Water Resources in the Built Environment E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 933

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Water management is a key environmental issue in controlling of floods and reducing droughts. This book provides analysis of the main issues, offering solutions and describing good practice.

Water Resources for the Built Environment: management issues and solutions develops an appreciation of the diverse, complex and current themes of the water resources debate across the built environment, urban development and management continuum. The integration of physical and environmental sciences, combined with social, economic and political sciences, provide a unique resource, useful to policy experts, scientists, engineers and subject enthusiasts. By taking an interdisciplinary approach, water resources issues and impacts on the built environment are presented in the inventive and strategic setting of considering the constraints of delivering potable water to an ever-demanding society who, at the same time, are increasingly aware of living in an urban landscape where excessive surface water creates a flood threatened environment – hence, the need to portray a balance between ‘too little vs. too much’.

This unique approach to the water resources debate presents a multifaceted collection of chapters that address the contemporary concomitant issues of water shortage and urban flooding and proffers solutions specifically for the built environment.

The book is structured into three parts: the first part (Sections 2, 3 and 4) addresses management issues and solutions to minimise water shortages and provide water security for society; whilst the second part of the book (Sections 5 and 6) addresses management issues and solutions to control excessive rainfall and minimise flooding impacts. The third part (Section 7) contextualises the issues of the earlier sections within international case studies from the developing world.

Leseprobe

Water Resources in the Built Environment

Management Issues and Solutions

Edited by

Colin A. Booth

Associate Professor of Sustainability Associate Head of Research and Scholarship Director of the Construction and Property Research Centre University of the West of England, Bristol

Susanne M. Charlesworth

Reader in Urban Physical Geography Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster Management Coventry University

This edition first published 2014© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Water resources for the built environment : management issues and solutions / edited by Colin Booth, Susanne Charlesworth.pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-67091-0 (pbk.)1. Water resources development. 2. Watershed management. 3. Water-supply. 4. Flood control.5. City planning. I. Booth, Colin (Colin A.), editor of compilation. II. Charlesworth, Susanne, editor of compilation.TC413.W375 2014333.91–dc23

2013041154

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover design by Garth StewartCover image credit: Photos courtesy of iStock Photo, Alan Murray-Rust, Susanne Charlesworth and Kate Heal

This book is dedicated to Esmée and Edryd

And in loving memory of Rónán John Coughlan Charlesworth 10/09/2011 – 25/09/2011

‘So go and run free with the angels…’

Contributors

Joseph AkunnaUrban Water Technology CentreContemporary SciencesUniversity of AbertayDundee

Victoria AshtonNatural Resources WalesTŷ CambriaCardiff

Joanne BartieUrban Water Technology CentreSchool of Contemporary SciencesUniversity of AbertayDundee

David W. BeddoesDrain Angels Ltd.,Shropshire

Colin A. BoothFaculty of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Susanne M. CharlesworthSUDS ARG, Coventry UniversityCoventry

Sean ChurchillBuilding ControlWolverhampton City CouncilWolverhampton

Steve J. CoupeSUDS ARGCoventry UniversityCoventry

John W. DaviesDepartment of Civil EngineeringCoventry UniversityCoventry

J. Bryan EllisSchool of Health and Social SciencesMiddlesex University in LondonLondonMichael

Michael A. FullenFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Trevor GoodhewFaculty of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Kate V. HealUniversity of EdinburghSchool of GeoSciencesEdinburgh

Phil HarrisFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Emma HatfieldFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Augustine IfelebueguGEDMCoventry UniversityCoventry

Rotimi JosephDepartment of Architecture and the Built EnvironmentUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Omolara O. LadeFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Jessica E. LamondFaculty of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Craig LashfordSUDS ARGCoventry UniversityCoventry

John McEldowneyWarwick Law SchoolUniversity of WarwickCoventry

Sharron McEldowneySchool of Life SciencesUniversity of WestminsterLondon

Neil McLeanMWH GlobalEastfield HouseEdinburgh

Jay MillingtonFaculty of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Peter MillsFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

David OlokeFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Dayo OlugboyeFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

David G. ProverbsFaculty of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Carly B. RoseDepartment of Architecture and the Built EnvironmentUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Miklas ScholzSchool of ComputingScience and EngineeringUniversity of SalfordSalfordGreater Manchester

