Vitamins as Nutraceuticals E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Vitamins as Nutraceuticals The book examines the development of nutraceutical products featuring maximizing the vitamin benefits to human health and various health conditions. Since vitamins are widely predicted to be one of the most significant nutritional advancements over the next 25 years, the editors of this book have brought together renowned experts in the field to provide a single authoritative resource for the nutraceutical sector. It is being published at a time when there is a pressing need to address the rising number of cases of nutritional deficiency disorders and the high number of deaths caused by a lack of knowledge or a deviation from healthy eating habits. The book contains 12 chapters and begins by defining and classifying the field of vitamins, with a focus on legislative issues in both the United States and the European Union. In addition to discussing recent advances and applications, this book also includes scientific information on the importance of vitamins as nutraceuticals to human health, as well as the potential mechanisms of nutraceuticals in illness prevention, management, and control. The focus is on vitamins as nutraceuticals for health conditions such as human nutrition, pregnancy, oral health, anemia, and blindness. The book also explores the structure and function of various vitamins and covers the impact of various vitamins on immunity and the nutraceutical properties of seaweed vitamins and marine-derived sources of nutritional vitamins. The beneficial effects of water-soluble vitamins in nutrition, health promotion, and nutraceutical potential of fat-soluble vitamins, are also discussed. Audience The book will be read by a range of researchers and industry scientists such as vitamin formulators, food scientists and food manufacturers, as well as those in the pharmaceutical industry, nanotech industry, novel drug delivery research laboratories, and the health sector.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Introduction to Nutraceutical Vitamins
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D, E, F, and K
1.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
2 Structure and Functions of Vitamins
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structural Discussion
2.3 Conclusion
References
3 Vitamin Intervention in Cardiac Health
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Vitamin Deficiency and Cardiovascular Disease
3.3 Vitamin Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease
3.4 Clinical Research Suggesting Antioxidant Vitamins’ Beneficial Effects in CVP
3.5 Beneficial Effects of B Vitamins in CVP
3.6 Role of Vitamin D in Cardiovascular Health
3.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
4 Impact of Vitamins on Immunity
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vitamin-Rich Foods for the Management of Immune System-Related Diseases
4.3 Fat-Soluble Vitamins Reported in the Literature Commonly Used in the Treatment of the Immune System-Related Diseases
4.4 Water Soluble Vitamins Reported in the Literature Commonly Used in the Treatment of the Immune System-Related Diseases
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
5 Nutraceuticals Potential of Fat-Soluble Vitamins
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Prospective Market Potential of Vitamin K2
5.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
6 Marine-Derived Sources of Nutritional Vitamins
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Marine-Based Beneficial Molecules
6.3 Beneficial Molecules from Marine Macroalgae
6.4 Fish Oil
6.5 EAA in Protein Supplement Systems
6.6 Minerals in Seafood for Human Diet
6.7 Marine-Based Vitamin Sources
6.8 Dopamine in Seafood as Drug and Supplement
6.9 Bioactive Peptides From Marine Sources
6.10 Gelatin From Marine Sources
6.11 Health Benefit of Nano-Based Materials for Bioactive Compounds from Marine-Based Sources
6.12 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
7 Nutraceutical Properties of Seaweed Vitamins
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Bioactive Compounds from Seaweeds
7.3 Seaweed Vitamins as Nutraceuticals
7.4 Types of Seaweed Vitamin
7.5 Vitamin Composition in Seaweed
7.6 Future Perspectives
7.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
8 Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Pregnancy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Role of Important Vitamins in Pregnancy
8.3 Concept of Nutraceuticals
8.4 Targeted Nutrition Foods for Pregnancy
8.5 Concentrations of Vitamins During Pregnancy
8.6 Role of Vitamins in the Body
8.7 Herbal Sources as a Vitamin
8.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
9 Role of Vitamins in Metabolic Diseases
Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Metabolic Diseases
9.3 Can Ascorbic Acid Lead to Cancer?
9.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
10 Beneficial Effects of Water‑Soluble Vitamins in Nutrition and Health Promotion
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Beneficial Effects of Vitamins on Nutrition
10.3 Beneficial Effects of Water-Soluble Vitamins in Health Promotion
10.4 Future Prospective of Water-Soluble Vitamins
10.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
11 Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Anemia
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Anemia
11.3 Role of Vitamins in Nutraceuticals for Anemia
11.4 Structure of Vitamins
11.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
12 Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Oral Health
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Vitamins
12.3 Role of Vitamins as Nutraceutical for Oral Health
12.4 Before Nutraceuticals
12.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Summary of vitamins [59–74].
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Specific vitamins have impact on the immune system-related disease...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Fat-soluble vitamins and their health benefit.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Recent results on seafood-based fat-soluble vitamin sources.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Types of seaweed vitamins and their properties.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Scientific name, source, deficiency diseases of vitamins.
Table 8.2 Role of vitamin in body.
Table 8.3 Common name, biological name, constituent, vitamin involved and he...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Vitamins and their food sources.
Table 9.2 Water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
Table 9.3 Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for vitamin A.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Vitamins and their sources [9].
Table 10.2 Vitamins and related deficiencies.
Table 10.3 Recommended dietary intake of water soluble vitamins in mg/d [7]....
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Classification of nutraceuticals [7].
Table 11.2 Causes of anemia in intensive care.
Table 11.3 Types of vitamins and their roles.
Table 11.4 Name of vitamins with their structure.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Difference between nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals [24].
Table 12.2 Difference between functional foods and nutraceuticals.
Table 12.3 List of vitamins with the year of discovery.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Classification of vitamins.
Figure 2.2 The chemical structure of vitamin A.
Figure 2.3 The chemical structure of vitamin D.
Figure 2.4 The chemical structure of vitamin E.
Figure 2.5 The chemical structure of vitamin K.
Figure 2.6 The chemical structure of vitamin B1.
Figure 2.7 The chemical structure of vitamin B2.
Figure 2.8 The chemical structure of vitamin B3.
Figure 2.9 The chemical structure of vitamin B7.
Figure 2.10 The chemical structure of vitamin B9.
Figure 2.11 The chemical structure of vitamin B12.
Figure 2.12 Ascorbic acid.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Associations between variations in the plasma concentration of se...
Figure 3.2 Conceptual diagram illustrating the main routes that a vitamin D ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Classification of the fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.
Figure 4.2 Role of vitamins in the immune system-related diseases.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Classification of nutraceuticals.
Figure 5.2 Function of vitamin K.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Biological properties of beneficial molecules derived from marine...
Figure 6.2 Composition of fish oil.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Bioactive compounds in seaweeds.
Figure 7.2 Seaweeds vitamins and different sources.
Figure 7.3 Therapeutic properties of seaweeds vitamins.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Vitamins and body functions [10, 11].
