Water and Sanitation-Related Diseases and the Changing Environment E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1070

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

The revised and updated second edition of Water and Sanitation Related Diseases and the Changing Environment offers an interdisciplinary guide to the conditions responsible for water and sanitation related diseases. The authors discuss the pathogens, vectors, and their biology, morbidity and mortality that result from a lack of safe water and sanitation. The text also explores the distribution of these diseases and the conditions that must be met to reduce or eradicate them. The text includes contributions from authorities from the fields of climate change, epidemiology, environmental health, environmental engineering, global health, medicine, medical anthropology, nutrition, population, and public health. Covers the causes of individual diseases with basic information about the diseases and data on the distribution, prevalence, and incidence as well as interconnected factors such as environmental factors. The authors cover access to and maintenance of clean water, and guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta, and grey water, plus examples of solutions. Written for students, and professionals in infectious disease, public health and medicine, chemical and environmental engineering, and international affairs, the second edition of Water and Sanitation Related Diseases and the Changing Environment isa comprehensive resource to the conditions responsible for water and sanitation related diseases.

Leseprobe

WATER AND SANITATION-RELATED DISEASES AND THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Challenges, Interventions, and Preventive Measures

Second Edition

Edited by

JANINE M. H. SELENDYFOREWORD BY PAUL FARMERAFTERWORD BY WAFAIE FAWZI

This second edition first published 2019© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Edition HistoryWiley‐Blackwell (1e, 2011)

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Selendy, Janine M. H., editor.Title: Water and sanitation‐related diseases and the changing environment : challenges, interventions, and preventive measures / edited by Janine M.H. Selendy ; foreword by Paul Farmer ; afterword by Wafaie Fawzi.Other titles: Water and sanitation‐related diseases and the environment.Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2019. | Preceded by: Water and sanitation‐related diseases and the environment / edited by Janine M.H. Selendy. c2011. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2018018468 (print) | LCCN 2018018989 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119416203 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119416180 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119416210 (hardback)Subjects: | MESH: Water Supply | Disease Outbreaks–prevention & control | Water Pollution–prevention & control | Sanitation | Water Microbiology | Developing CountriesClassification: LCC RA642.W3 (ebook) | LCC RA642.W3 (print) | NLM WA 675 | DDC 363.739/4–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018018468

Cover Image: by Béla P. SelendyCover Design: Wiley

FOREWORD

The work of experienced scholars, public‐health advocates, and implementers, this new edition of Water and Sanitation‐Related Diseases and the Changing Environment offers a thorough review of some of the ranking problems of our time. Taken individually, these chapters constitute a critical compendium of ongoing debates among experts and a concise summary of more settled matters. But editor Janine Selendy has also woven these diverse chapters—which include highly focused considerations of specific waterborne illnesses and more broad‐ranging matters from climate change to technological innovation—into a powerful and hefty manual to guide collective action going forward.

Much of what appears in these pages is cause for concern, or should be. The structural violence of poverty, climate change, and socially constructed scarcity is evident in the long list of assaults and afflictions detailed in these pages: the preventable deaths from diarrhea of hundreds of thousands of children every year, the lack of access to safely managed water services for over two billion people globally, and the persistence of rudimentary sanitation systems—or none at all, in some areas—heighten risks of waterborne disease and even physical insecurity for over a third of the world’s population. But this volume, which will meet the expectations of specialists while instructing (and even entertaining) the lay reader, does more than offer jeremiads about failures. A case study of efforts to eradicate dracunculiasis—an “ancient loathesome disease” that as recently as 1986 infected 3.5 million people annually across a grim belt of Africa south of the Sahel—shows how an end to guinea‐worm disease is within our grasp.

Rescuing history and a bit of optimism, this pragmatic volume details numerous examples that serve to redefine what’s possible in the struggle for equitable access to clean water and effective sanitation, without which health and productive lives are impossible. Its chapters also take a pragmatic and aspirational view in seeking to identify key social, political, and economic changes essential to efforts to alleviate the harms caused by our collective failure to guarantee the most fundamental human rights. There’s little doubt that even the most unpromising settings—impoverished, bereft of clean water and sanitation, plagued by disease and disrupted by catastrophe—can be transformed with the requisite staff, stuff, space, and systems. Keeping these systems working requires ongoing accompaniment and investment, of course.

