mediterranean inventory. The inventory of transboundary aquifer resources in the Balkans and the Mediterranean was updated in 2007 and 2008 and is available, together with a preliminary assessment, on INWEB's Web site (http://www.inweb.gr/) [11].

The case of the SEE region is very particular because of the high number of transboundary aquifers, mainly due to the multitude of new borders that were created after the collapse of the Former Republic of Yugoslavia in 1990. As shown in Figure 2.4, two main types of aquifers may be distinguished: (i) alluvial or sedimentary, which are located along major river beds and especially along the Danube River and (ii) karst aquifers.

Figure 2.4 Transboundary aquifers in SEE (Balkan region) [11].

Karst aquifers are mainly located in the western part of the peninsula (Dinaric karst) and along the Central Karpathes (Serbo-Carpathian karst). Almost half of the water from the mountainous western area of SEE disappears underground in karst formations and flows in the shortest direction to the Adriatic. Karstification is the geologic process of differential chemical and mechanical erosion by water on soluble bodies of rock, such as limestone, dolomite, gypsum or salt, at or near the earth's surface. Karstification is exhibited best on thick, fractured and pure limestone in a humid environment in which the subsurface and surface are modified simultaneously. The resulting karst morphology is usually characterized by dolines (sinkholes), hums (towers), caves and a complex subsurface drainage system. Karst transboundary aquifers are very important for the region as the almost unique source for water supply in many cities and also for agricultural irrigation.

2.2 Assessment and Management of Transboundary Waters

Different scientific disciplines and professional groups have developed various methodologies and tools to assess, manage and share both transboundary surface and groundwater aquifer resources. In today's complex societies and global economy, transboundary water resources, as a topic and area of investigation, should be viewed from different scientific disciplines [12–14].

Hydrological sciences: deal with water resources as part of the natural environment. Different aspects are studied mainly from a water quantity point of view: surface hydrology, hydrogeology.Hydraulic engineering: considers water resources management from a technical point of view. Structural or non-structural measures aim for the reliable satisfaction of water demand under specific water supply conditions, which may vary in time and space.Environmental and ecological sciences: focus on water quality and ecosystems.Public health and toxicology: address impacts on humans and ecosystems from various biological causes that may be found in water.Economic sciences: consider water to be an economic resource and recommend economic instruments, such as water pricing and economic incentives, to achieve a more competitive use of water in different sectors.International law: examines regulations, directives and international treaties for water sharing and water rights.Social sciences: focus on socio-political attitudes, public perception and relationships between individuals and the use of water.

Different conceptual models for TWRM have been suggested in the past. For example, there are models based on engineering approaches [12, 14], which underline the importance of assessing different hydrological uncertainties in order to assess and handle related risks [15]. A conceptual model showing the role of regional cooperative networks for developing sustainable monitoring and communication structures in TWRM was shown in Reference [13] for the Balkans.

2.2.1 Hydrological and Hydrogeological Approaches

The first important step towards assessing transboundary water resources is for riparian countries to share reliable data. Subsequent steps to be followed, including stakeholder consultation, data collection and suggesting effective TWRM plans are indicated in Figure 2.5 and specific issues in the hydrogeological approach to transboundary aquifers are illustrated in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.5 Recommended steps in hydrological and hydrogeological studies.

Figure 2.6 Issues in the hydrogeological approach of transboundary aquifers [7].

The framework document of the UNESCO-ISARM programme [7] recommends that when considering transboundary aquifers there should be good cooperation between various approaches, such as:

hydrogeology: geophysical and geological prospecting, drilling techniques and mapping;groundwater hydrodynamics: quantitative aspects of flows, mathematical modelling, calibration and prediction scenarios;groundwater management: systems analysis, optimization techniques, risk analysis and multi-objective decision-making methods;hydrochemistry: chemical composition of the soil and water;hydrobiology: biological properties of groundwater systems.

Modern tools for groundwater development extensively use new information technologies, database development, computer software, mathematical modelling and remote sensing.

2.2.2 Environmental Issues

Preservation of water quality and ecosystem biodiversity should be an important objective for sustainability. Environmental protection should be realistically based on Environmental Risk Analysis (ERA) rather than on some precautionary principles that may not lead to any specific action [15]. ERA is a general and very useful approach for studying risks related to water overuse or water pollution in sensitive areas. The application of ERA consists of two main phases:

1. the assessment of risk,

2. risk management.

The assessment of risk is mainly based on modelling of the physical and social systems, including forecasting of its evolution under risk. The main objective of risk analysis is the management of the system; however, this is not possible if risk has not first been quantified.