Graham SquiresFaculty of Environment andTechnologyUniversity of the West of EnglandBristol

Madhu SubediFood Security Monitoring UnitUN World Food ProgrammeKathmanduNepal

Kim TannahillFaculty of Science and EngineeringUniversity of WolverhamptonWolverhampton

Rebecca WadeUrban Water Technology CentreSchool of Science Engineering and TechnologyAbertay UniversityDundee

Luke WalkerThe Wilts & Berks Canal TrustWootton BassettWiltshire

Frank WarwickSUDS ARGCoventry UniversityCoventry

Peter WassellCunningham LindseyWolverhampton

Simon WatkinsSUDS ARGCoventry UniversityCoventry

About the Editors

Dr Colin Booth is an Associate Professor of Sustainability at the University of the West of England, Bristol, where he has been the Associate Head of Research and Scholarship since joining UWE in early 2012, and the Director of the Construction and Property Research Centre. He was previously a Reader in Construction Management, a Reader in Civil Engineering, an Overseas Tutor (Hong Kong), a Senior Lecturer in Water and Environmental Engineering, a European Research Project Manager and has also held several Post-doctoral Research Fellowship posts. He has a portfolio of external research income generation, a wealth of publications and a team of doctoral supervision successes. His previous books have focused on Flood Hazards and also on Solutions to Climate Change Challenges for the Built Environment.

Dr Susanne Charlesworth is a Reader in Urban Physical Geography at Coventry University in the Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster Management. She is Director of a Sustainable Drainage (SUDS) Applied Research Group at Coventry University, is the author of more than 50 peer reviewed journal articles on urban pollution and SUDS, many book chapters and has co-edited books on aquatic sedimentology and water resources. She collaborates with groups internationally and has given papers at international conferences worldwide.

Section 1Introduction to the Book

1Water Resources: Balancing too Little Versus too Much

Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth

1.1Introduction

Why are we told to conserve water supplies and alter our attitudes towards water usage, yet our homes and businesses are increasing inundated with floodwaters? This is a question that is common to many communities in many counties around the world and is an ever-increasing issue being raised in the United Kingdom (Charlesworth and Booth, 2012).

1.2Too Little Versus too Much

Being curtailed by a restricted water usage order, whilst standing knee-deep in floodwater inside your home is a confusing and perplexing scenario for society to comprehend – particularly when homeowners could be fined for using a hosepipe to clean out and sanitise their home after the destruction and devastation of a flood.

In the summer of 2010, with only ~300 mm of rain falling in several months and reservoirs at less than half their usual capacity, the water company for north-west England (United Utilities Plc) gained permission in early July 2010 for a drought order to restrict nonessential use of water for seven million homes in Cheshire, Lancashire, Greater Manchester, Merseyside and parts of Cumbria. However, within a matter of days of the restriction being imposed, residents in parts of Lancashire (Preston, Leyland, Ribbleton, Lostock Hall, Bamber Bridge and Coppull) and Merseyside (Bootle, Seaforth, West Derby and Bromorough) were inundated with floodwater after torrential rain (~50 mm in one hour) caused flash flooding. However, the drought order remained in place for many weeks later until mid August 2010 and, during which time, anybody caught breaching the ban would have be fined £1000 (~$1600 USD or ~ €1200 EUR). It is estimated that the water company saved about three billion litres of water during the drought order but the homes and businesses affected by the flooding were inconvenienced for many months later. This scenario highlights the problematic nature of attempting to report drought conditions to the general public so they will curb their water usage demands, when media reports are also screening the trauma and ruin of water excesses.

It would be wrong to have expected the water company to have envisaged or even anticipated the intensity of future rainfall events across its region and, furthermore, the rainfall did not bolster supplies because it fell in isolated places away from the main reservoirs. The company’s decision to impose a drought order was an attempt to marry-up likely water demand with probable water availability, so as to maintain a regular and uninterrupted supply for its customers. However, the scenario clearly highlights the fact that water resources management decision-making is a complicated matter, which encompasses reliance upon nature to assist in the prediction of unknown rainfall events. Traditionally, it has been justifiable to assume that summer months will be warmer and drier than the other seasons. Unfortunately, for whatever reasons (and it is not our intention to persuade you to believe or disbelieve the climate change agenda; see Committee on Climate Change, 2012), there seems an ever-increasing shift in climate patterns towards extreme weather events with impacts that appear to be exacerbated by human activities in the built environment arena. As a result, this is causing widespread droughts and flooding to be commonplace for some countries. The following are examples.