Figure 8.2 Diagrammatic representation of concept of nutraceuticals [65].
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Solubility of vitamins.
Figure 10.2 Water-soluble vitamin and their subtypes.
Figure 10.3 Classification of vitamin according to their solubility.
Figure 10.4 Flowchart for discovery of vitamins.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Types of anemia.
Figure 11.2 Sources of iron.
Figure 11.3 Sources of vitamin A.
Figure 11.4 Sources of vitamin C.
Figure 11.5 Sources of vitamin E.
Figure 11.6 Sources of folate.
Figure 11.7 Sources of vitamin B
12
.
Figure 11.8 Sources of riboflavin.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Classification of vitamin based on solubility.
Figure 12.2 Vitamin C rich fruits.
Figure 12.3 Sources of Vitamin D.
Figure 12.4 Vitamin E sources.
Figure 12.5 Vitamin K
2
sources.
Figure 12.6 Vitamin A source.
Figure 12.7 Vitamin B sources.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Vitamins as Nutraceuticals
Recent Advances and Applications
Edited by
Eknath D. AhireRaj K. KeservaniKhemchand R. SuranaSippy SinghandRajesh K. Kesharwani
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-139-417470-6
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Preface
Since vitamins are widely predicted to be one of the most significant nutritional advancements over the next 25 years, the editors of this book have brought together renowned experts in the field to provide a single authoritative resource for the nutraceutical sector. This book begins by defining and classifying the field of vitamins, with a focus on legislative issues in both the United States and the European Union. The important work of vitamins as nutraceuticals in disease prevention is then summarized. Finally, a chapter on establishing vitamins as nutraceuticals is presented, which also discusses the recent advances and applications in the field.
In addition to discussing recent advances and applications, this book also includes scientific information on the importance of vitamins as nutraceuticals to human health, as well as the potential mechanisms of nutraceuticals in illness prevention, management, and control. It is being published at a time when there is a pressing need to address the rising number of cases of nutritional deficiency disorders and the high number of deaths caused by a lack of knowledge or a deviation from healthy eating habits. As such, it is intended to serve a constructive purpose as a replacement for unverifiable sources of information on the internet and within extremely outdated literature, which can be full of all kinds of promotional propaganda for profit while also leading people astray. The general population must understand what they should eat and why they should take certain nutritional supplements. This book furthers this goal by balancing the evidence in terms of the health-promoting benefits and associated hazards of vitamins as nutraceuticals. A summary of the main ideas and supporting details of the work presented in each of the 12 chapters follows:
– In
Chapter 1
, Introduction to Nutraceutical Vitamins, Khemchand R. Surana and his coworker present an overview of several bioactive compounds (vitamins) that operate as nutraceuticals. In addition to reviewing their health benefits, nutraceutical applications for the prevention of several diseases are also discussed.
– In
Chapter 2
, Structure and Functions of Vitamins, Khemchand R. Surana and his colleagues provide an extensive overview of the current evidence on the health implications of food vitamins and also include the effects of emerging technologies on vitamins.
– In
Chapter 3
, Vitamin Intervention in Cardiac Health, Eknath D. Ahire
et al.
analyze the pertinent research on the role of various vitamins in cardiovascular disease, taking into account both their deficiencies and their supplementation, as well as looking at a few related concerns.
– In
Chapter 4
, Impact of Vitamins on Immunity, Khemchand R. Surana
et al.
focus on the function of nutrients in immunity and immune-associated diseases. They present the findings of a scientific practitioner and a team of researchers, who observed the ways in which multivitamins and some micronutrients can assist in enhancing the immune system.
– In
Chapter 5
, Nutraceuticals Potential of Fat-Soluble Vitamins, Ashwini Mahajan
et al.
focus on fat-soluble vitamins and their potential use as nutraceuticals.
– In
Chapter 6
, Marine-Derived Sources of Nutritional Vitamins, Jayesh D. Kadam and his associates provide an overview of a number of recently studied beneficial compounds of marine origin that show great potential as nutraceuticals or for use in the food industry.
– In
Chapter 7
, Nutraceutical Properties of Seaweed Vitamins, Afsar Pathan and his coworker discuss the use of seaweeds as potential sources of seaweed-based vitamin-containing products and their potential therapeutic role in them.
– In
Chapter 8
, Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Pregnancy, Tushar N. Lokhande and his colleagues discuss how vitamins aid in the development of the fetal immune system. Various herbal remedies as a source of vitamins during pregnancy are also discussed.
– In
Chapter 9
, Role of Vitamins in Metabolic Diseases, Eknath D. Ahire and his associates present the way in which vitamins can help avoid metabolic diseases like diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, stroke, renal disease, cancer, and others, as well as how they can cause metabolic disease in some situations.
– In
Chapter 10
, Beneficial Effects of Water-Soluble Vitamins on Nutrition and Health Promotion, Pankaj G. Jain
et al.
discuss how vitamin deficiency causes the suffering brought on by many harsh diseases. In order to overcome this, dietary supplements are provided to maintain the proper amount of vitamins in the body for overall better body performance.
– In
Chapter 11
, Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Anemia, Snehal Dilip Pawar and coworker discuss how vegetables like cabbage and cauliflower, and oil and fat like sunflower oil and soyabean oil, are rich in vitamins C and E and various sources of folate and riboflavin that help in the prevention of anemia.
– In
Chapter 12
, Vitamins as Nutraceuticals for Oral Health, Snehal Dilip Pawar and his colleagues discuss the different types of vitamins which help in the prevention of oral diseases to improve oral health.
In closing, we wish to express our sincere gratitude for the outstanding efforts of the chapter contributors for their perseverance and collaboration throughout the editing process. Their dedication and hard work have greatly aided in the development of this book. Our families also deserve special recognition for their support and patience throughout the process of producing this book.
The EditorsFebruary 2023
1Introduction to Nutraceutical Vitamins
Khemchand R. Surana1*, Eknath D. Ahire2, Shital J. Patil3, Sunil K. Mahajan3, Dhananjay M. Patil4 and Deepak D. Sonawane4
1 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shreeshakti Shaikshanik Sanstha, Divine College of Pharmacy, Satana, Nashik, MH, India
2 Department of Pharmaceutics, MET’s Institute of Pharmacy, BKC, Affiliated to SPPU, Adgaon, Nashik, MH, India
3 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, MGV’s Pharmacy College, Panchavati, Nashik, MH, India
4 Department of Pharmaceutics, Shreeshakti Shaikshanik Sanstha, Divine College of Pharmacy, Satana, Nashik, MH, India
Abstract
Vitamins are low-molecular weight organic compounds that are required for life activity in trace amounts for essential metabolic reactions, with deficiency causing specific disease symptoms. Vitamins do not include other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids, nor do they include the large number of other nutrients that promote health but do not provide cellular structural material and energy. Plants and microbes provided vitamins to animals. Vitamins are divided into two categories: fat-soluble (A, D, and E) and water-soluble (B, C, and P). Natural diets, herbal items, biofortified crops, genetically modified, and processed food products are all examples of nutraceuticals. Beyond basic diet, nutraceuticals improve health, alter immunity, and/or prevent and cure certain diseases. An overview of several bioactive compounds (vitamins) that operate as nutraceuticals has been reviewed in this chapter, as well as their involvement in health benefits. Nutraceutical applications in the prevention of several diseases have also been discussed.
