Water Resources Management in Mountain Regions E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
An up-to-date and comprehensive analysis of mountainous region water resource management
In Water Resources Management in Mountain Regions, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an up-to-date survey of mountain region hydrology, including the assessment, dynamics, and modeling of glaciers, rivers, and lakes, as well as coverage of the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on mountain ecosystems. The authors discuss the challenges posed for those attempting to sustainably manage water resources and explain the impacts of those challenges on water yield, water quality, and the risk of flash flooding.
The book includes several case studies from the Himalayan mountain range, which serves as a model region for both medium-high and very high-altitude water resources. It also examines traditional methods of water resource management and conservation and their relevance for 21st century strategies.
Readers will also find:
- A thorough introduction to the management challenges of water resources in the Sikkim Mountain regions
- Comprehensive explorations of the microbial dynamics, ecological resilience, and sustainable management strategies of mountainous water resources
- Practical discussions of the application of Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing in Satpuda mountainous terrain
- Complete examinations of water resource vulnerability to climate change in the mountain regions of India
Perfect for scientists and other professionals working in surface and subsurface hydrology, environmental management, and climate science, Water Resources Management in Mountain Regions will also prove invaluable to professionals working in companies and governmental institutions involved in water resource exploitation and conservation, hydroelectric power generation, and disaster prevention.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Management Challenges of Water Resources in Sikkim Mountain Regions
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Water Resources in Sikkim
1.3 Management Challenges
1.4 Future Adaptation Strategies and Options
References
2 Basin‐Scale Estimation of Runoff Components Using the SPHY Model
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Materials and Methods
2.3 Results
2.4 Discussion
2.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3 Assessment and Prediction of Water Yield in the Chandra Basin, Western Himalaya, India: Using Physical Basis SWAT Model and Machine Learning
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Study Area
3.3 Methodology
3.4 Conclusion(s)
Acknowledgments
Ethical Approval and Responsibilities of Authors
Consent to Participate
Consent to Publish
Funding
Competing Interests
Author(s) Contributions
Availability of Data and Materials
References
4 Assessment of Suspended Sediment Properties and Particle Load for Optimal Operation of Hydropower Plants in the Himalayan Region
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hydropower in India
4.3 Challenges of Hydropower Development in the Himalayas
4.4 Impact of Sediment on HPP
4.5 Alaknanda River Basin
4.6 Sutlej River Basin
4.7 Suspended Sediment Properties
4.8 Conclusion
References
5 Hydrochemistry and Quality Assessment of High‐Altitudinal Kareri Lake, Northwest Himalaya, Himachal Pradesh, India
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Information of the Study Site
5.3 Methodology
5.4 Results and Discussion
5.5 Hydrochemistry of the Lake
5.6 Qualitative Characteristics of Lake
5.7 Pearson Correlation Coefficient
5.8 Comparison of Different Parameters of Kareri with Other Himalayan Lakes
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 Water Quality Assessment of Lakes in Mountain Region with Spatial Reference to Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Study Area and Site Description
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
7 Hydrogeochemical Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in Leh Town, Trans‐Himalaya, India Using Entropy Water Quality Index
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.3 Results and Discussions
7.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
8 Revival of Drying Springs in Mountainous Regions of the Himalayas – Inferences from an Isotope Hydrochemical Study
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Study Area
8.3 Rainfall and Climate
8.4 Sampling and Analytical Techniques
8.5 Chemical Species
8.6 Stable Isotopes (
δ
2
H, and
δ
18
O)
8.7 Radioactive Isotope (
3
H)
8.8 Results and Discussion
8.9 Discharge Rate Analysis
8.10 Hydrochemistry
8.11 Environmental Isotopes
8.12 Isotopic Inferences and Recommendations
8.13 Impact of Artificial Recharge Measures
8.14 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
9 Biogeochemical Characterization of Water Resources in the Indian Himalayan Regions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Factors Impacting Water Resources
9.3 Monitoring, Assessment, Management, and Treatment
9.4 Case Studies
9.5 Conclusion
9.6 Future Directions
References
10 Mountainous Water Resources: Understanding Microbial Dynamics, Ecological Resilience, and Sustainable Management Strategies amidst Climatic Challenges
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Microbial Dynamics and Mountainous Water Resources
10.3 Climatic Challenges and Extreme Climatic Affairs
10.4 Mountainous Ecological Resilience
10.5 Strategies for Sustainable Management
10.6 Vulnerability and Adaptability
10.7 Case Reports and Best Practices
10.8 Potential for Research and Future Routes
10.9 Conclusion
References
11 Modeling the Glacier Energy and Mass Budget of the Phuche Glacier in the Cold‐arid Trans‐Himalayan Region, Ladakh Range
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Study Area
11.3 Data and Methods
11.4 Results
11.5 Discussion
11.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Funding
References
12 Estimation of Ice Thickness and Glacier‐Stored Water of the Teesta Basin, Eastern Himalayas, Sikkim, India
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Study Area
12.3 Data Used
12.4 Methodology
12.5 Results
12.6 Discussion
12.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
