Transition to Renewable Energy Systems E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1620

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

In this ready reference, top academic researchers, industry players and government officers join forces to develop commercial concepts for the transition from current nuclear or fossil fuel-based energy to renewable energy systems within a limited time span. They take into account the latest science and technology, including an analysis of the feasibility and impact on the environment, economy and society. In so doing, they discuss such complex topics as electrical and gas grids, fossil power plants and energy storage technologies. The contributions also include robust, conceivable and breakthrough technologies that will be viable and implementable by 2020.

Leseprobe

Contents

Foreword

Preface

List of Contributors

Part I Renewable Strategies

1 South Korea’s Green Energy Strategies

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Government-Driven Strategies and Policies

1.3 Focused R&D Strategies

1.4 Promotion of Renewable Energy Industries

1.5 Present and Future of Green Energy in South Korea

References

2 Japan’s Energy Policy After the 3.11 Natural and Nuclear Disasters – from the Viewpoint of the R&D of Renewable Energy and Its Current State

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Energy Transition in Japan

2.3 Diversification of Energy Resource

2.4 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology

2.5 Conclusion

References

3 The Impact of Renewable Energy Development on Energy and CO2 Emissions in China

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Renewable Energy in China and Policy Context

3.3 Data and CGEM Model Description

3.4 Scenario Description

3.5 Results

3.6 Conclusion

References

4 The Scottish Government’s Electricity Generation Policy Statement

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Overview

4.3 Executive Summary

References

5 Transition to Renewables as a Challenge for the Industry – the German Energiewende from an Industry Perspective

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Targets and current status of the Energiewende

5.3 Industry view: opportunities and challenges

5.4 The way ahead

5.5 Conclusion

References

6 The Decreasing Market Value of Variable Renewables: Integration Options and Deadlocks

6.1 The Decreasing Market Value of Variable Renewables

6.2 Mechanisms and Quantification

6.3 Integration Options

6.4 Conclusion

References

7 Transition to a Fully Sustainable Global Energy System

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Methodology

7.3 Results – Demand Side

7.4 Results – Supply Side

7.5 Discussion

7.6 Conclusion

References

Appendix

8 The Transition to Renewable Energy Systems – On the Way to a Comprehensive Transition Concept

8.1 Why Is There a Need for Change? – The World in the Age of the Anthropocene

8.2 A Transition to What?

8.3 Introducing the Concept of “Transformative Literacy”

8.4 Four Dimensions of Societal Transition

8.5 Techno-Economists, Institutionalists, and Culturalists – Three Conflicting Transformation Paradigms

References

9 Renewable Energy Future for the Developing World

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Descriptions and Definitions of the Developing World

9.3 Can Renewable Energies Deliver?

9.4 Opportunities for the Developing World

9.5 Development Framework

9.6 Policies Accelerating Renewable Energies in Developing Countries

9.7 Priorities – Where to Start

9.8 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

10 An Innovative Concept for Large-Scale Concentrating Solar Thermal Power Plants

10.1 Considerations for Large-Scale Deployment

10.2 Advanced Solar Boiler Concept for CSP Plants

10.3 Practical Implementation of Concept

10.4 Conclusion

References

11 Status of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Development and Deployment: Hyundai’s Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Development as a Best Practice Example

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Development of the FCEV

11.3 History of HMC FCEV Development

11.4 Performance Testing of FCEVs

11.5 Cost Reduction of FCEV

11.6 Demonstration and Deployment Activities of FCEVs in Europe

11.7 Roadmap of FCEV Commercialization and Conclusions

12 Hydrogen as an Enabler for Renewable Energies

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Status of CO2 Emissions

12.3 Power Density as a Key Characteristic of Renewable Energies and Their Storage Media

12.4 Fluctuation of Renewable Energy Generation

12.5 Strategic Approach for the Energy Concept

12.6 Status of Electricity Generation and Potential for Expansion of Wind Turbines in Germany

12.7 Assumptions for the Renewable Scenario with a Constant Number of Wind Turbines

12.8 Procedure

12.9 Results of the Scenario

12.10 Fuel Cell Vehicles

12.11 Hydrogen Pipelines and Storage

12.12 Cost Estimate

12.13 Discussion of Results

12.14 Conclusion

References

13 Pre-Investigation of Hydrogen Technologies at Large Scales for Electric Grid Load Balancing

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Electrolytic Hydrogen

13.3 Operation of the Electrolyzers for Electric Grid Load Balancing

13.4 Conclusion

13.5 Appendix

References

Part II Power Production

14 Onshore Wind Energy

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Market Development Trends

14.3 Technology Development Trends

14.4 Environmental Impact

14.5 Regulatory Framework

14.6 Economics of Wind Energy

14.7 The Future Scenario of Onshore Wind Power

References

15 Offshore Wind Power

15.1 Introduction and Review of Offshore Deployment

15.2 Wind Turbine Technology Developments

15.3 Site Assessment

15.4 Wind Farm Design and Connection to Shore

15.5 Installation and Operations and Maintenance

15.6 Future Prospects and Research Needed to Deliver on These

References

16 Towards Photovoltaic Technology on the Terawatt Scale: Status and Challenges

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Working Principles and Solar Cell Fabrication