In the face of unprecedented climate and environmental change, low aspirations on behalf of others accelerate a deadly desertification of the imagination. In 2010, ten months after a devastating and deadly earthquake, ecologically fragile Haiti—one of the world’s most water‐insecure nations—was struck by a cholera outbreak that rapidly became the world’s largest, and remained so for most of the decade. Campaigns to halt it initially echoed control‐over‐care paradigms commonly imposed in settings of poverty. But cholera spread because Haiti is a public‐health desert; cholera killed where Haiti remains a clinical desert. We’ve seen this before. But paradigms of response—to cholera in Haiti and to other pressing health and human‐rights challenges—shift each time health professionals, activists, and policymakers come together to resist the notion that some people are simply too poor to treat, or otherwise just not worth the investment.

In addressing many of these challenges, the need for more data and less dogma is obvious. The first edition of Water and Sanitation‐Related Diseases and the Changing Environment promised playbooks to guide collective responses to a life‐and‐death struggle. In assembling and updating it, Selendy has accomplished all of this, and more. It will be an authoritative reference for practitioners and trainees to deliver on the promise of water, sanitation, and health for all.

Paul Farmer, MD, PhDKolokotrones University Professor, Harvard UniversityChair, Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical SchoolChief, Division of Global Health Equity, Brigham and Women’s HospitalCo‐founder, Partners In Health

PREFACE

We are all together in this world, breathing, as it were, as one, for each and every life affects those near to us and in the far reaches of the world.

As is evident throughout much of these two books, while health and living conditions are deplorable and life‐threatening for literally billions of children, women and men, it is with the emergence of successful initiatives, largely thanks to collaborations on local, national and international levels, that one can hope for a healthier future. As discussed in these two books, such cooperation has enabled Guinea worm disease to be nearly eradicated worldwide, Onchocerciasis to be eliminated in large regions, and trachoma to be officially validated as eliminated in five countries with a further six countries reporting that they have achieved the elimination targets.

Also, although already seriously complicated by extreme weather conditions and other effects of climate change, collaboration secured safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygiene for hundreds of millions of people.

I hope you will read both volumes of our books. You will find references to content in the 36 excellent chapters of the First Edition throughout this edition. Many of the chapters in the Second Edition have been revised and updated, such as with respect to the effects of climate change. Many of the chapters stand as they are in First Edition and are not included in this volume. They include substantial coverage of naturally occurring and anthropogenic pollutants, toxic cyanobacteria, and onchocerciasis, and chapters on sanitation initiatives in India, health in Ghana, cholera in Zimbabwe, small‐scale water services in developing countries, ocean pollution from flame retardants, and successful community interventions using kinship structures.

Several authors for both editions were joined by new or additional authors for the Second Edition which was written by authorities from the fields of climate change, epidemiology, environmental health, environmental engineering, demography, global health, medicine, medical anthropology, nutrition, and public health.

New chapters advance our discussions of nutrition and malnutrition, of ecosystems, and of population. They include “Food Systems and Nutrition, In The Context of Climate Change” by Director‐General José Graziano da Silva of the UN FAO, “Coping With Water Needs: The Demographic Future,” by Guigui Yao and Robert Wyman, and “Ecosystem Health as The Basis for Human Health” by Tom Barker and Jane Fisher. “The Human Right to Sanitation” by Anoop Jain and Jay P. Graham and “Catalyzing Rural Sanitation at Scale: Lessons Learned from The Global Sanitation Fund” by Carolien Van der Voorden and Patrick England add new ideas to discussion of the desperate sanitation situation with 2.4 billion people lacking adequate sanitation. “Antimicrobial Resistance” by Rochelle Rainey advances the discussion of the major problem facing people throughout the world as antibiotics can no longer be relied upon as they had been. And, drinking water is addressed throughout and exclusively in “Toward Universal Access to Basic and Safely Managed Drinking Water: Remaining Challenges and New Opportunities in the Era of Sustainable Development Goals,” by Mitsuaki Hirai and Jay Graham.