Australia, the driest continent on Earth, is no stranger to drought conditions and through a host of measures they have dramatically reduced their water consumption over the last decade to address the issue. However, the Queensland floods in January 2011 served as a reminder that their highly variable climatic pattern of rainfall can have devastating effects (floodwater covered the equivalent area of France and Germany) on the coastal cities and towns, and their communities. In response, it has been proposed that new dams should be constructed to mitigate flooding and to provide a water resource for the growing population.

Many of the southern states of the United States are plagued by drought and flooding. New Orleans will always be remembered for the destruction caused by Hurricane Katrina (August 2005). However, by late 2011 and early 2012, much of the States of Louisiana and Mississippi were suffering extreme drought conditions. That was until heavy rainfalls brought ~180 mm to Louisiana State and ~250 mm to Mississippi State, causing flooding in many places. Elsewhere, in the State of Georgia, the City of Atlanta experienced its worst drought in living memory in 2007, yet within two years (September 2009) the city experienced an unprecedented 500-year flood event. Ever-demanding population growth and increasing urbanisation were highlighted as the precursors for these events.

Poorly maintained drainage systems were fundamental in causing flash flooding in Argentina’s capital city, Buenos Aires, during February 2012, when torrential rains fell. However, the surrounding province, which suffered a lack of rainfall at this time, remained in drought for many months, until it rained ~200 mm in one night and caused extensive flooding (700 000 hectares) to the towns around Bolivar.

Many African nations are listed by the United Nations as being in a state of water stress (1700 m3 per person) or scarcity (1000 m3 per person). Ghana, like many other African countries, contends with the challenges of delivering a potable supply of water for its population, providing water for food production and growing its economy, confined within the constraints of its limited water resources. However, urban flooding in Ghana is becoming more frequent (February 2011, June 2011, October 2011) and with even greater impacts on communities and businesses.

India is a vast nation with extremes of water shortage and flooding. For instance, in 2002, more than 40 thousand villages in the State of Rajasthan were drought-stricken yet many millions of people in the States of Assam and Bihar were deep in floodwaters. Both scenarios caused suffering and the widespread destruction and failure of crops, together with associated poverty. Nearby, Pakistan was devastated by catastrophic floods (July 2010), which left some 20 million people homeless. Yet, in early 2012, many of the small communities neighbouring the River Indus were now suffering water shortages and were unable to irrigate their crops. Changes in glacial meltwater flows and upstream diversions were identified as compounding water resource issues and driving people into poverty. However, months later (August 2012) those same communities were once again forced from their houses when excessive rainfall caused the river to burst its banks and destroy many of their homes.

Elsewhere, also during August 2012, more than a million people were affected by flooding in the Philippine’s capital, Manila, when two weeks’ worth of rain fell in just 24 hours. As a consequence, about half the city was submerged with water up to 3–4 metres deep in places, which meant travel was impossible and some victims were stranded on the roofs of buildings. However, the memory of an earlier event in 2009 meant many people were well prepared and more organised when asked to evacuate.

Thailand was devastated in 2011 when it suffered its worst floods for several decades. Hundreds of people were killed, several millions of people were affected and the economic cost was estimated to be tens of billions of pounds (close behind Hurricane Katrina). However, several months later, 50 of its provinces were facing drought conditions. Nearby, severe drought also affected North Korea until heavy rains and flooding caused widespread damage, the deaths of >100 people, many thousands of people left homeless and a similar number of people in the City of Anju were left without potable water supplies (August 2012).

China has a water resources divide. The northern plain, with megacities such as Beijing and Tianjin, has endured severe water shortages to such an extent that reservoirs have diminished to only puddles (e.g. Shandong Province) and, as a consequence, to meet demand, groundwater aquifers are being abstracted faster than they can be replenished. In contrast, southern China is commonly afflicted by floodwaters. For instance, flooding in Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan and Hubei Provinces (June 2011) caused enormous suffering and infrastructure damage, with many roads, bridges and buildings destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people evacuated and many thousands of people left stranded. Recognising the imbalance of its water resources, the government is funding (~£37 billion) the North–South Water Project to build a series of massive pipes and canals to transfer water to where it is most needed.