16.3 Technological Design of PV Systems

16.4 Cutting Edge Technology of Today

16.5 R&D Challenges for PV Technologies Towards the Terawatt Scale

16.6 Conclusion

References

17 Solar Thermal Power Production

17.1 General Concept of the Technology

17.2 Technology Overview

17.3 Cost Development and Perspectives [17]

17.4 Conclusion

References

18 Geothermal Power

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Geothermal Power Technology

18.3 Global Geothermal Deployment: the IEA Roadmap and the IEA-GIA

18.4 Relative Advantages of Geothermal

18.5 Geothermal Reserves and Deployment Potential

18.6 Economics of Geothermal Energy

18.7 Sustainability and Environmental Management

References

19 Catalyzing Growth: an Overview of the United Kingdom’s Burgeoning Marine Energy Industry

19.1 Development of the Industry

19.2 The Benefits of Marine Energy

19.3 Expected Levels of Deployment

19.4 Determining the Levelized Cost of Energy Trajectory

19.5 Technology Readiness

19.6 Conclusion

References

20 Hydropower

20.1 Introduction – Basic Principles

20.2 Hydropower Resources/Potential Compared with Existing System

20.3 Technological Design

20.4 Cutting Edge Technology

20.5 Future Outlook

20.6 Systems Analysis

20.7 Sustainability Issues

20.8 Conclusion

References

21 The Future Role of Fossil Power Plants – Design and Implementation

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Political Targets/Regulatory Framework

21.3 Market Constraints – Impact of RES

21.4 System Requirements and Technical Challenges for the Conventional Fleet

21.5 Technical Challenges for Generation

21.6 Economic Challenges

21.7 Future Generation Portfolio – RES Versus Residual Power

Part III Gas Production

22 Status on Technologies for Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Physical and Chemical Fundamentals

22.3 Water Electrolysis Technologies

22.4 Need for Further Research and Development

22.5 Production Costs for Hydrogen

22.6 Conclusion

References

23 Hydrogen Production by Solar Thermal Methane Reforming

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Hydrogen Production Via Reforming of Methane Feedstocks

23.3 Solar-Aided Reforming

23.4 Current Development Status and Future Prospects

References

Part IV Biomass

24 Biomass – Aspects of Global Resources and Political Opportunities

24.1 Our Perceptions: Are They Misleading Us?

24.2 Biomass – Just a Resource Like Other Resources – Price Gives Limitations

24.3 Global Food Production and Prices

24.4 Global Arable Land Potential

24.5 Lower Biomass Potential If No Biomass Demand

24.6 Biomass Potential Studies

24.7 The Political Task

24.8 Political Measures, Legislation, Steering Instruments, and Incentives

References

25 Flexible Power Generation from Biomass – an Opportunity for a Renewable Sources-Based Energy System?

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Challenges of Power Generation from Renewables in Germany

25.3 Power Generation from Biomass

25.4 Demand-Driven Electricity Commission from Solid Biofuels

25.5 Demand-Driven Electricity Commission from Liquid Biofuels

25.6 Demand-Driven Electricity Commission from Gaseous Biofuels

25.7 Potential for Flexible power Generation – Challenges and Opportunities

References

26 Options for Biofuel Production – Status and Perspectives

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Characteristics of Biofuel Technologies