Keywords: Nutraceuticals, vitamins, nutrition, dietary requirements, food
1.1 Introduction
Vitamins were discovered as a result of research into nutrition and their significance in the vital activities of living organisms. N. I. Lunin, a Russian physician, was the first to show in 1880 that, in addition to the recognized basic components (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, water, and minerals), some other accessory ingredients were required for the organism’s appropriate growth and maintenance [1]. While researching the causes of Beriberi in 1905, the English physician W. Fletcher noticed that eating unpolished rice instead of polished rice prevented Beriberi, and he hypothesized the existence of some specific nutrients in the rice husk. C. Funk, a Polish biochemist, coined the term “vitamin” in 1912, combining the Latin words “vita” for life and “amine” for chemicals found in the thiamine he extracted from rice bran [2]. Vitamin was eventually abbreviated to vitamin. Vitamins are chemical substances with a low molecular weight that are required in trace amounts for critical metabolic activities in the body and whose absence results in certain illness symptoms. Additional necessary nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids, as well as the enormous number of other nutrients that support health, are not included in the term vitamin. Vitamins, unlike other organic nutrients that give cellular structure material and energy, either engage in coenzyme formation or operate as biochemical process regulators [3]. A vitamin deficiency causes organism-specific symptoms that may or may not be alleviated by other vitamins. Plants and microbes provided vitamins to the animal world. Vitaminoids include flavonoids, inositol, carnitine, choline, lipoic acid, and essential fatty acids, which have “vitamin-like” function and are believed by some to be vitamins or to partially replace vitamins [4]. There is minimal evidence that any of these are dietary essentials, with the exception of essential fatty acids. With the exception of vitamin B6 and B12, they are easily eliminated in urine and do not store well, necessitating frequent ingestion. They are generally safe when consumed in excess of requirements, though megadoses of niacin, vitamin C, or pyridoxine may cause symptoms (B6). All of the B vitamins work as coenzymes or cofactors, helping essential enzymes in their activity and allowing energy-producing reactions to complete smoothly. Overcooking can easily destroy water-soluble vitamins. Vitamin K and several B complex vitamins are generated by bacteria in the small intestine in the human body; vitamin D is synthesized by the skin when exposed to sunshine [5]. Ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans and guinea pigs since it is not formed in their tissues, but it is not a vitamin for rats, rabbits, or dogs because it is synthesized in their cells. Vitamins are obtained from food and gut microorganisms in humans [6].
Chronic or long-term vitamin insufficiency causes avitaminosis (beri-beri, scurvy, rickets, and pellagra). Hypovitaminosis is a term used to describe a variety of disorders caused by a lack of one or more vitamins. Antivitamins are substances either degrade or inhibit a vitamin’s metabolic function. Vitamin disintegrating enzymes (thiaminase and ascorbase), nonactive complexes with vitamins (avidin), and physically identical to vitamins (sulphonamides) are examples of antivitamins. Hypervitaminosis, also known as vitamin intoxication, is a disorder caused by a continuous high intake of vitamins or vitamin supplements, which can cause nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting [7]. General symptoms of hypervitaminosis, or vitamin intoxication, include lack of appetite, gastrointestinal motor function problems, severe headaches, increased nervous system excitability, hair shedding, skin desquamation, and other indicators. Hypervitaminosis has the potential to be lethal. Hypervitaminosis can be caused by consuming too much fat-soluble vitamin-rich food (for example, the liver of a polar bear or whale, which is high in vitamin A), or by taking too many vitamin pills [8].
Nutraceuticals are also said to slow the aging process, enhance life expectancy, and maintain the body’s structure and function. Herbal nutraceuticals help to sustain health by fighting nutritionally induced acute and chronic diseases, as well as promoting optimal health, lifespan, and quality of life. Because of their supposed safety and possible nutritional and therapeutic advantages, nutraceuticals have sparked a lot of attention. Nutraceuticals are divided into two categories: functional foods and dietary supplements. Supplementation and the use of formulated or fortified foods can help people enhance their health [9]. Vitamin B–enriched flour helps to prevent pellagra, vitamin D-enriched milk helps to prevent rickets, and iodine-fortified salt helps to prevent goiter. Commercial nutraceuticals must pass stringent regulatory tests to ensure their quality and beneficial health effects. Functional foods are processed foods that contain nutritious elements that assist healthy body functioning and were initially developed in Japan. Beyond the fundamental nutritional content, a functional meal with novel components provides an additional function or greater benefit to human health. Medical foods and prescription medications are not the same as functional foods [10, 11].
1.1.1 Multivitamins
Multivitamins are lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) as well as water-soluble vitamins (thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), B6, B12, C, folic acid, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin). They are available over-the-counter (OTC) and as self-prescribed diet/nutritional supplements. Minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, iodine, magnesium, manganese, copper, and zinc may be found in multivitamins [12, 13].
1.1.2 Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are divided into two classes based on their physicochemical properties: fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins. A letter of the Latin alphabet, as well as a chemical or physiologic name, is allocated to each vitamin in each category. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed and stored in bodily tissues via fat globules (chylomicrons). Excessive fat-soluble vitamin consumption can result in excessive buildup and hypervitaminosis [14, 15].
1.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D, E, F, and K
1.2.1 Vitamin A
All foods of animal origin provide vitamin A to humans. Vitamin A is abundant in fish liver particularly that of cod and banded sea perch. Pork and beef liver, egg yolk, sour cream, and whole milk are high in vitamin A. Carotenoids, which are provitamins A, are found in vegetables, such as asparagus, beet, celery, carrots, cabbage, dandelion, lettuce, endive, orange, turnip leaf, tomato, prune, parsley, spinach, and watercress. As a result, if the conversion of alimentary carotenoids to vitamin A is not impeded, vegetables give a partial supply of vitamin A to the human organism. The adult human’s daily vitamin A requirement is 1.5 mg [16–18].