The risk assessment phase involves the following steps [15]:

step 1: identification of hazards and risks,step 2: assessment of loads and resistances,step 3: uncertainty analysis,step 4: risk quantification.

When it is possible to assess the risk under a given set of assumptions, then the process of risk management may begin. The various steps of the risk management phase are [15]:

step 1: identification of alternatives and associated risks;step 2: assessment of costs in various risk levels;step 3: technical feasibility of alternative solutions;step 4: selection of acceptable options according to the public perception of risk, government policy and social factors;step 5: implementation of the best choice.

When applying ERA, different scenarios of socio-economic development, including possible climate change, should be taken into consideration. This is important in view of the natural and social vulnerability of transboundary water resources [15].

2.2.3 Legal Aspects

The main international laws on sustainable use and protection of transboundary water resources are (Chapter 3.3): the UN Watercourses Convention (1997) or the Helsinki Rules, the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) Transboundary Waters Convention (1992), and in 2002 the UN International Law Commission articles on shared natural resources including transboundary aquifers (Chapter 3.4). Guidelines on monitoring and assessment of transboundary groundwaters have been issued already [10]; however, no international treaty yet exists for the use and protection of transboundary aquifers. The monitoring and assessment of surface waters are part of the 1999 Protocol on Water and Health to the UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes. This Protocol contains provisions regarding the establishment of joint or coordinated systems for surveillance and early-warning systems to identify issues related to water pollution and public health, including extreme weather conditions. It also includes the development of integrated information systems and databases, the exchange of information and the sharing of technical and legal knowledge and experience.

The complexities of developing an international law on transboundary groundwaters have been described by many authors in the technical literature. Overpumping of groundwater in one country can endanger the future freshwater supplies of another country. In addition, groundwater overuse in one country can cause groundwater quality to deteriorate through salinity problems in another country, either by seawater intrusion or evaporation–deposition. The Bellagio Draft Treaty, developed in 1989, attempts to provide a legal framework for groundwater negotiations. The treaty describes principles based on mutual respect, good neighbourliness and reciprocity, which requires joint management of shared aquifers [16]. Although the draft is only a model treaty and not the result of accommodating actual state practice, it accepts that collecting groundwater data may be difficult and expensive and should rely on cooperation; and also provides a general framework for groundwater negotiations.

Only three bilateral agreements are known to deal with groundwater supply [the 1910 convention between Great Britain and the Sultan of Abdali, the 1994 Jordan–Israel peace treaty and the Palestinian–Israeli accords (Oslo II)]. In addition, the 1977 Geneva Aquifer Convention is also an important reference for internationalization of shared aquifer management and regulation by intra-State authorities for transboundary cooperation. Treaties that focus on pollution usually mention groundwater, but do not quantitatively address the issue. In 2008 the fifth report on shared groundwater resources was presented to the United Nations International Law Commission by the Special Rapporteur, who proposes a set of nineteen draft articles on the law of transboundary aquifers with commentaries (Chapter 3.4). As surface and groundwaters are interconnected, it is important that measures to protect ecosystems and surface water resources should also include the monitoring, assessment and protection of transboundary groundwaters.

2.2.4 Socio-economic Issues

It is widely accepted today that use of water resources, protection of the environment and economic development are not separate challenges. Development cannot be achieved when water and environmental resources are deteriorating, and similarly the environment cannot be protected and enhanced when growth plans consistently fail to consider the costs of environmental destruction. Nowadays it is clear that most environmental problems arise as ‘negative externalities’ of an economic system that takes for granted – and thus undervalues – many aspects of the environment. The integration of environmental and economic issues is a key requirement in the concept of sustainability, not only for the protection of the environment, but also for the promotion of sustainable long-term economic development, especially in water scarce areas (Chapter 7.1).

In the case of shared groundwater resources, the UNESCO/ISARM Framework Document [7] makes a preliminary overview of different socio-economic aspects of transboundary aquifer management. The main driving forces behind the over-exploitation of groundwater resources resulting in negative impacts are population growth, concentration of people in big cities and inefficient use of water for agricultural irrigation. The agricultural sector is most often mainly responsible for groundwater over-exploitation. The situation becomes particularly difficult when neighbouring countries share common transboundary water resources, as several differences arise in:

socio-economic level;political, social, and institutional structures, including strict region-specific positions on national sovereignty;objectives, benefits and economic instruments;international relations, national legislation and regulation.

Competition for use of water resources for different purposes on one or both sides of the border may generate potential conflicts. Effective governance should consider specific hydrological and hydrogeological conditions, aquifer recharge rates and multiobjective use of renewable water resources involving stakeholders and multidisciplinary regional working groups [13].