26.3 System Analysis on Technical Aspects

26.4 System Analysis on Environmental Aspects

26.5 System Analysis on Economic Aspects

26.6 Conclusion and Outlook

References

Part V Storage

27 Energy Storage Technologies – Characteristics, Comparison, and Synergies

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Energy Storage Technologies

27.3 The Role of Energy Storage

27.4 Economic Evaluation of Energy Storage Systems

27.5 Conclusion

References

28 Advanced Batteries for Electric Vehicles and Energy Storage Systems

28.1 Introduction

28.2 R&D Status of Secondary Batteries

28.3 Secondary Batteries for Electric Vehicles

28.4 Secondary Batteries For Energy Storage Systems

28.5 Conclusion

References

29 Pumped Storage Hydropower

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Pumped Storage Technology

29.3 Environmental Impacts of Pumped Storage Hydropower

29.4 Challenges for Research and Development

29.5 Case Study: Large-Scale Energy Storage and Balancing from Norwegian Hydropower

29.6 System Analysis of Linking Wind and Flexible Hydropower

29.7 Conclusion

References

30 Chemical Storage of Renewable Electricity via Hydrogen – Principles and Hydrocarbon Fuels as an Example

30.1 Integration of Electricity in Chemical Fuel Production

30.2 Example: Hydrocarbon Fuels

30.3 Conclusion

30.4 Nomenclature

References

31 Geological Storage for the Transition from Natural to Hydrogen Gas

31.1 Current Situation

31.2 Natural Gas Storage

31.3 Requirements for Subsurface Storage

31.4 Geological Situation in Central Europe and Especially Germany

31.5 Types of Geological Gas Storage Sites

31.6 Comparisons with Other Locations and Further Considerations with Focus on Hydrogen Gas

31.7 Conclusion

References

32 Near-Surface Bulk Storage of Hydrogen

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Storage Parameters

32.3 Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen Storage

32.4 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen Storage

32.5 Metal Hydrides

32.6 Cost Estimates and Economic Targets

32.7 Technical Assessment

32.8 Conclusion

References

33 Energy Storage Based on Electrochemical Conversion of Ammonia

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Ammonia Properties and Historical Uses as an Energy Carrier

33.3 Pathways for Ammonia Conversion: Synthesis

33.4 Pathways for Ammonia Conversion: Energy Recovery

33.5 Comparison of Pathways

33.6 Conclusions

References

Part VI Distribution

34 Introduction to Transmission Grid Components

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Classification of Transmission System Components

34.3 Recent Developments of Transmission System Components

References

35 Introduction to the Transmission Networks

35.1 Introduction

35.2 The Transmission System – Development, Role, and Technical Limitations

35.3 The Transmission Grid in Europe – Current Situation and Challenges

35.4 Market Options for the Facilitation of Future Bulk Power Transport

35.5 Case Study

References

36 Smart Grid: Facilitating Cost-Effective Evolution to a Low-Carbon Future

36.1 Overview of the Present Electricity System Structure and Its Design and Operation Philosophy

36.2 System Integration Challenges of Low-Carbon Electricity Systems

36.3 Smart Grid: Changing the System Operation Paradigm

36.4 Quantifying the Benefits of Smart Grid Technologies in a Low-Carbon future

36.5 Integration of Demand-Side Response in System Operation and Planning

36.6 Implementation of Smart Grid: Distributed Energy Marketplace

References

37 Natural Gas Pipeline Systems

37.1 Physical and Chemical Fundamentals

37.2 Technological Design

37.3 Cutting Edge Technology of Today

37.4 Outlook on R&D Challenges

37.5 System Analysis

References

38 Introduction to a Future Hydrogen Infrastructure

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Technical Options for Hydrogen Production, Delivery, and Use in Vehicles

38.3 Economic and Environmental Characteristics of Hydrogen Supply Pathways

38.4 Strategies for Building a Hydrogen Infrastructure

38.5 Conclusion

References

39 Power to Gas

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Electrolysis

39.3 Methanation

39.4 Gas Storage

39.5 Gas Pipelines

39.6 End-Use Technologies

39.7 Evaluation of Process Chain Alternatives

39.8 Conclusion

References

Part VII Applications

40 Transition from Petro-Mobility to Electro-Mobility

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Recent Progress in Electric Drive Technologies

40.3 Energy Efficiency

40.4 The Challenge of Energy Transition

40.5 A New Environmental Paradigm: Sustainable Energy Transitions

40.6 Status of Transition Plans

40.7 Modeling and Analysis

40.8 Conclusion

References

41 Nearly Zero, Net Zero, and Plus Energy Buildings – Theory, Terminology, Tools, and Examples

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Physical and Balance Boundaries

41.3 Weighting Systems

41.4 Balance Types

41.5 Transient Characteristics

41.6 Tools

41.7 Examples and Experiences

41.8 Conclusion

References

42 China Road Map for Building Energy Conservation

42.1 Introduction

42.2 The Upper Bound of Building Energy Use in China

42.3 The Way to Realize the Targets of Building Energy Control in China

42.4 Conclusions

References

43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Electric Drives

43.2 Steam and Hot Water Generation

43.3 Other Industry Sectors

43.4 Overall Industry Sector

References

Subject Index

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Editors

Prof. Detlef StoltenForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEF-3: Fuel CellsLeo-Brandt-StraßeIEF-3: Fuel Cells52425 JülichGermany

Viktor SchererRuhr-Universität BochumLS f. Energieanlagen, IB 3/126Universitätsstr. 150LS f. Energieanlagen, IB 3/12644780 BochumGermany

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Cover Design Formgeber, Mannheim

Foreword

The Federal Government set out on the road to transforming the German energy system by launching its Energy Concept on 28 September 2010 and adopting the energy package on 6 June 2011. The intention is to make Germany one of the most energy-efficient economies in the world and to enter the era of renewable energy without delay. Quantitative energy and environmental targets have been set which define the basic German energy supply strategy until 2050.