Chemical nature and biologically active forms
Retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid are diterpenoid alcohols (unsaturated monobasic alcohols), as are other provitamin A carotenoids such as a-and b-carotenes, b-cryptoxanthin, and others. Retinol and its derivatives are referred to as retinoids together. A typical synthetic vitamin A supplement is retinyl palmitate (vitamin A palmitate), which is an ester of retinol (vitamin A) and palmitic acid. Retinol, often known as vitamin A, is a chemical isoprenoid generated mostly from b-carotene, which has a b-ionone ring and a side chain of two isoprene residues with a main carbinol group at the end [19]. There are at least six vitamer (vitamin with similar molecular structure) substances that qualify as “vitamin A,” but each has slightly different qualities (e.g., retinol, retinal, and four carotenoids: a, b, c, and d carotenes; and b-cryptoxanthin). A vitamin’s vitamer is any of several chemical molecules with comparable molecular structure and physiological activity. Plant-based foods have four vitamers (three carotenes and one xanthophyll), while animal-based foods contain retinol (alcohol) and retinal (aldehyde) forms (e.g., fish). Retinoids (retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, isotretinoin, alitretinoin, and others) are vitamin A pharmaceuticals [20]. Retinol (vitamin A alcohol) is transformed to retinal (vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid in the human body (vitamin A acid). Vitamin A ester derivatives such as retinyl palmitate, retinyl acetate, and retinyl are generated in the tissues of the organism. A-, b-, and c-carotenes are three precursors or provitamins A that differ in chemical structure and biological function [21]. The most active is b-carotene, which is oxidized at the central double bond in the intestinal mucosa with the help of the enzyme carotene dihydroxygenase. Two active retinal molecules are generated. The breakdown of a- and c-carotenes, which each include only one b-ionone ring, unlike b-carotene, results in only one vitamin A molecule in both cases. Only one molecule of vitamin A is present in b-cryptoxanthin (retinol). As a result, both a- and c-carotenes, as well as b-cryptoxanthin, have lower activity than b-carotene. Retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and their esterified counterparts are all biologically active forms of vitamin A [22, 23].
Biochemical functions
Retinoids (retinol, retinoic acid, and their derivatives) are pharmaceutical forms of vitamin A that play a variety of roles in the body, including vision, cell proliferation and differentiation in developing organisms (embryos, juvenile organisms), differentiation of rapidly proliferating tissues like cartilage and bone tissue, spermatogenic epithelium and placenta, skin epithelium, and mucosae, immune function, and immune cell activation [24, 25].
Deficiency
The dark adaption condition and night blindness are the first signs of vitamin A insufficiency. Juvenile growth retardation, follicular hyperkeratosis (excessive keratinization of the skin caused by delayed epithelial renewal), mucosal dryness (also caused by delayed epithelial renewal), xerophthal-mia (dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea), keratomalacia (opacification and softening of the cornea), and disordered reproductive function (failure of the spermatozoa [26, 27].
Uses
Natural vitamin A (which has a combination of biological forms) and its synthetic analogs (retinol acetate and retinol palmitate) are utilized in medicine. They are used to treat hypovitaminosis in people whose jobs demand them to be in front of a computer all day, as well as to stimulate growth and development in youngsters. Vitamin A formulations are also utilized as regeneration stimulants for treating poorly healable tissues, boosting infection resistance, and treating sterility prophylactically [28, 29].
1.2.2 Vitamin D
Source
Vitamin D is mostly contained in animal-derived products including liver, butter, milk, yeast, and vegetable oils, but not in vegetables, fruits, or cereals. Vitamin D is very abundant in cod liver. The daily vitamin D requirement for children ranges from 12 to 25 lg; for adults, the daily requirement is 10 times lower [30, 31].
Chemical nature and biologically active forms
Vitamin D is made up of fat-soluble secosteroids (a form of steroid with a “broken” ring) generated from cholesterol, which are chemically related to steroids. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is an example of a 9,10-secoste-roid. Calcitriol is one of several vitamin D vitamers. The most active D vitamins are D2 (ergocalciferol) and D2 (cholecalciferol) (cholecalciferol). Ergocalciferol (D2) is produced from the plant sterol (provitamin D). When UV light energy is absorbed by the precursor molecule 7-dehydrocholes-terol, vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is produced in the skin of mammals (pres-ent in the skin of humans and animals). Dihydroergocalciferol is vitamin D4. UV irradiation produces the less active vitamers D4, D5, D6, and D7 from their respective plant precursor’s dihydroergosterol, 7-dehydrositos-terol, 7-dehydrostig-masterol, and 7-dehydrocampesterol. Neither ergonor cholecalciferols, on the other hand, are physiologically active and cannot perform regulatory activities. In the course of metabolism, they produce physiologically active molecules that behave like steroid hormones [32, 33].
Biochemical functions
The biological activity of 1,25-dihydroxycalciferols is 10 times greater than parent calciferols. Vitamin D is important for calcium metabolism and equilibrium. Vitamin D regulates the transit of calcium and phosphate ions across cell membranes and hence works as a calcium and phosphate ion regulator in the circulation. At least three vitamin D-related processes are included in this control: absorption of calcium and phosphate ions via the epithelium of the small intestine mucosa, mobilization of calcium from bone tissue, and reabsorption of calcium and phosphate in kidney tubules [34, 35].
The mechanism of action of vitamin D
Calcium is absorbed in the small intestine through facilitated diffusion, which is aided by a specific calcium-binding protein (CaBP), and active transport, which is aided by Ca2+ ATPase. By operating on the genetic cellular machinery of the small intestine mucosa, 1, 25-dihydroxycalciferols trigger the synthesis of CaBP and protein components of Ca2+ ATPase. Vitamin D-induced activation of Ca+ ATPase, which is found in the membranes of renal tubules, appears to result in calcium ion reabsorption in the tubules. However, the mechanisms of vitamin D’s role in phosphate transmembrane transfer in the colon and kidneys, as well as calcium mobilization from bone tissue, are yet unknown. The impact of vitamin D is reflected in increased calcium and phosphate concentrations in the blood [36].
Deficiency
When vitamin D deficiency occurs in youngsters, it causes osteomala-cia, often known as rickets, which is a softening of the bones. This condition is caused by a vitamin D deficient diet combined with insufficient UV irradiation (for the generation of endogenous vitamin D). A lower calciferol-responsive tissue sensitivity (presumably due to the lack of calciferol-binding receptors) could potentially be the cause. All vitamin D– controlled processes, such as the intestinal uptake of calcium ions and phosphate (even if the infant’s dietary supply of these nutrients from dairy products is adequate) and their reabsorption in the kidneys, are hindered in rickets. The level of calcium and phosphorous in the blood is dropped as a result, and bone mineralization is inhibited, meaning no mineral materials are deposited on the newly produced collagen matrix of growing bones. As a result, distortion of skeletal bones of the limbs, skull, and thorax is seen in children with rickets. When the supply of vitamin D to the body is normal, a relative shortage might emerge. This could be triggered by a damaged liver or kidney, as these organs are important in the generation of active vitamin D forms [37, 38].