13 Snowmelt Runoff Estimation Using Landsat 8 Snow Cover Area Products in Beas River Basin, Western Himalayan via SRM Degree‐Day Modeling Approach
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Description of the Study Area
13.3 Methodology
13.4 Data Used
13.5 Results and Discussion
13.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
14 Management of Water Resources Through the Application of Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing for Satpuda Mountainous Terrain, Madhya Pradesh, India
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Climate and Vegetation
14.3 Geomorphological Studies
14.4 Structural Hill
14.5 Water Resource Management of Satpuda Mountainous Terrain
14.6 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
15 Assessment and Management of Flash Floods in the India Himalayas
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Causes of Flash Flood
15.3 Flooding in Major River Basins of India
15.4 Dynamics of Flash Floods in the Himalayan Region
15.5 Factors Affecting Flash Floods
15.6 Mitigation Strategies for Flash Floods
15.7 Concluding Remarks
References
16 Critical Perspectives on Climate Change and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods’ Impact in the Himalayas
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Outbursts and Climate Change Impact in the Last Century
16.3 Warnings and South Lhonak Lake Outburst Flood
16.4 Inferences from the South Lhonak Lake Outburst Flood
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 A Comprehensive Review on Water Resource Vulnerability to Climate Change in the Mountain Region of India
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Documented Consequences of Climate Change
17.3 Summary and Conclusion
References
18 Rainfall Intensity and Return Periods of Extreme Rainfall Over the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Study Area and Environmental Setting
18.3 Data and Methodology
18.4 Result and Discussion
18.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
19 Traditional Techniques of Rainwater Management and Conservation in the Mountainous Regions of North‐East India
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Water Resources of NER
19.3 Traditional Water Management Techniques in NER
19.4 Challenges in the Water Management System
19.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
20 Sustainable Management of Groundwater Along the Foothills Focusing on Mountain Front Recharge
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Estimation Methods
20.3 Estimation of MFR
20.4 “MFR” Perspectives
20.5 Mountain Groundwater Under Climate Change
20.6 Major MF Aquifers in India and its Significance in Recharging Groundwater
20.7 A Case Study on Hydrochemical Approach to Estimate MFR in Tamil Nadu, India
20.8 Conclusion and Future Work
Acknowledgment
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Physical characteristics of the Koshi River Basin and its major t...
Table 2.2 Seasonal variations of hydrological regimes of the Koshi River Ba...
Table 2.3 Seasonal variations of hydrological regimes of the Koshi River Ba...
Table 2.4 Man–Kendall trend test and statistical summary of hydrological va...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Information on spatial and temporal datasets utilized for runoff ...
Table 3.2 Attribute table of land use/land cover.
Table 3.3 Attribute table of soil map.
Table 3.4 Selected parameters.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Source‐wise installed capacity of electricity in India as of Octo...
Table 4.2 IEC 62364 based sediment factors for ARB.
Table 4.3 IEC 62364 based sediment factors for SRB.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Showing concentration of various parameters and their comparison ...
Table 5.2 Pearson correlation coefficient among different parameters observ...
Table 5.3 Comparison of different parameters of Kareri and other lakes of H...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Results of physico‐chemical parameters of Lakes in Amarkantak reg...
Table 6.2 Comparisons ofphysio‐chemical parameters of several lakes in moun...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Parameters and formulae for evaluating groundwater quality for ir...
Table 7.2 Statistical summary of the physicochemical properties of groundwa...
Table 7.3 Classes of groundwater based on hardness (Sawyer and McCarthy 196...
Table 7.4 Descriptive statistic of parameters of irrigation water.
Table 7.5 Pearson correlation matrix for different physicochemical paramete...
Table 7.6 Principal component analysis.
Table 7.7 Deterministic noncancer risk of fluoride.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Rainfall data of project sites from 2004 to 2009.
Table 8.2 Geographical coordinates of springs at Isala and Kakodakhal sites...
Table 8.3 Summary of physicochemical and isotope data for Isala for differe...
Table 8.4 Summary of physicochemical and isotope data for Kakodakhal for di...
Table 8.5 Spring discharge rate (in L/min) of Isala and Kakodakhal sites.
Table 8.6 Recommendations for spring rejuvenation at Isala site.
Table 8.7 Recommendations for spring rejuvenation at Kakodakhal site.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Drinking water according to BIS standards (IS 10500: 2012).
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Various methods by which microbial dynamics contribute to ecologi...
Table 10.2 List of the main variables that affect the implementation of adap...
Table 10.3 Overview of successful programs, promoting mountain ecosystems' a...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Accumulated winter precipitation at 5600 m a.s.l. from 2012 to 2...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Details of important glaciers.
Table 12.2 List of dataset utilized in the study.
Table 12.3 Surface ice flow velocity, ice thickness, and volume of the glac...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summary of data used in the study.
Table 13.2 Features of the 12 elevation zones derived from the DEM of the B...
Table 13.3 Data on rainfall (P), temperature (T), discharge (Q), hydrometeo...
Table 13.4 Percentage of snow cover in elevation zones.