Central goals are an 80–95% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared with 1990 figures, increasing the use of renewable energy to reach a 60% share of gross final energy consumption and 80% of gross electricity consumption, and reducing primary energy consumption by 50% relative to 2008 levels.

The Energiewende, as we call it, is among the most important challenges confronting Germany today – it is an enormous task for society as a whole. Urgent technological, economic, legal, and social issues need to be addressed quickly. Science and research bear a special responsibility in this process.

I very much welcome the comprehensive approach of the Third International Conference on Energy Process Engineering, which brings together international experts to discuss the potential of different technological options for a sustainable modern energy supply. This systemic perspective will help us find out whether individual technologies such as electrolysis can provide a sound basis for a new energy supply system or for closing existing infrastructure gaps.

The results of this international conference will be of great importance for further development, both in Germany and elsewhere. I would be happy to see our concept of a sustainable energy supply also gain ground in other countries.

Dr. Georg Schütte

State Secretary

Federal Ministry of Education and Research

Preface

Renewable energy gets increasingly important for its increasing share in the energy supply, the urgency to act on global climate change and not the least for its increasing competitiveness. Already today, renewable energies deliver substantial shares to the global final energy consumption. As of 2010 16.7% were generated by renewables, out of which 8.2% were accounted for modern renewables, comparing favorably to three times the share of nuclear energy. Worldwide over 20% of the electricity was produced by renewable energies in 2011, with 15.3% generated by hydropower and 5% by other renewables, breaking down into 2.1% wind power, biomass and 0.3% of solar electricity. Whereas hydropower and biomass for electricity were just slightly increasing in 2011, wind power increased over 30% and solar over 60%.

If available, hydropower is the most effective to use with installations from the kw-range to the biggest power plants of all kinds with 55 plants above 2 GW peaking in the 22.5 GW installed capacity at the Three Gorges Dam in China. Hydropower is also the most reliable renewable energy source that can be operated driven by consumer demand even better than most fossil power plants. Nonetheless, there are restrictions owing to ecological consequences of flooding larger areas and regulating rivers, relocating local people and topographic availability. Hydropower provides the majority of electricity in some countries, peaked by Norway with 95%, Brazil with 85%, Austria with 5 5% and Sweden with over 50%.

It is a major challenge though, to reach such high levels of other renewables for their fluctuating nature and their lower energy density that increases the necessary efforts for harnessing them. In other words, strong efforts for cost reductions are necessary to make them competitive to fossil power generation and additional measures are required to integrate them into the electric power grid.

Hence, modern renewables other than hydropower require a broader view of the energy pathway beyond electricity generation including transmission, storage and end-use if a transition to renewables – meaning the reliance on major shares of renewables – is attempted. Opportunities and complexity rise at the same time when electric transportation via batteries or fuel cells are included for propulsion of passenger cars and additionally biofuels are considered as a substitute for diesel in trucks, trains and aircraft.

This book provides a part on energy strategies as examples how a secure, safe and affordable energy supply can be organized relying on renewable energies.

It provides descriptions, data, facts and figures of the major technologies that have the potential to be Game Changers in power production considering the varying climates and topographies worldwide. It addresses biomass, gas production and storage in the same technical depth and includes chapters on power and gas distribution, including smart grids, as well as selected chapters on end-use of energy in transportation and the building sector.

These papers are based on the overview presentations of the 3rd ICEPE 2013, Transition to Renewable Energy Systems, held in Frankfurt, Germany.

DECHEMA is gratefully acknowledged for organizing the conference and supporting this book by making it part of the conference proceedings. The scientific support of the subdivision Energy Process Engineering of ProcessNet is gratefully acknowledged.

The contributions of the chapter authors are gratefully acknowledged as well as the support of Anke Wagner, Bernd Emonts and Michael Weber who helped us considerably in handling the issues associated with this book.

Not the least the great effort of the Wiley team is to be mentioned since they made it possible to have a fully copy-edited book within a time frame of twelve months from the concept to print.

We wish that this book will help professionals – be it in science, industry or politics – to complement their knowledge of technologies, and their scope of strategies to generate a transition to renewable energy systems.