Uses
Natural vitamin D preparations (cod liver oil) and synthetic vitamin D preparations (ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol) are utilized in medical practice. Vitamin D preparations are employed in the prevention and treatment of rickets, as well as the treatment of other diseases (tuberculosis of the bones and joints and tuberculosis of the skin) [39].
1.2.3 Vitamin E
Sources
Wheat germ, celery, lettuce or other green leafy vegetables, parsley, spinach, turnip leaf, watercress, and vegetable oils, particularly sunflower oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, and olive oil, are all good sources of tocopherol for humans. Wheat seedling oil has a lot of tocopherol. Tocopherol is scarce in animal-derived products, particularly dairy products. The recommended daily intake of tocopherol for adults is 20 to 50 mg [40].
Chemical nature and biologically active forms
Vitamin E is a methylated derivative chemical that comes in eight distinct forms, four of tocopherol and four of tocotrienol. The quantity and position of methyl groups on the chromanol ring dictate the a (alpha), b (beta), c (gamma), and d (delta) forms of tocopherols and tocotrienols. Tocopherols and tocotrienols are structurally similar, with the same methyl structure at the ring, the same Greek letter—methyl—notation, and an isoprenoid side chain; tocopherols have saturated isoprenoid side chains, whereas tocotrienols have unsaturated hydrophobic isoprenoid side chains with three double bonds (farnesyl isoprenoid tails) [41, 42].
Biochemical functions
Tocopherol is a biological antioxidant that controls the rate of free radical reactions in living cells by inhibiting spontaneous chain reactions of peroxide oxidation of unsaturated lipids in biomembranes. Tocopherol is a biological antioxidant that provides for the stability of cell biomembranes in the organism. Since selenium acts as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase, which inactivates lipid hydroperoxides, a close link between tocopherol and selenium in lipid peroxide oxidation regulation has been shown. Vitamin A’s biological activity is increased by tocopherol, which protects the vitamin’s unsaturated side chain against peroxide oxidation. Tocopherol and its derivatives are likely engaged in other regulatory mechanisms that have yet to be found [43, 44].
Deficiency
Vitamin E hypovitaminosis in adults has never been documented. In experimental animals, tocopherol deficiency manifests as a specific membrane pathology: membrane resistance to peroxide attack is reduced, and increased permeability leads to the loss of intracellular components, such as proteins that are normally present; in premature infants, vitamin deficiency manifests as hemolytic anemia (due to a low stability of the erythrocyte membranes and their breakdown); in premature infants, tocopherol deficiency manifests as a specific membrane path. Susceptibility of erythrocytes to peroxide hemolysis; atrophy of the testes (conducive to male sterility); death of the embryo in pregnant females; muscular dystrophy and loss of intracellular nitrogenous components and muscle proteins; hepatic necrosis; and local encephalomalacia, especially cerebromalacia are all possible causes of tissue membrane pathology in E hypovitaminosis. Spinocerebellar ataxia, myopathies, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, skeletal myopathy, retinopathy, and immune response impairment are all symptoms of vitamin E deficiency [45, 46].
Uses
Synthetic d,l-a-tocopherol acetate in vegetable oil and concentrated oil extracts of tocopherol combinations from wheat seedlings are commercially available. Tocopherolic preparations are used as antioxidants to prevent excessive lipid peroxide accumulation; they are also used in the prophylaxis (preventive measures) of sterility and impending abortion, liver diseases, muscular atrophy, and the treatment of congenital erythrocyte membrane disturbances in neonates and premature infants, among other things [47].
1.2.4 Vitamin F
Source
Vitamin F is made up of essential fatty acids (EFAs), particularly omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which can only be obtained through food. Fish, canola oil, and walnut oil; raw nuts, seeds, legumes, grape seed oil, and flaxseed oil; and hemp seed, olive oil, soy oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, walnuts, avocados, all kinds of sprouts; and meat, shellfish, salmon, trout, mackerel, and tuna. Vitamin F may be abundant in vegetable oils. The daily need for vitamin F in adult people is 5 to 10 g [48].
Chemical nature and biologically active
Vitamin F is a fat-soluble vitamin that contains unsaturated fatty acids, which are found in liquid vegetable oils, and saturated fatty acids, which are present in animal fat. Vitamin F is the sum of unsaturated fatty acids that cannot be produced in the tissues but are required for the organism’s regular function. Only a-linoleic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (LA) are recognized to be needed for humans (an omega-6 fatty acid). C-linoleic acid is another omega-6 fatty acid. They are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), with a-linolenic acid (ALA) having an 18-carbon chain with three cis double bonds and linoleic acid (LA) having an 18-carbon chain with two cis double bonds [49, 50].
Biochemical functions
Vitamin F is required for the formation of prostaglandins, which regulate metabolism. Vitamin F helps the tissue metabolism by preserving vitamin A reserves and facilitating vitamin A action. Vitamin F aids in the digestion of phosphorus and stimulates the conversion of carotene to vitamin A in the body, working in combination with vitamin D to make calcium available to the tissues. It is necessary for the correct functioning of the reproductive system, as well as the nutrition of skin cells and the health of mucous membranes and nerves. Vitamin F helps to minimize the risk of heart disease by lowering cholesterol levels in the blood [51, 52].
Deficiency
Unambiguous deficient symptoms have not been described in people. F hypovitaminosis is often associated with follicular hyperkeratosis, or excessive keratinization of the skin epithelium around the hair follicles. These symptoms are similar to those of vitamin A insufficiency. Vitamin F deficiency in animals can cause sterility [53].
Uses
Arachidonic acid is clearly an important fatty acid, and it is the only one that can cure all deficient symptoms. The essential fatty acid formulations xxlinetol and linol have clinical applications, primarily in the prophylaxis (preventive measures) of cholesterol deposition in arterial walls under atherosclerosis; they are also useful in the local treatment of skin problems [54].
1.2.5 Vitamin K
Source
Phylloquinomes (K1) and their derivatives are found in plants (e.g., cabbage, spinach, as well as root crops and fruits) and animal (liver) products, and are fed to the organism, whereas menaquinones (K2) are produced by the small intestinal bacterioflora or derived from naphthoquinone metabolism in the organism’s tissues. The daily vitamin K requirement for adults is approximately 2 mg [55].