Complementary material related to both editions are available on the Wiley Companion website for the two volumes https://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/selendy/ with links to sources. This is a continually updated site for which suggested additions are welcome from our readers. Some of the content is also presented in articles on Horizon International's Solutions Site at www.solutions‐site.org and on the Global Innovation Exchange, for which Horizon International is a co‐creator, which is available at https://www.globalinnovationexchange.org/organizations/horizon‐international‐yale‐university.

As I wrote in the First Edition, the facts we present are often disconcertingly grave, but I believe the discussions in that edition and in the current edition which augment those facts and ideas will generate substantial action to address those concerns and by doing so they will generate hope.

I wish to express my immense gratitude to the 74 authors who not only gave of their time and expertise in writing for these volumes, but also provided me with counsel and inspiration as we together brought these two books to completion. Among them, Professor Robert Wyman, who is our immediate host at Yale. And, I wish to express my gratitude to Yale University for their hosting of Horizon International.

I am grateful to the editors of Wiley for their foresight and belief in our books, their attention to detail during the production stages, and their encouraging comments throughout the process, with a special note of appreciation to Ramprasad Jayakumar, Production Editor, who saw to the myriad details in the final stages of the book’s preparation.

All of us who have contributed to these books are thankful to Dr. Paul Farmer, Kolokotrones University Professor of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard University and co‐founder of Partners in Health, and to Dr. Wafaie Fawzi, Chair, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health (HSPH) for expressing their appreciation of our work by giving of their time to write the Foreword and Afterword for the Second Edition. And a special thanks to Dr. Fawzi’s colleague Chelsey Canavan, Program Manager for the Nutrition and Global Health Program at HSPH, who co‐authored the Afterword.

I wish to recognize the commitment of untold numbers of people who give of their time, energy, and, for many, their lives to improve the lives of others. The direction of my own life was inspired by Dr. P. O. and Shanta Satralker, medical missionaries, with whom I had the privilege of living in Iran when I was 16 years old and who called themselves my Iranian Mom and Dad.

I dedicate this book to those whose love and encouragement are a constant source of support and inspiration: my sons, Philippe and Béla, my grandchildren, Max and Liam, and Nicolas and Linnea, my daughters‐in‐law, Jennifer and Ulrika, and Béla’s wife Helen; and, to Charles R. Dickey, my partner of 20 years, whose loving care and ready words of wisdom and humor are a constant gift, and our dog, Heather, whose good spirits and love are gifts to all who know her.

Janine M. H. SelendyNew Haven, CT, USAAugust 2018

CONTRIBUTORS

Jens Aagaard‐Hansen, MD, MPH, Diploma TM Specialist in General Medicine. Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; MRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, Department of Paediatrics, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Tom Barker, BSc, PhD Lead Academic, Graduate School of the Environment, Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth, Wales, UK; Department of Geography & Planning, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Brian G. Blackburn, MD Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

Marcia C. Castro, PhD Professor of Demography, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

Nikhil Chandavarkar, PhD Founder and CEO, Thersus Sustainability, Cedar Park, Texas, USA;Former Chief, Communications and Outreach Branch, Division for Sustainable Development (COB/DSD), Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), United Nations, New York, USA;Former Secretary UN‐Water, United Nations, New York, USA

Thomas F. Clasen, JD, MSc, PhD Professor of Environmental Health, Rose Salamone Gangarosa Chair in Sanitation and Safe Water, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Joseph A. Cook, MD, MPH, FACP Adjunct Epidemiology Professor, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Former Executive Director of International Trachoma Initiative

Patrick England, MSc Knowledge Management and Innovation Support Officer, Technical Support Unit, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), Geneva, Switzerland

Paul Farmer, MD, PhD Chair, Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Kolokotrones University Professor of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Wafaie Fawzi, MBBS, MPH, MS, DrPH Chair, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Jane Fisher BSc, M. Res, PhD, PGCE, FHEA, FRGS Lead Academic, Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth, Wales, UKLearning and Teaching Institute, University of Chester, Chester, UK