2.2.5 Institutional Considerations

For transboundary water courses and lakes, international commissions have proved to be the most effective institutional settings for transboundary surface water resources management. No such common institutions exist for transboundary groundwaters. Whether transboundary groundwater management should be a specific task of one or more specialized committees belonging to the same international river or lake committee, or whether a separate common institutional body should be created for this purpose, remains a question unanswered. In view of the physical interactions between surface and groundwaters, coordination between different specialized institutions is necessary for the overall sustainable management of water resources.

In the present situation national institutions dealing with groundwater are not sufficiently or effectively prepared to be able to undertake the joint management of transboundary groundwaters. Groundwater management units, when they exist, are often side-lined and invisible in surface-water dominated water administrations and groundwater is not explicitly addressed in national water legislations. Capacity building, especially on developing joint enabling capacity and consultation mechanisms at decision-maker level, including harmonization of domestic groundwater law, supported by common monitoring systems and sharing information and data, is essential. The role of regional partnerships between different decision makers, scientists from different disciplines, and other water stakeholders is also important for preventing conflicts and enhancing cooperation (Chapter 7.2) [13]. It is important to link and reconcile transboundary aquifer management with land management, and with regional political and social and economic regional cooperation and development policy.

2.3 The Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Process

Effective management of transboundary water resources should be based on current best practices, which are grouped under the term Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). The term was first used in 1977 at the UN Conference in Mar del Plata and according to the Global Water Partnership (GWP) – an NGO based in Stockholm – IWRM is defined as [17]: ‘a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems’.

If we were to analyse the different ways in which man uses water, such as for drinking, agricultural irrigation, hydropower production and industry, we would have to consider many activities and engineering structures that very often lead to conflicting functions. For example, industries producing large amounts of untreated wastewater may pollute groundwater in the surrounding aquifer, which in turn affects the quality of water pumped for drinking purposes. The increase of water pollution from industrial activities may also affect the quality of river water used for irrigation. When groundwater is over-pumped from a series of wells, the groundwater table is lowered and could affect agricultural production, as less water will be left for feeding crop roots. Lowering the water table in a coastal zone may also increase seawater intrusion and soil salinization, with negative impacts on agriculture and ecosystems.

Obviously, when actions are taken for different water uses, as can be seen in the examples above, there is a need for coordinating the related activities in various perspectives, such as between different:

sectors of water uses (water supply, agriculture, industry, energy, recreation, etc.);types of natural resources (land, water and others);types of water resources (surface water, groundwater);locations in space (local, regional, national, international);variations in time (daily, monthly, seasonal, yearly, climate change);impacts (environmental, economic, social, etc.);scientific and professional disciplines (engineering, law, economy, ecology, etc.);water-related institutions (governmental, private, international, NGOs, etc.);decision-makers, water professionals, scientists and stakeholders.

In the past, traditional approaches for water resources management emphasized technical reliability versus the effective use of available economic resources in planning, construction and operation. Whilst still providing a reliable framework for water resources use, investment and maintenance costs were to be minimized. According to IWRM, apart from the above technical and economic criteria, at least two more additional general objectives should be considered, which are environmental security and social equity. In terms of an integrated approach, management issues should be considered at the basin scale and groundwater aquifers should be managed in relation to surface waters.

In view of the recent revival of the role of water resources for the sustainable development and protection of the environment, interest in analysing effective water management in the field has increased. IWRM has a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary character involving many theoretical and applied fields of science. It is a traditional discipline in civil and agricultural engineering university curricula and in some countries it is considered as an independent engineering degree. Other disciplines involved in water quality and aquatic ecosystems are chemistry, biology and ecology. Law, economy, and also social and political sciences are important for implementing regulatory water policy, such as water allocation, water pricing and public participation. TWRM is characterized by the presence of a political boundary and in this view international law, socio-economic considerations and hydro-diplomacy also play an important role, mainly to promote cooperation between riparian countries and to prevent and alleviate potential water-related disputes.

As shown in Figure 2.7, IWRM could be achieved by coordinating different topics, areas, disciplines and institutions, which fall into two categories: natural issues (type of resources, space and time scales) and man-related (sectors, scientific disciplines, impacts, institutions, participants). There is no general rule about the optimum degree of integration and how to achieve it. Concerning the spatial scale that of the river basin is the most appropriate, taking into account the hydrological cycle and the water budget. The effect of possible climate change should also be taken into account, although large uncertainties still persist for quantifying such effects.

Figure 2.7 Areas and topics for IWRM.

2.4 Capacity Building and Human Potential: The Role of Education