Chemical nature and biologically active
Vitamin K is a quinone with an isoprenoid side chain that refers to a series of substances that are 2-methyl-1, 4-naphthoquinone derivatives chemically. The “quinone” ring is shared by all K vitamins, although the length, degree of saturation, and number of side chains vary. Two naphthoquinone series, phylloquinones (K1-series) and menaquinones, are found in this fat-soluble vitamin (K2-series). Menaquinones (MQ or MK-n) are a group of related compounds that are separated into short chain (e.g., MK-4) and long chain (e.g., MK-7, MK-8, and MK-9 with 7, 8, and 9 isoprene units, respectively) menaquinones based on the length of the isoprenoid chain. Vitamin K synthetic preparations (menadione, vicasol, and synkayvite) are 2-methyl-l, 4-naphthoquinone derivatives. They are transformed into physiologically active menaquinones in the body. Menadione is a vitamin K analog with a methyl group in the second position that is occasionally used as a nutritional supplement or as a provitamin since it is metabolized by the human body into K2 [56, 57].
Biochemical functions
Vitamin K regulates blood clotting in the body by assisting in the formation of many blood clotting system components, including factor II (prothrom-bin), factor VII (proconvertin), factor IX (Christmas factor), and factor X. (Stewart factor). Vitamin K is required for the conversion of preprothrombin, a prothrombin precursor, to prothrombin. The liver is involved in this process. Vitamin K activates the microsomal carboxylase, which promotes the c-carboxylation of glutamic acid residues in prothrombin molecules. Prothrombin is generated and then attached to phospholipids by Ca2+ ions before being cleaved by enzymes to produce thrombin. The latter causes a fibrin clot to form in the blood coagulation system [58, 59].
Deficiency
A specific tendency to hemorrhagic illness, especially in traumas, is an indication of vitamin K deficiency. In adult humans, the gut flora provides the organism with a complete supply of vitamin K. K hypovitaminosis in babies (with a still-developing gut flora) could be caused by a vitamin K deficiency in the diet. Drugs that restrict the gut flora, as well as liver and gallbladder illnesses that result in decreased bile acid synthesis, are major causes of K hypovitaminosis (which are needed for the vitamin uptake). Furthermore, the liver produces active forms of vitamin K and is involved in the creation of a number of blood coagulation components as well as the conversion of preprothrombin to thrombin [60].
Uses
Vitamin K1 preparations or its synthetic counterpart vicasol are utilized in medical practice. They can be used to treat hemorrhagic illness or hemophilic hemorrhage. Human hepatocellular carcinoma, a frequent and deadly form of liver cancer, has been found to be safely suppressed by vitamin K2 (menaquinone). It has a number of impacts on these tumours, reducing the ability of growth factors and their receptor molecules to induce tumour development and progression. It stops the cell cycle from continuing, preventing further replication. It also causes apoptosis, or programmed cell death, through numerous unique ways. Three synergistic anticancer mechanisms of vitamin K have recently been discovered. DNA-building enzymes are inhibited by vitamin K3. Vitamins K2 and K3 stop new blood vessels from forming, which is necessary for tumour tissue to grow quickly. Vitamin K3 also affects microtubule-based intracellular communication networks, preventing cells from growing in a coordinated manner [61, 62].
1.2.6 Water-Soluble Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B7, B9, B12 (B Complex), and C
Vitamin B1 (thiamin), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B7 (biotin), vitamin B9 (folic acid), vitamin B12 (cobalamin), and vitamin C (ascorbic acid) are examples of water-soluble vitamins. A vitamin B complex is made up of all eight vitamins in the B group (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12). They are structurally diverse, and each B vitamin is either a cofactor (usually a coenzyme for critical metabolic activities) or a precursor for the production of one. Vitamin C is a cofactor in many enzymatic reactions and can help protect against oxidative stress by acting as an antioxidant (a powerful reducing agent). The l-enantiomer of ascorbate is vitamin C; the D-enantiomer has no physiological importance. The bulk of water-soluble vitamins found in food or produced by intestinal bacterial flora have biological activity when combined with metabolically generated coenzymes [63, 64].
1.2.6.1 Vitamin B1
Source
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) is a necessary nutrient for all living things, although it is only produced by bacteria, fungus, and plants. Vitamin B1 is found in a variety of foods, including coarse bread, peas, beans, pineapple, asparagus, cabbage, carrot, celery, grapefruit, coconut, lemon, parsley, pomegranate, radish, watercress, turnip leaf, and meat products, but not polished rice. It is on the WHO’s List of Essential Medicines, which includes the most effective and safe medicines required in a health system. Adult people require approximately 1 to 3 mg of thiamine per day [65].
Chemical nature and biologically active
A colorless organosulfur molecule, vitamin B1 or thiamine, is made up of an aminopyrimidine and a thiazole ring joined by a methylene bridge. The thiazole’s side chains are substituted with methyl and hydroxyethyl. It is soluble in water and organic solvents such as methanol and glycerol, stable at acidic pH, unstable in alkaline solutions, unstable to heat, stable during freezing storage, and unstable to UV and gamma irradiation exposure. Thiamine is an N-heterocyclic carbene that can be employed as a catalyst for benzoin condensation instead of cyanide. In Maillard reactions, thiamine reacts significantly. Food fortification is done with thiamine mononitrate rather than thiamine hydrochloride because the mononitrate is more stable and does not absorb water from natural humidity, whereas thiamine hydrochloride does. Many cellular activities rely on its phosphate derivatives, such as thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), a coenzyme involved in sugar and amino acid catabolism. Thiamine monophosphate (ThMP), thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), also known as thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), thiamine triphosphate (ThTP), and the recently discovered adenosine thiamine triphosphate (AThTP) and adenosine thiamine diphosphate (AThDP) are the five known natural thiamine phosphate derivatives (AThDP). While thiamine diphosphate’s coenzyme role is well known and well studied, the non-coenzyme action of thiamine and derivatives may be realized by binding to a number of recently discovered proteins that do not employ thiamine diphosphate’s catalytic action [66, 67].
Biochemical functions
Thiamine diphosphate (TOP), which is found in the pyruvate dehydrogenase or 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes and transketolase, is involved in tissue metabolic control. TOP enhances the mitochondrial oxidation of pyruvate and 2-oxoglutarate, and hence the energy generation from carbs and amino acids, as a result. The nonoxidative step of the pentose phosphate cycle, which is a key source of NADP-H and the only source of ribose 5-phosphate in cells, is known to be maintained by transketolase. Thiamine is engaged in a variety of functions, including non-coenzymic ones. Thiamine triphosphate, which is found in significant concentrations in nerve cells, is implicated in the synaptic transmission of neurological impulses, either directly or indirectly [68].