Elsewhere, during June 2011, storms caused flooding in Hamburg, Germany, which inundated buildings and immobilised transport links. The rainfall, however, was welcomed because the country experienced its driest spring months on record. The previous year in Germany had brought extreme heat and drought (July 2010), yet it also brought the wettest August on record.

Spain has been a recent victim to both droughts and flash flooding. Following months of drought and scorching temperatures, the Andalucian Provinces of Almeria, Malaga and Murcia were inundated by a colossal amount of rainfall in only a few hours (September 2012). Such a large amount of rain in a short time meant streets were several metres deep with torrents of water that washed away cars and infrastructure, causing several deaths and mass evacuations.

The UK weather of 2012 can only be described as topsy–turvy. The early part of the year started with a second dry winter in succession, resulting in the implementation of drought orders across many parts of the country (affecting ~20 million people). Since then, the country has experienced some of the wettest periods since records began. Some places have reported up to 30 mm of rainfall in one hour and others have reported up to 100 mm in one day. As a consequence, flooding in June 2012 occurred in parts of Sussex (Bognor Regis, Bosham, Bracklesham, Earnley, Elmer, Felpham, Worthing, Middleton-on-Sea, Littlehampton and Hunston), West Wales (Dol-y-bont, Llandre, Machynlleth, Penrhyncoch and Talybont), the Midlands counties (Penkridge, Albrighton, Boningale, Frankley, Birmingham, Leicester, Kington, Kingsland and Eardisley), Greater Manchester (Wigan and Oldham), Lancashire (Croston, Darwen and Bacup), Cumbria (Kendal and Askam), Durham (Whitley Bay), Yorkshire (Mytholmroyd, Swillington, Todmorden and Hebden Bridge; during September 2012 in Boroughbridge, Catterick, Gilling and Tadcaster), Northumberland (Chester-le-Street, Durham, Morpeth, Newburn, Rothbury and Stockton-on-Tees) and Devon and Cornwall (Looe, Mevagissey, Bideford, Exmouth and Clovelly in October 2012).

The plethora of examples outlined above illustrate that droughts and flooding are concomitant global issues and, moreover, illustrate the necessity for water resources managers, water engineers and water policy-makers to ensure that they produce accurate and well-informed decisions to guarantee the sustained delivery of potable water supplies and the continued protection of society from floodwaters. Climate change may (or may not) transpire to be the root cause for droughts and flooding but perhaps there is also a need to reflect on a host of other reasons why these problems exist and concurrently learn to adapt the built environment and lifestyles for any predicted changes (Booth et al., 2012).

The foremost reasons for water scarcity include population growth, food production, water quality, water demand, plus a host of legislative, policy, social, economic, political and management decisions, while the primary reasons for flooding include natural reasons, such as excessive rainfall or storm surge, and anthropogenic reasons, such as restricted infiltration and excessive runoff from impervious landscapes, again brought about through a host of legislative, policy, social, economic, political and management decisions. Further and more fruitful insights into these issues and potential solutions are deliberated in the remaining chapters of this book.

1.3Structure of the Book

This book comprises three parts and eight sections, which are collated into twenty-nine chapters. The first part of the book (Sections 2, 3 and 4) addresses management issues and solutions to minimise water shortages and provide water security for society, whilst the second part of the book (Sections 5 and 6) addresses management issues and solutions to control excessive rainfall and minimise flooding impacts. The latter part of the book (Section 7) contextualises the issues of the earlier sections within international case studies from the developing world.