Sean Fitzwater, MD, MHS Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Julio Frenk, MD, PhD President of the University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA;Former Dean of the Faculty, Harvard School of Public Health, T & G Angelopoulos Professor of Public Health and International Development, Harvard School of Public Health and Harvard Kennedy School, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA;Former Minister of Health of Mexico (2000–2006)

Octavio Gómez‐Dantés, MD, MPH Researcher, Center for Health Systems Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico

Jay Graham, PhD, MPH, MBA Program Director, Public Health Institute, Oakland, CA, USA

José Graziano da Silva, PhD Director‐General, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy

Emma M. Harding‐Esch, MPhil, MSc, PhD Associate Professor at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, UK

Mitsuaki Hirai, DrPH, MPH Evaluation Fellow, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Donald R. Hopkins, MD, MPH Special Advisor, Guinea Worm Eradication, The Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Anoop Jain, Third Year DrPH Student University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

Joshua Karliner, International Director, Program and Strategy, Health Care Without Harm, San Francisco, USA

Margaret Kosek, MD Assistant Professor, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

Barry S. Levy, MD, MPH Adjunct Professor of Public Health at Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

David C. Mabey, DM, FRCP, FMedSci Professor of Communicable Diseases at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, UK

Pascal Magnussen, MD, DTM&H Associate Professor, Specialist in Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Centre for Medical Parasitology and Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Parasitology and Aquatic Pathobiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

M. Danielle McDonald, PhD Associate Professor, Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA

Anitha Nimmagadda, MD Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA

Peter Orris, MD, MPH Professor and Chief of Service, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA

Rochelle Rainey, PhD Senior Advisor, Environmental Health, USAID Global Health Bureau, Washington, DC, USA

Ernesto Ruiz‐Tiben, PhD Director of Dracunculiasis Eradication Program, The Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

Mathuram Santosham, MPH, MD Director, Center for American Indian Health; Professor, International Health; Professor, Department of International Health, John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

Janine M.H. Selendy Co‐Chairman, Founder, and Publisher, Horizon International, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

Anita Shet, MD, PhD Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Burton H. Singer, PhD Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Anthony W. Solomon, MBBS, DTM&H, PhD, PGCAP, FHEA, FRCP Medical Officer, Neglected Tropical Diseases, Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Ivorie Stanley, MD, MPH Clinical Assistant Professor, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA

Carolien Van der Voorden, MA Head, Technical Support Unit, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), Geneva, Switzerland

Birgitte Jyding Vennervald, MD Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Section for Parasitology and Aquatic Pathobiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Mary E. Wilson, MD Clinical Professor of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA;Adjunct Professor of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

Robert Wyman, PhD Professor, Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

Guigui Yao, PhD Professor, School of Foreign Languages, Jianghan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Associate Research Scholar, American Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

Alexander T. Yu, MD, MPH Clinical Fellow in Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

INTRODUCTION

Janine M. H. Selendy and Jens Aagaard‐Hansen

This Second Edition of Water and Sanitation‐Related Diseases and the Environment: Challenges, Interventions, and Preventive Measures is written by authorities from the fields of climate change, epidemiology, environmental health, environmental engineering, global health, medicine, medical anthropology, nutrition, population, and public health. It presents an interdisciplinary picture of the conditions responsible for water and sanitation‐related diseases, the pathogens, vectors and their biology, morbidity and mortality resulting from lack of safe water and sanitation, distribution of these diseases, and the conditions that must be met to reduce or eradicate them. Augmenting coverage in the First Edition, this book continues to cover access to and maintenance of clean water, and guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta, and graywater and examples of solutions.

The broad extent, variety, and ramifications of changing environmental factors are covered in many chapters throughout this book. These concerns are a major focus in updated and revised chapters from the First Edition and new chapters introduced in this Second Edition. Many chapters stand as they are in the First Edition to which readers are referred and are not included in this volume.

The chapters on individual diseases cover not only basic information about the disease in question, i.e., causality, pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, treatment, prevention, and control, but also distribution, prevalence, and incidence and interconnected factors such as environmental factors. They address how the diseases are further aggravated by nutritional deficiencies such as anemia and other problems that often exist in the same person such as diarrheal diseases.