Thiamine deficiency
Thiamine deficiency is widespread in areas where people consume polished rice with just trace amounts of the vitamin. Thiamine deficiency can be fatal, and symptoms include a sudden loss of appetite, decreased gastric juice and hydrochloric acid secretion, atony (lack of normal tone or strength), diarrhoea, lethargy, weight loss, irritability, and confusion. The defining symptom is skeletal muscle atrophy (distinct myasthenia or muscular debility), heart (lower cardiac contractility, dilatation of the right heart, tachycardia, sudden cardiac insufficiency), and smooth muscle contractile decrease (reduced muscular tension of intestinal smooth muscles). Beriberi, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, and optic neuropathy are all well-known thiamine-deficient disorders. Beriberi causes metabolic abnormalities and poor digestive, cardiovascular, and neurological system functions. Nervous system disturbances manifest as a gradual loss of peripheral sensitivity, the loss of some peripheral reflexes, paroxysmal pain extending along nerve courses (neuralgia), decreased higher nervous activity (phobia, mental melancholy), and convulsions [69, 70].
Uses
Medicine uses a range of therapeutic formulations based on free thiamine and thiamine diphosphate (cocarboxylase). Thiamine diphosphate is susceptible to hydrolysis in the blood, and it is unknown whether this enzyme form is delivered to the cells or if it just serves as a source of free thiamine. Thiamine-based formulations are used to aid carbohydrate assimilation in diabetes, hypovitaminosis, cardiac and skeletal muscle dystrophies, peripheral nerve inflammation, and the treatment of the afflicted neurological system (including alcoholism) [71].
1.2.6.2 Vitamin B2
Sources
Humans get riboflavin via food and gut flora. Milk, cheese, curd, egg yolk, liver, kidney, mushrooms, almonds, grapefruit, apple, apricot, cabbage, carrot, coconut, dandelion, prune, spinach, turnip leaf, watercress, etc. contain riboflavin naturally. Animal and dairy products have more riboflavin than vegetables. Milk, milk products, and animal diets have high (free) riboflavin bioavailability. Most plant-based riboflavin is protein-bound and less bioavailable. It is on the WHO’s List of Essential Medications, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Riboflavin consumption for adults is 1 to 3 mg [72, 73].
Chemical nature, biologically active forms, and biochemical functions
Cellular respiration requires it. Riboflavin is 7, 8-dimethyl-10-(1!-d-ribityl)isoalloxazine. “Flavin” comes from the Latin word for yellow, flavus. Riboflavin is a yellow-orange solid with poor water solubility. It gives vitamins colour (and bright yellow colour to the urine of persons taking a lot of it). Riboflavin is a coenzyme, meaning it helps enzymes (proteins) function normally. Active forms of riboflavin FMN and FAD function as cofactors for flavoprotein enzyme reactions. Riboflavin is photosensitive but heat stable in the dark. UV light stimulates its fluorescence. This is a detectable property. From riboflavin, FMN and FAD are derived [74, 75].
Biochemical functions
Flavin coenzymes participate in many substrate-linked oxidation reactions in cells, including electron and proton transfer in the respiratory chain, mitochondrial oxidation of pyruvate, succinate, 2-oxoglutarate, a-glycerol phosphate, fatty acids, and oxidation of biogenic amines, aldehydes, etc [76].
Deficiency
Riboflavin deficiency (ariboflavinosis) causes stomatitis, including red tongue, sore throat, chapped and fissured lips, and mouth corner inflammation (angular stomatitis). Scrotum, vulva, lip philtrum, and nasolabial folds can have oily, scaly rashes. Itchy, watery, bloodshot, light-sensitive eyes are common. Riboflavin deficiency is characterized by low tissue concentrations of coenzymic riboflavin forms, primarily FMN, and lesions of the epithelium of the cutaneous mucosa and cornea. Labial and oral mucosa are dry. Red labial mucosa, cracked lips and mouth angles. Reduced epithelium renewal makes facial skin desquamative. Dry, inflamed conjunctiva, vascularized, keratoleucoma-prone cornea, photophobia. Since riboflavin participates in energy-generating oxidative processes, vitamin deficiency affects regenerative tissues. Vascularization increases oxygen supply to the cornea’s central, nonvascular zone to compensate for a lack of flavoproteins involved in redox processes [77, 78].
Uses
Baby foods, breakfast cereals, pastas, and meal replacement products contain riboflavin. Riboflavin has poor solubility in water, so riboflavin-5′-phosphate is required. Food coloring contains riboflavin. Riboflavin, FMN, and FAD (Flavin mono- and dinucleotide) are used in medicine. Clinically, they are used to treat hyporiboflavinosis and skin and eye diseases caused by an excess of riboflavin: dermatitides, poorly healing wounds and ulcers, keratitis, and conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva). In addition, they are used to treat respiratory poisoning (carbon monoxide CO), liver disease, and muscle soreness after exercise, etc. [79, 80].
1.2.6.3 Vitamin B3
Source
Niacin is one of 20 to 80 essential human nutrients. Niacin occurs naturally as nicotinic acid and nicotinamide, which are nutritionally equivalent. Meat (especially liver) and vegetables contain niacin. Niacin is trace in milk and egg yolk. Niacin is found in whole and processed foods, including fortified foods, meat, seafood, and spices. Fortified wheat, rice, barley, corn, and pasta have 3 to 10 mg of niacin per 100 g. Niacin can be synthesized in the human body from tryptophan, so it is not an essential food component if tryptophan isn’t scarce. Milk and egg yolk, which are low in niacin but high in tryptophan, replenish a vitamin deficiency. Tryptophan consumption determines niacin needs. Niacin is found in whole and processed foods, with the most in fortified foods and meat. Adults should take 25 mg [81, 82].
Chemical nature, biologically active forms
Nicotinic acid or pyridine carboxylic acids. It is a solid, colorless, water-soluble derivative of pyridine with a 3-position carboxyl group (COOH) (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid). It is part of the vitamin B3 complex with nicotinamide, niacin, and nicotinamide riboside. Niacin and nicotinamides are precursors of NAD and NAD+ (NADP). NAD is important in fat, carbohydrate, protein, and alcohol catabolism, cell signaling, and DNA repair, and NADP in fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis [83, 84].
Biochemical functions
It is a water-soluble vitamin B with antihyperlipidemic activity found in animal and plant tissues. Niacin is used with lipid-lowering drugs. Niacin reduces cardiovascular events and deaths. Niacin coenzyme functions include hydrogen transfer in redox reactions, acting as a substrate for synthetic reactions, and acting as an allosteric effector [85, 86].
Deficiency
Niacin deficiency slows metabolism, reducing cold tolerance. Severe niacin deficiency in the diet causes pellagra, characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, Casal’s necklace lesions on the lower neck, hyperpig-mentation, thickening of the skin, inflammation of the mouth and tongue, digestive disturbances, amnesia, delirium, and death, if left untreated; psychiatric symptoms of niacin deficiency include irritability, poor concentration, anxiety, Niacin deficiency reduces tryptophan absorption. Niacin hypovitaminosis is often accompanied by riboflavin and pyridoxine hypovitaminosis because they are needed to produce nicotinic acid from tryptophan [87, 88].