Section 1 forms the introduction to the book and provides insights into issues and examples of the need to balance water resources from the extremes of having too little (drought) versus having too much (flooding). Section 2 introduces water demand, policy and cost and gives insights into water strategy, policy and legislation for meeting water demand, whilst also looking at the issues of regulating, privatising and economics of water. Section 3 concentrates on water infrastructure and supply and presents insights into issues of large-scale water storage, the impacts of powering the water industry, treatment of water to meet potable supply standards and delivering supplies in buildings. Section 4 assembles chapters dealing with water conservation and bestows insights into the concept of achieving water-neutral housing developments, building regulation attempts to reduce water usage, reaping water from rainwater and greywater harvesting, and an innovative approach to utilising inland waterways. Section 5 centres on flooding responses and reinstatement and furnishes insights into measuring and monitoring rainfall, engineered schemes for managing and protecting communities from floodwater, the economic cost of flooding, burdens on the insurance sector and a holistic approach to property flood protection. Section 6 ponders on flood solutions in the urban landscape and proffers insights into sustainable drainage systems, together with pavement drainage and green infrastructure benefits, the role of constructed wetlands and the treatment of wastewater. Section 7 contextualises international case studies with insights into water resources issues in Africa and Asia. Section 8 converges with a summary of the book and offers insights into the lessons that can be learnt for the future of water resources management.

1.4Conclusions

The wealth of global examples and information communicated in this chapter have been randomly collated by the authors, from a host of media sources (television, radio, Internet and newspapers) throughout the last few years, and whilst the journalism reports have not been interrogated for absolute accuracy or scrutinised through a peer-review process, like the references used in the subsequent chapters, they are reported here to simply convey the scale of the water resources message of the need to balance too little with too much.

Balancing our water resources requirements and its management is clearly a complicated and multifaceted responsibility. Societies will complain when there is not enough water and the same communities will protest when they are flooded. The examples used portray a global problem of hardship and an obvious sense of frustration that must be so readily apparent to those affected. Whether you believe in climate change is a cause, or not, evidence suggests there is a shift towards more extreme weather events and the extent, frequency and repetition of droughts and floods illustrates a need to understand and adapt our lifestyles and behaviour, our homes and businesses, and our towns and cities to accommodate these events.

References

Booth, C.A. , Hammond, F.N. , Lamond, J.E. and Proverbs, D.G. (2012)

Solutions to Climate Change Challenges in the Built Environment

. Wiley–Blackwell, Oxford.

Charlesworth, S.M. and Booth, C.A. (2012) Water resources issues and solutions for the built environment: too little versus too much. In: Booth, C.A. , Hammond, F.N. , Lamond, J.E. and  Proverbs, D.G. (eds)

Solutions to Climate Change Challenges in the Built Environment

. Wiley–Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 237–250.

Committee on Climate Change (2012)

Climate Change – Is the UK Preparing for Flooding and Water Scarcity

? Adaptation of Sub-Committee Progress Report.

http://www.theccc.org.uk/reports/adaptation

.

Section 2Water Demand, Policy and Cost

2Meeting Demand: Water Strategy, Policy and Legislation

Sharron McEldowney

2.1Introduction

Water quality and availability is fundamental to human health and well-being and essential to economic productivity. Water plays a key role across a variety of commercial activities from food production and manufacture, to energy generation, industrial activity and for leisure activities. The sustainable use of water in urban landscapes involves the management of these diverse and often competing demands on a scarce resource. Policy-makers have to engage with managing water resources to ensure sustainability. It is a multidimensional problem which must somehow be resolved with the equitable distribution of water, while conserving water quantity and quality in the face of growing demand.

At present, ~18 billion litres of water are supplied daily by the UK water industry to residential and commercial users. The service sector is by far the largest single commercial user, accounting for 56% of nonresidential water use, with manufacturing using 28% and agriculture 12%. Some of this demand for water is met through direct abstraction by both agricultural and industrial businesses (Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), 2011a, 2012a). Roughly 150 litres of water are used per day per person in the UK (www.waterwise.org.uk). Any water shortages will undoubtedly have diverse and substantial impacts. Policy development for sustainable water usage is faced with an expanding population, predicted to rise from just over 62 million to an estimated 70 million by 2027 in the UK (Office for National Statistics, 2011), and the impact of global warming. The UK 2012 Climate Change Risk Assessment (DEFRA, 2012a) sets out the vulnerability of the UK’s water supply to climate change through reduced water availability and impacts on water quality.

There are a number of important contributions to the governance and management of water resources in England and Wales. DEFRA, together with the Welsh Assembly Government, is responsible for water policy. The Environment Agency (EA) for England and Wales contributes substantially to the sustainable development of the water resource. Nature Resources Wales, formed from the merger of the Environment Agency for Wales, the Countryside Council for Wales and the Forestry Commission for Wales in 2013, has similar responsibilities. OFWAT is the economic regulator for public water providers in England and Wales; it ensures water companies maintain a balance between supply and demand. The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) oversees the quality of drinking water from public and private supplies.