Detlef Stolten

Juelich Research Center and RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Viktor Scherer

Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany

January 2013

List of Contributors

Göran AnderssonETH ZürichInstitut für El. EnergieübertragungETL G 26Physikstr. 38092 ZürichSwitzerlandKaroline AugensteinWuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt,Energie GmbHDöpperberg 1942103 WuppertalGermanyKornelis BlokECOFYS GERMANYAm Wassermann 3550829 KölnGermanyHarald BradkeFraunhofer-Institut fürSystem- und Innovationsforschung ISIBreslauer Straße 4876139 KarlsruheGermanyChristopher J. BromleyGNS ScienceWairakei Research CentrePrivate Bag 2000Taupo 3352New ZealandMarcelo CarmoForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHInstitut für Energie- und KlimaforschungIEK-3: ElektrochemischeVerfahrenstechnik52425 JülichGermanyPeng ChenTsinghua UniversityDepartment of Building Science and TechnologyBeijing 100084P.R. ChinaPo Wen ChengUniversity of StuttgartAllmandring 5b70569 StuttgartGermanyErland ChristensenVGB Power TechKlinkestraße 27–3145136 EssenGermanyYan DaTsinghua UniversityDepartment of Building Science and TechnologyBeijing 100084P.R. ChinaYvonne Y. DengECOFYS GERMANYAm Wassermann 3550829 KölnGermanyBernd EmontsForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyDavid FritzForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHInstitut für Energie- und KlimaforschungIEK-3: ElektrochemischeVerfahrenstechnik52425 JülichGermanyJürgen FuhrmannWeierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and StochasticsMohrenstraße 3910117 BerlinGermanyDavid L. GreeneOak Ridge National LaboratoryCenter for Transportation Analysis2360 Cherahala BlvdKnoxville, Tennessee 37932USAThomas GrubeForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyFernando Gutiérrez-MartinUniversidad Politécnica de MadridRda Valencia 328012 MadridSpainAtle HarbyStiftelsen SINTEFSem Sælands vei 117465 TrondheimNorwayAndreas HauerZAE BayernWalther-Meißner-Str. 685748 GarchingGermanyLion HirthStrategic Analysis (FYCA)Vattenfall GmbHChausseestraße 2310115 BerlinGermanyDieter HolmISES AfricaP.O. Box 580216 HartbeespoortSouth AfricaUlrich HueckDESERTEC FoundationFerdinandstr. 28-3020095 HamburgGermanyColin ImrieScottish GovernmentEnergy and Climate ChangeDirectorate4th floor, 5 Atlantic QuayBroomielaw, GlasgowScotlandUKDavid InfieldUniversity of Strathclyde16 Richmond StreetGlasgow G1 1XQScotlandUKAnund KillingtveitDepartment of Hydraulic & Environmental EngineeringS. P. Andersens veg 57491 TrondheimNorwayWil KlingEindhoven University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringDen Dolech 25600 EindhovenThe NetherlandsThilo KrauseETH ZürichInstitut für El. EnergieübertragungETL G 26Physikstr. 38092 ZürichSwitzerlandDavid KrohnRenewable UKGreencoat HouseFrancis StreetLondon SW1P 1DHUKBunesh KumarForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyEberhard LävemannZAE BayernWalther-Meißner-Str. 685748 GarchingGermanyTae Won LimHyundai Motor Company’s Fuel CellVehicle Group104, Mabuk-Dong, Giheung-Gu,Yongin-Si,Gyunggi-Do, 446-912South KoreaGerald LinkeE.ON New Build & TechnologyGlobal EngineeringAlexander-von-Humboldt-Str. 145896 GelsenkirchenGermanyRoberto LolliniBergische Universität WuppertalFachbereich D – ArchitekturCampus – HaspelHaspeler Str. 2742285 WuppertalGermanyGustav MelinSvebioHolländargatan 17111 60 StockholmSwedenJürgen MergelForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHInstitut für Energie- und KlimaforschungIEK-3: ElektrochemischeVerfahrenstechnik52425 JülichGermanyMichael A. MongilloGNS ScienceWairakei Research CentrePrivate Bag 2000Taupo 3352New ZealandFranziska Müller-LangerDBFZ DeutschesBiomasseforschungszentrumgemeinnützige GmbHTorgauer Str. 11604347 LeipzigGermanyEike Musall MusallBergische Universität WuppertalFachbereich D – ArchitekturCampus – HaspelHaspeler Str. 2742285 WuppertalGermanyJoan OgdenUniversity of California DavisInstitute for Transportation StudiesOne Shields AvenueDavis, CA 95616USASeung Mo OhSeoul National UniversityChemical and Biological Engineering599 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-guSeoul 151-744Republic of KoreaAlexander OttoForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyCarsten PetersdorffECOFYS GERMANYAm Wassermann 3550829 KölnGermanyRobert Pitz-PaalDeutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR)Institut für SolarforschungLinder Höhe51147 KölnJosh QuinnellZAE BayernWalther-Meißner-Str. 685748 GarchingGermanyBernd RechHelmholtz Zentrum BerlinKekuléstrasse 512489 BerlinGermanyMartin RobiniusForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyCarsten RolleBundesverband der DeutschenIndustrie11053 BerlinGermanyIgor SartoriBergische Universität WuppertalFachbereich D – ArchitekturCampus – HaspelHaspeler Str. 2742285 WuppertalGermanyChristian SattlerDeutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V.Institut für technischeThermodynamik – SolarforschungLinder Höhe51147 KölnGermanyGeorg SchaubEngler-Bunte-InstitutBereich Chemische Energieträger – BrennstofftechnologieEngler-Bunte-Ring 1 (Geb. 40.02)76131 KarlsruheGermanyHanna ScheckWuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt,Energie GmbHDöpperberg 1942103 WuppertalGermanySebastian SchiebahnForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyUwe SchneidewindWuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt,Energie GmbHDöpperberg 1942103 WuppertalGermanyArmin SchnettlerRWTH AachenInstitut für HochspannungstechnikSchinkelstraße 252056 AachenGermanyDetlef StoltenForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyGoran StrbacDepartment of Electrical and Electronic EngineeringImperial College LondonSouth Kensington CampusLondon, SW7 2AZUKChungmo SungKorea Hwarangno14-gil 5 Seongbuk-guSeoul, 136-791Republic of KoreaDaniela ThränHelmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltforschung – UFZPermoserstr. 1504318 LeipzigGermanyVanessa TietzeForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyHirohisa UchidaTokai UniversityDepartment of Nuclear Engineering1117 Kitakaneme, Hiratuka-shiKanagawa 259-1292JapanKees van der LeunECOFYS GERMANYAm Wassermann 3550829 KölnGermanyKarsten VossBergische Universität WuppertalFachbereich D – ArchitekturCampus – HaspelHaspeler Str. 2742285 WuppertalGermanyJüergen WackerlForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyMichael WeberForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermanyZhang XiliangInstitute of Energy, Environment and EconomyTsinghua UniversityBeijing 100084ChinaJiang YiTsinghua UniversityDepartment of Building Science and TechnologyBeijing 100084P.R. ChinaLi ZhaoForschungszentrum Jülich GmbHIEK-3 Institut für En. & KlimaforschungWilhelm-Johnen-Str.52428 JülichGermany