Uses
Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are used in medicine. NAD and NADP’s low plasmic membrane permeability makes them unsuitable as coenzymes. NAD and NADP have unknown noncoenzymic functions. Nicotinamide and nicotinic acid are used to treat pellagra and other dermatitides, peripheral nerves, cardiac muscle dystrophy, etc. Clinically, nicotinic acid has a vasodilative effect. This is unrelated to nicotinic acid’s biochemical functions [89].
1.2.7 Vitamin B5
Source
Intestinal bacteria and foods like yeast, liver, hen eggs, fish, meat, milk, leguminous plants, etc. are sources of Vitamin B5 or pantothenic acid for humans. High amounts of pantothenic acid are found in fortified whole-grain cereals, egg yolks, liver, and dried mushrooms. It is a water-soluble vitamin required for coenzyme A synthesis (CoA). Adults need 10 g daily [90].
Chemical nature, biologically active forms
Vitamin B5 or pantothenic acid is a water-soluble vitamin needed to synthesize coenzyme A. (CoA). Anionic B5 is Pantothenate. Pantothenic acid is a d-pantoic acid and b-alanine amide. C9H17NO5 is a light-yellow, water-soluble, viscous beta-alanine derivative of pantoic acid. It is found as pantothenol and calcium pantothenate. It is D and L. Only the dextrorotatory (D) isomer of pantothenic acid has biologic activity, and the levorotatory (L) form may block it. Five steps synthesize coenzyme A from pantothenate, cysteine, and ATP [91, 92].
Biochemical functions
The participation of pantothenic acid’s coenzyme A in biological reactions determines its relevance. In cells, CoA is a crucial enzyme. Pantothenic acid, in the form of CoA, is also required for acylation and acetylation, which are involved in signal transmission as well as enzyme activation and deactivation [93]. Pantothenic acid is necessary for glucose, protein, and lipid metabolism and synthesis. Furthermore, pantothenic acid is required for antibody creation, cholesterol conversion to stress hormones, red blood cell production, and acetylcholine production. 4-phosphopantetheine is a coenzyme for fatty acid synthetase’s acyl-transporting protein; dephos-pho-CoA is a coenzyme for citrate lyase and plays a role in a number of acyl conversion processes [94, 95].
Deficiency
Because pantothenic acid plays so many important biological activities, it is vital to all forms of life. As a result, deficits in pantothenic acid can have a wide range of consequences. Deficiency symptoms are comparable to those of other vitamin B deficits. Due to low CoA levels, energy generation is hampered, which can lead to irritation, weariness, and apathy. Because acetylcholine synthesis is inhibited, neurological symptoms, such as numbness, paresthesia, and muscle cramping can occur in insufficiency. Hypoglycemia, or an enhanced sensitivity to insulin, can be caused by a lack of pantothenic acid. When insulin receptors refuse to bind to insulin, they are acylated with palmitic acid. As acylation reduces, more insulin binds to receptors, resulting in hypoglycemia. Restlessness, malaise, sleep problems, nausea, vomiting, and stomach cramps are all possible symptoms. More serious (but reversible) problems, such as adrenal insufficiency and hepatic encephalopathy, have been found in a few rare cases. Disorders of the neurological, gastrointestinal, and immunological systems, reduced development rate, decreased food intake, skin lesions and changes in hair coat, and abnormalities in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism are also signs of deficiency in other nonruminant species [96, 97].
Uses
Calcium pantothenate, pantetheine, and CoA preparations are utilized in a range of pharmacologic formulations in everyday medicine. They are most typically used to treat skin and hair problems, as well as to treat afflicted livers, cardiac muscle dystrophy, and other conditions. Some formulas are also utilized in the fragrance industry [98].
1.2.8 Vitamin B6
Source
Intestinal bacteria and diet are the sources of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine) for humans. Vitamin B6 is a member of the vitamin B family of nutrients. Vitamin B6 is abundant in cereals, legumes, meat, and fish. A daily dosage of 2 to 3 mg is advised for adults [99].
Chemical nature and biologically active forms
Vitamin B6 is a chemically related group of chemicals that can be interconverted in biological systems. Vitamin B6 comes in a variety of forms (vitamers), including pyridoxine (PN), pyridoxine 5′-phosphate (P5P), pyridoxal (PL), pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP), the metabolically active form (sold as P-5-P vitamin supplement), pyridoxamine (PM), pyridoxamine 5′-phosphate (PMP), 4-pyridoxic acid (PA), the catabolite excretion. Except for pyridoxic acid and pyritinol, all forms can be interconverted. Pyridoxal kinase converts absorbed pyridoxamine to PMP, which is then turned to PLP by pyridoxamine phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase, which also converts PNP to PLP. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase requires the cofactor flavin mononucleotide (FMN), which is synthesized from riboflavin (vitamin B2), implying that dietary vitamin B6 cannot be utilized in this metabolic pathway without vitamin B2. Pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, its active form, is a cofactor in over 100 enzyme processes involved in amino acid, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism [100, 101].
Biochemical functions
PLP, the metabolically active form of vitamin B6, plays a role in macronutrient metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, histamine synthesis, hemoglobin synthesis and function, and gene expression, among other things. Many processes, such as decarboxylation, transamination, racemization, elimination, replacement, and beta-group interconversion, use PLP as a coenzyme (cofactor). Vitamin B6 metabolism takes place in the liver. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate is the primary coenzymic form of vitamin B6 in organism tissues. It is found in practically every type of enzyme, including oxide reductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, and isomerases [102, 103].
Deficiency
Children have been diagnosed with pyridoxine deficiency. It is associated with hyperexcitability of the central nervous system and repeated convulsions, which is thought to be caused by a lack of c-aminobutyric acid, the inhibitory mediator for brain neurons. Pyridoxine deficiency symptoms have been found in adult humans after long-term treatment with the tuberculostatic isoniazid, which is a pyridoxal antagonist. This condition is accompanied by nervous system hyperexcitability, polyneuritides, and skin lesions, which are all symptoms of niacin insufficiency. A seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, intertrigo, and neurologic symptoms of somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and sideroblastic anemia (due to impaired heme synthesis) are the classic clinical syndromes for vitamin B6 deficiency [104, 105].
Uses
Clinically, pyridoxine is applied in a variety of medicinal forms; of late, its coenzyme, pyridoxal phosphate, has gained acceptance. These agents are used in medication of B6 hypovitaminosis, in prophylaxis and therapy of isoniazid side effects, in treatment of polyneuritides, dermatitides, gestational toxicosis (assistance in biogenic amine detoxification), impaired hepatic function, congenital pyridoxine dependent anemia in children, etc. [106].