This chapter will begin by reviewing the current legislative and regulatory framework for managing water quality and demand in the built environment. Strategies to foster greater water use efficiency in the future will be examined and current policy directions for water management in England and Wales are outlined.

2.2Legislative and Regulatory Framework for Managing the Water Resources

The current regulatory framework for UK water resources reflects two major influences. Firstly, the European Union has substantially contributed to water protection, particularly through the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) and its Daughter Directives. Secondly, the bulk of water supply and the treatment of wastewater, some 16 billion litres per day (DEFRA, 2012b), are provided for by the privatised public utility companies (see Chapter 3). The previous Labour Government’s water strategy (2008) made clear the need to value water more highly and the necessity of conserving water resources for the future (DEFRA, 2008; Howarth, 2008). The new Coalition Government’s recent White Paper, Water for Life (DEFRA, 2011b), has followed a similar approach, which underlines the value of water and emphasises the need to tackle pollution, overabstraction and improve water efficiency.

2.2.1 OFWAT and the Protection of the Water Supply

The Water Industry Act 1991 provides for water companies to supply water and sewage services and established a regulator for the industry. A modified Water Services Regulation Authority (the acronym OFWAT) was set up by the Water Act 2003, with a new emphasis on regulation of a service rather than the economic regulation of a company. This has brought greater cooperation with other agencies. OFWAT is under a primary duty ‘to protect the interests of consumers, wherever appropriate by promoting effective competition’. Consumers are defined to include not only current but future users of water. The environmental consequences of water use also lie within the competences of OFWAT. There is an additional duty linked to the EU’s Water Framework Directive (WFD) that requires the development of common principles ‘to promote sustainable water use’. The Water Industry Act 1991 imposes a duty on water companies to promote the efficient use of water by its customers supplementing the powers of OFWAT.

The need to repair an ageing, Victorian water infrastructure is a major problem for OFWAT and the water industry. There is an ongoing major programme of infrastructure repairs carried out by the water companies and required by OFWAT. Undoubtedly, there has been improvement in leakage levels but, after an initial period of some success, current leakage reduction is disappointing. There were an estimated 2494 megalitres of losses from water companies’ distribution networks and 787 megalitres from supply pipes on customers’ properties per day in 2009–2010 (DEFRA, 2011a). These figures have remained fairly constant since 2000. Individual water companies have been set yearly targets to reduce leakage by OFWAT until 2015, and must publish data on annual leakage on their web sites. In the past, OFWAT has taken enforcement action over companies not reaching water leakage targets in breach of their statutory obligations and may do so again in the future. Water companies are expected, however, to balance the costs of reducing leakage against managing supply and demand in other ways (e.g. metering, promoting efficient use of the water resource and also against exploiting a new water resource). Guidelines were published by OFWAT as part of the 2009 Price Review on best practice in the calculation of a sustainable economic level of leakage (OFWAT, 2009). The calculation is intended to include consideration of social and environmental costs. There have been some difficulties in the interpretation of this calculation by water companies and OFWAT, the EA and DEFRA are currently reviewing the guidance. OFWAT has also set requirements for the improvements of sewage infrastructure at substantial cost to water companies and their customers. Again the age of the infrastructure is a fundamental problem and improvements are essential if EU Water Directives are to be achieved.

The water companies are expected to present an annual report to OFWAT, which in the past have been much criticised for being too onerous. The requirements for reporting have been simplified and from July 2012 the report has taken the form of a ‘risk and compliance statement’. OFWAT believe this will provide more proportionate, targeted and risk-based regulation and incorporate a degree of horizon scanning for risk (OFWAT, 2012a). The statement includes confirmation that the company has met its statutory obligations, as well as licensing and regulatory obligations. The risk assessment element of the statement maps risks and sets out plans to manage or mitigate them. The companies must also report on their progress against a number of indicators for environmental impact, reliability and availability, customer experience and finance. The reliability and availability category include the serviceability of the water and sewage infrastructure and leakage. The environmental impact factors are primarily related to pollution incidence, safe sludge disposal and meeting discharge consents, all of which affect water quality. There is also a reporting requirement on greenhouse gas emissions. The indicators were developed in consultation with the EA, who will use them to help assess water companies’ performance related to their environmental impact. The water companies can include other indicators that are not relevant to OFWAT and there seems to be the intention to include indicators of drinking water quality (OFWAT, 2012b).