Part I

Renewable Strategies

1

South Korea’s Green Energy Strategies

Deokyu Hwang, Suhyeon Han, and Changmo Sung

1.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of South Korea’s green energy strategies and policy goals set under the National Strategy for Green Growth: (1) government-driven strategies and policy towards green growth; (2) to narrow down the focus and concentrate on R&D for a new growth engine; and (3) to promote renewable energy industries.

The Republic of Korea is the world’s fifth largest importer of oil and the third largest importer of coal [1] (see Table 1.1). Our green growth plan is to increase the share of new and renewable energy in the total energy supply from 2.7% in 2009 to 3.78% in 2013; we aim to double that share to 6.08% by 2020 and 11% by 2030 (Figure 1.1). The statistics of energy consumption from 2000 to 2010 in South Korea are presented in Table 1.2. The energy policy has focused on dealing with oil prices and supply during the post-oil shock period in the mid-1970s [2], but today’s energy policy includes the plan and actions for addressing climate change and environment protection and securing energy resources. The Korean government has strategically emphasized the development of 27 key national green technologies in areas such as solar and bio-energy technologies, and pursued the target through various policy measures, such as the Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS), waste energy, and the One Million Green Homes Project.

Figure 1.1 A scenario of renewable energy utilization plan from 2008 to 2030; toe, tonnes of oil equivalent.

Source: MKE [3].

Table 1.1 Producers, net exporters, and net importers of crude oil, natural gas, and coal.

Source: IEA [1].

Table 1.2 Statistics of energy consumption (thousand toe) from 2000 to 2010 in South Korea.

Source: MKE [13].

Thus, Korea’s plan is to reduce carbon emissions, improve energy security, create new economic growth engines, and improve the quality of life based on green technologies.

In August 2008, Korean President Lee announced a “low-carbon, green growth” strategy as a new vision to guide the nation’s long-term development. Five months later (January 2009), the Korean government responded to the deepening recession with an economic stimulus package, equivalent to US$ 38.1 billion, of which 80% was allocated towards the more efficient use of resources such as freshwater, waste, energy-efficient buildings, renewable energies, low-carbon vehicles, and the railroad network. In July 2009, a Five-Year Plan for Green Growth was announced to serve as a mid-term plan for implementing the National Strategy for Green Growth between 2009 and 2013, with a fund totaling US$ 83.6 billion, representing 2% of Korea’s GDP. It was expected to create 160 000 jobs in the green sector, providing opportunities for both skilled and unskilled labor; the forecast rate was ∼35 000 additional jobs per year between 2009 and 2013 [4].