The negative ramifications from climate change affecting human health in all corners of our world are being realized in ever greater and growing magnitude. Frequent and intense extreme climatic events are wreaking havoc, causing immediate trauma, death, and destruction with loss of most basic of human needs of water, food, and secure shelter, and huge populations are migrating in search of safer and more secure livelihoods. Extreme flooding and droughts damage agriculture and infrastructure, increased temperatures take their toll on human populations subjected to excessive heat, and life in oceans is depleted because of loss of mangrove and coral reef spawning grounds and increases in harmful algal blooms. Global distribution of disease vectors, influenced by environmental conditions, is rapidly changing. These problems are often exacerbated by ecosystem destruction due to human activities such as construction of dams, poor infrastructure for homes and transport, and irrigation systems.

Since the publication of the First Edition in 2011, environmental changes, population migration, and many conditions addressed by the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) have changed. After 15 years of efforts, while the MDG for drinking water was met in 2010, with 91 % of the global population using an improved drinking water source, there were, however, by 2015, still 2.4 billion people without basic sanitation facilities such as toilets or latrines and 946 million individuals still defecating in the open. A major consequence of this lack of sanitation and adequate hygiene is an estimated 280 000 diarrheal deaths annually. The lack of sanitation and hygiene is also a major factor in “several neglected tropical diseases, including intestinal worms, schistosomiasis, and trachoma.”1

Thus, when, in 2016, the Sustainable Development Goals2 were established, they were designed to further the MDGs, such as for sanitation and hygiene, and add new objectives. According to the UN, there is sufficient fresh water on the planet to achieve water for all, “But due to bad economics or poor infrastructure, every year millions of people, most of them children, die from diseases associated with inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene. Water scarcity, poor water quality and inadequate sanitation negatively impact food security, livelihood choices and educational opportunities for poor families across the world. Drought afflicts some of the world’s poorest countries, worsening hunger and malnutrition.”3

It is essential for the understanding of the diseases and environmental conditions covered in this book to consider the sociocultural and economic context. Human perceptions and practices strongly influence transmission patterns and access to preventive and curative measures in a multitude of ways. Thus, local notions of illness (including perceived etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and preferred treatment) are often not compatible with biomedical lore and they are usually influenced by factors such as gender, age, religion and ethnicity. Social and demographic macro‐trends in society such as migration, urbanization, socioeconomic development (or financial crisis), health sector reforms, and political priorities such as privatization and level of control with, for example, environmental development projects play crucial roles in either ameliorating or (usually) aggravating the situation. In some cases, populations may be directly opposed to control interventions that from a biomedical perspective are rational, as shown by examples of cholera4 and deworming programs addressing soil‐transmitted helminths and schistosomiasis5. In the case of cholera, environmental factors (presence of Vibrio bacteria in lakes and river deltas together with specific fluctuations in rainfall and water level) combined with sociocultural factors (migration and inadequate hygiene) are strong determinants for the outbreaks of epidemics.

Prevention and control are important parts of the discussions. Accordingly, preventive measures and solutions are presented throughout the book and in more detail in a special section at the end of the book. They are also included in articles on Horizon International's Solutions Site at www.solutions‐site.org, the Global Innovation Exchange at https://www.globalinnovationexchange.org/organizations/horizon‐international‐yale‐university, and on the websites created by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. for the books in their “Companion Sites.”

“…once we can secure access to clean water and to adequate sanitation facilities for all people, irrespective of the difference in their living conditions, a huge battle against all kinds of diseases will be won,” said the late Dr Lee when he was Director‐General of the World Health Organization.

NOTES

1

WHO Fact Sheet,

Sanitation

, Reviewed November 2016. Available at:

http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/

.

2

http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/

.

3

http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/

. Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.

4

Nations, M.K. and Monte, C.M.G. (1996). “I’m not dog, no!”: cries of resistance against cholera control campaigns.

Social Science and Medicine

, 1996, 43 (6): 1007–1024.

5