OFWAT would undoubtedly claim there have been improvements in the efficiency of supply and service provided by the water companies. It is difficult to gauge, however, how much the improvements have been driven by the regulatory activity of OFWAT and how much is the result of the improving standards driven by the European Union. OFWAT has recently been pushing to increase the speed of introducing water metering in England and Wales, with a target of 90% of supplies metered by 2030. The regulator claimed this would not only have benefits for customers but would have substantial environmental benefits in reducing demand (OFWAT, 2011). However, this initiative does not seem to have been reflected in the recent Coalition Government’s White Paper, Water for Life (DEFRA, 2011b) or the Water Bill 2013/14. The water companies through their distribution and supply of water are key players in the conservation of water resources. It is likely that there will be continued pressure on them to reduce environmental impacts relating to water quality, conservation and use.

2.2.2The Drinking Water Inspectorate and Drinking Water Supply

The provision of safe, good-quality drinking water is regulated by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI). The Chief Inspector of the DWI has statutory powers of inspection under the Drinking Water Act 2003 (Section 57). It is an offence under the Water Industry Act 1991 to sell water that is unfit for consumption (Section 70). The DWI has enforcement powers under the 1991 Act and has recently cautioned Thames Water, and Essex and Suffolk over drinking water supplies that were unfit for human consumption (DWI, 2011). The Drinking Water Directive (Directive 98/83/EC) sets the quality standards (chemical, microbiological and organoleptic) for drinking water and requires regular monitoring of supplies. There must also be public access to information on drinking water quality (see Chapter 9). Local Authorities keep records of private supplies in their area including reporting on compliance with the Drinking Water Directive. The Inspectorate prepares an annual report on the state of drinking water quality for both public supplies and private supplies (see, for example, Chief Inspector of Drinking Water, 2011).

The percentage of drinking water supplies failing tests in England and Wales was 0.04% in 2010, a slight improvement on 2009 where the rate of failure was 0.05%. There has been a rise in the incidence of failure since 2005, which has caused some concern (ENDS Report, 2009) and appears due to two factors, overfluoridisation and pesticides. There is a requirement for water companies to undertake risk assessments for each water treatment works and linked supply system, which is designed to prevent unhealthy water entering the water supply system. Water companies are expected to have an appropriate risk management system in place.

2.2.3The Environment Agency and Protecting Water Resources

The EA is the major environmental regulator in England and plays a key role in protecting the quality and quantity of the water resource. It was established under the Environment Act 1995. There are a number of major pieces of legislation relevant to maintaining water resources. In particular the Water Resources Act 1991 provides comprehensive powers for the management and regulation of water resources. There are general duties on the EA to conserve, augment, redistribute and secure proper use of water resources in England and Wales. The 1991 Act provides a water pollution control system and powers under this Act also relate to making drought orders. The Environment Act 1995 gives the EA an extensive remit over water resources, including water management, water pollution control, abstraction, flood defences, conservation and fisheries management.

The EA is the competent authority in England for the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (Directive 2000/60/EC), which is implemented through the Water Environment (England and Wales) Regulations 2003. The Directive essentially applies sustainable development principles to the water industry and to water resources. It provides for comprehensive phased improvements in the status of the water resource. The WFD is intended to be the main regulatory system for covering surface water and groundwater in a common framework. The new Daughter Directives also contribute to the overall regulatory framework. One Daughter Directive is specifically designed to protect the groundwater resource (The Ground Water Directive 2006/118/EC), while a new Environmental Quality Standards Directive (Directive 2008/105/EC), also known as the Priority Substance Directive, sets environmental quality standards for chemical substances that are identified as presenting a risk to or via the aquatic environment. A ‘priority list’ of substances is set out in Annex X to the WFD and includes industrial chemicals, biocides, metals and metal compounds. These substances are selected on the basis of their persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity or as agents of equivalent concern (e.g. endocrine disrupting chemicals). They must be monitored and exceedances of environmental quality standards (EQSs) reported. Under the WFD, discharges of these substances to the aquatic environment should be progressively reduced or stopped.