The national goals had been established through strategies and policies such as the Presidential Committee on Green Growth [4], the National Basic Energy Plan and Green Energy Industry Development Strategy [5], the Basic Act on Low Carbon Green Growth and Related Legislation [6], and National Strategy and Five-Year Implementation Plan [4]. Eventually, the goal for Korea is to move away from the traditional “brown economy” to a “green economy” model where long-term prosperity and sustainability are the key objectives.

1.2 Government-Driven Strategies and Policies

In an effort to push forward the national goals, the Presidential Committee on Green Growth (PCGG) [4] was launched to facilitate collaboration in deliberating and coordinating various green growth policies across ministries and agencies. Green growth committees were also set up under local governments. Both the central government and local governments worked out 5 year green growth plans and have invested 2% of the GDP annually. Also, the Korean government was the first in the world to lay the groundwork for the continued pursuit of green growth by enacting the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth. It paved the way for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in a groundbreaking manner through a market system by legislating the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Act, supported across various political parties. Thus the government prepared the legal and institutional groundwork and also the framework for putting green growth as the new paradigm for national progress into practice.

The National Basic Energy Plan [7] established specific measures to increase energy efficiency, decrease energy intensity, and achieve the target to increase the renewable energy portfolio to 11% by 2030. The government plans on reaching this target by implementing programs such as the Smart Grid, the Two Million Homes strategy (which aims to have two million homes run on a mix of renewable energy resources by the end of 2018) and an 11 year renewable energy portfolio standard (RPS), which will replace the Renewable Portfolio Agreement (RPA) and feed-in tariffs (FITs) currently in operation by 2012. In 2005, the Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE)’s predecessor, the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, established the RPA, signing an agreement with the nine largest energy suppliers to provide financial support of US$ 1.1 billion between 2006 and 2008 and administrative support for clean and renewable energy projects. The aim was to increase the use of clean and renewable energy in the industrial sector and reduce 170 000 tons of GHG FIT regulations mandate electricity utilities to buy electricity generated by clean and renewable energy at a price fixed by the government, which then compensates the utility to offset the difference in price from conventional energy supplies. It has been noted that the FIT market-based instrument has been the driver behind the increased supply of clean and renewable energy in the nation but has also been criticized as being anti-competitive and causing difficulty in forecasting electricity generation. Because of this, the government planned to replace the FIT in 2012 with the RPS that will mandate utilities to generate a specific amount of clean and renewable energy. The RPS will be operated by the MKE and will mandate utilities with generation capacity over 2000 MW to obtain certain amount of renewable energy. The amount of renewable generation mandated was 2% in 2012, increasing to 10% in 2022. Participants will be able to meet their quotas either by buying renewable energy certificates (RECs) from independent power providers, or by earning RECs through their own generation. The expected share of the individual green energy sources for the 11% for 2030 is illustrated in terms of photovoltaics (PV), wind, bioenergy, and so on in Table 1.3.

There were two approaches leading this green energy technology effort: (1) select 27 key green technologies to concentrate on while bridging the technology gap, and (2) establish an assistance program for green technology R&D to lead emerging green technology for the future. The Green Energy Industry Development Strategy focused on both early growth engine technologies, such as PV, wind, smart grids and LEDs, and next-generation growth engines, including carbon capture and storage, fuel cells, and integrated gasification and combined cycle technologies.

PCGG developed the legislative framework for green growth, called the Basic Act on Low Carbon Green Growth. In January 2010, the Korean President signed and promulgated this Act, which mandated a target for GHG emission reductions, renewable energy supply, and energy savings and security.

Table 1.3 Prediction of renewable energy demand (thousand toe) and (in parentheses) the expected share of the individual green energy sources (%).

Source: MKE [3].

1.3 Focused R&D Strategies

For the growth of renewable energy, strategic R&D is required. The Korean government has identified renewable energy as its next engine for growth by focusing on selected R&D investments and increasing its budget (Figure 1.2 and Table 1.4). In 2011, the MKE announced the strategy of renewable energy R&D [8] by selecting five core sectors for power generation technologies: PV, wind power, bioenergy, coal, and fuel cells.

Figure 1.2 R&D budget of renewable energy in South Korea.

Table 1.4 R&D budget of renewable energy in South Korea.

Source: GTC-K [9].

The commercial and technical feasibility of renewable energy requires a considerable level of R&D and field demonstration. It also requires a fully integrated approach across many interdepartmental agencies. For example, offshore wind projects [10] have been planned for both South Korea’s southwest coast and the southern island of Jeju. Its target has been to generate 100 MW offshore wind capacity by 2013, and to achieve 600 MW by 2016 and 2.5 GW by 2019. This included not only an increased R&D budget, but also an intensive field demonstration project plan for global applications.

1.4 Promotion of Renewable Energy Industries

Based on a consensus among public and private stakeholders, the national strategy for renewable energy envisaged three main directions: (1) a technology roadmap, (2) dissemination and commercialization of technologies, and (3) promotion of export and revenue growth. The Technology Roadmap [3] for green energy placed periodic goals for the industrialization of technology development in three phases: phase I (2008–2010), phase II (2011–2020), and phase III (2021–2030). This roadmap linked a product from commercialization to the global market. From the 27 green technologies, several core technologies were selected to promote global market domination through renewable energy convergence strategies. In the past, the government has driven the dissemination and commercialization of technologies [3]; however, the policy was changed to promote private sector-led approaches for competitiveness. This was mainly because the government-driven policy appeared to limit the effectiveness of performance.

For the past few years, supporting strategies for export and business growth [11] have been successful. For example, major energy firms with both financial assurance and tax support mechanisms successfully built a system for corporate growth. Today, private sector participation has been promoted actively through drastic regulatory improvements. The Korean government has established the “Reregulation Support Centre” to support SMEs entering overseas markets. As a result, Korea’s relative clean technology ranking has improved from eighth to fifth, being one of the world’s top five fastest climbers (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Relative clean technology ranking.

Source: van der Slot and van den Berg [12].

1.5 Present and Future of Green Energy in South Korea

Although there is still much to be accomplished, South Korea has successfully pushed its green technology initiatives in the last 4 years. With continued support by the government and private sector, South Korea should expect further momentum with the changing economic landscape, as green industries are emerging as a new growth engine. As a consequence, the green industry has been growing rapidly, and the export of green products is rising sharply. The government’s efforts in expanding R&D in green technology has transformed the way in which companies have invested in top-ranking green technologies, which is now attracting the attention of the global markets.

With regard to the international proliferation for green growth, South Korea will increase its green Official Development Assistance (ODA) to more than US$ 5 billion from 2013 to 2020. South Korea’s green ODA will shift to the Global Green Growth Partnership. To support green growth systematically in developing countries, South Korea will work through the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), which was founded in June 2010. The Institute will expedite cooperation between developing and developed nations, while encouraging partnerships between the private and public sectors. In this way, developing countries will receive the necessary policy support, in addition to skills and know-how, more efficiently.

In March 2012, the Green Technology Center Korea (GTC-K) was launched to become the hub for technical cooperation needed to support green growth in the developing world. GTC-K is also responsible for training and educating international experts in relevant fields. The GGGI will be the centerpiece of the global green growth strategy, whereas GTC-K will be the technology arm of green growth in developing countries. The Green Climate Fund was created as the result of the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Durban, South Africa, in December 2011. The fund will provide financial resources for green growth strategies and technologies. With strategy, technology, and finance addressed in this green triangle, it is the hope that green growth initiatives will escalate. South Korea will continue to strive to build on this green triangle, so that this architecture can be utilized by all developing and developed countries.

References

1 International Energy Agency (2012) Key World Energy Statistics. Statistics Book, IEA, Paris, pp. 11–15.

2 Lee, H. J. and Won Yoon, S. W. (2010) Renewable Energy Policy in Germany and Its Implications for Korea, Korea Institute for Industrial Economics and Trade (KIET), Seoul, p. 13.

3 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2008) The 3rd Basic Renewable Energy R&D and Utilization Plan. Government Report, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Seoul.

4 Presidential Committee on Green Growth (2009) National Strategy and Five-Year Implementation Plan (2009–2013). Government Report, Presidential Committee on Green Growth, Seoul.

5 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2008) Green Energy Industry Development Strategy. Government Report, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Seoul.

6 (2010) Basic Act on Low Carbon Green Growth and Related Legislation.

7 Prime Minister’s Office (2008) National Basic Energy Plan (2008–2030). Government report, Prime Minister’s Office, Seoul.

8 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2008) Renewable Energy R&D Strategy. Government Report, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Seoul.

9 Green Technology Centre Korea (2012). National Green Technology R&D Analysis, Green Technology Centre Korea, Seoul.

10 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2010) Offshore Wind Projects. Government Report, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Seoul.

11 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2012) Renewable Energy R&D and Utilization Action Plan. Government report, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Seoul.

12 van der Slot, A. and van den Berg, W. (2012) Clean Economy, Living Planet, Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Amsterdam, p. 6.

13 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2011) Yearbook of Energy Statistics, Ministry of Knowledige Economy, Seoul.

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