Table 13.5 The range of parameter values used in the SRM model's calibratio...
Table 13.6 Outcomes of the Beas River basin model simulation from 2013 to 2...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Stream order (S
u
), streams number (N
u
), and bifurcation ratios (...
Table 14.2 Stream length and stream length ratio of study area.
Table 14.3 Stream orderwise mean area in study area basin (Deshmukh 2019).
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Summary of flash flood events in India during recent years.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 List of common GLOF events as documented by Govindha Raj (2009)....
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Effects of climate change on water resources.
Table 17.2 Glacial retreat rate over time in the Himalayas.
Table 17.3 Analysis of specific mass balance variations among glaciers in t...
Table 17.4 Changes in the Gangabal lake area within Kashmir.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Details of rainfall stations in the study area.
Table 18.2 Rainfall frequency distribution at the different stations.
Table 18.3 Rainfall contribution of different frequency.
Table 18.4 Highest one‐day and average seasonal (May–October) rainfall of t...
Table 18.5 Statistical descriptions of rainfall pattern (Seasonal maximum d...
Table 18.6 Return periods of extreme rainfall events in the study area calc...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Various traditional water management techniques of NER.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Research targeting heavy metals as potential recharge sources.
Table 20.2 Research carried out on mountain front recharge linked to ground...
Table 20.3 The correlation between ions and the numbers in bold shows a str...
Table 20.4 Factor analysis table extracting three major factors from the st...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim sta...
Figure 1.2 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim sta...
Figure 1.3 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim sta...
Figure 1.4 Geological map of Sikkim and the Darjeeling Himalaya. Abbreviatio...
Figure 1.5 Time series of Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) derived fro...
Figure 1.6 Water availability in the Poison Lake area during (a) and after (...
Figure 1.7 (a) and (b) Water distribution by water tankers to the students o...
Figure 1.8 Various recharge trenches excavated under the Dhara Vikas program...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Map showing the Koshi River Basin with major tributaries.
Figure 2.2 Hydrograph of the Koshi River Basin at Chatara Station: (a) line ...
Figure 2.3 Annual (a) and monthly (b) variations of the water balance compon...
Figure 2.4 Annual variations of (a) total discharge, (b) basin scale precipi...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Study area: “Chandra basin” is selected in Himachal Pradesh, Indi...
Figure 3.2 Flowchart of the methodology used in the study.
Figure 3.3 Percentage contribution of parameters to runoff and average annua...
Figure 3.4 Water yield prediction.
Figure 3.5 RMSE and MSE comparison.
Figure 3.6 Residual curves.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Sampling sites in ARB. A1–A8 represent sampling sites of the Alak...
Figure 4.2 Sampling sites in SRB. S1–S11 represent sampling sites of the Sut...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Dominant source of ionic species in the Kareri Lake.
Figure 5.2 Comparison among different parameters of Kareri Lake: (a). Ca
2+
+...
Figure 5.3 Types of water in the Kareri Lake.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Study area showing sampling location in different lakes in Amarka...
Figure 6.2 Water quality index (WQI) of different Amarkantak region lakes.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Map of Leh town, Ladakh (UT) from India maps with sampling locati...
Figure 7.2 Piper diagram shows the categorization of water type in Leh town,...
Figure 7.3 Gibbs plot depicting groundwater chemistry.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 (a) Google Earth map of Isala site with sampling points, (b) Loca...
Figure 8.2 Discharge rates of the springs from June 2008 to November 2009 at...
Figure 8.3 Piper plots of the spring waters collected from Isala and Kakodak...
Figure 8.4 Plot of δ
2
H versus δ
18
O of spring water samples collected from Is...
Figure 8.5 Altitude versus δ
18
O composition of spring water samples collecte...
Figure 8.6 Plot of δ2H versus δ
18
O of spring water samples collected from Ka...
Figure 8.7 Altitude versus δ
18
O composition of spring water samples collecte...
Figure 8.8 Tritium versus altitude for (a) Isala and (b) Kakodakhal and trit...
Figure 8.9 Constructed check dam and bund at Isala site.
Figure 8.10 Constructed check dam and bund at Kakodakhal site.
Figure 8.11 The discharge rate variation before and after recharge structure...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The process of water management and treatment. Water treatment in...
Figure 9.2 The map of the Indian rivers covered in Himalayan region. This ma...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Location map of the (a) cold‐arid region with glacier boundaries...
Figure 11.2 Mean monthly and annual distribution of (a) air temperature, (b)...
Figure 11.3 Wind speed and direction from half‐hourly data for daytime (07 :...
Figure 11.4 (a) Mean monthly variation of net shortwave (SWN), net longwave ...
Figure 11.5 Mean diurnal variation of climatic and meteorological variables ...
Figure 11.6 Interannual variation of melt, sublimation/resublimation, summer...
Figure 11.7 Comparison of meteorological, radiation, and energy fluxes compo...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Study area map demarcating the important glaciers.
Figure 12.2 Methodology flow chart.
Figure 12.3 Thickness distribution map of the selected six important glacier...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 The Beas River basin in Himachal Pradesh is displayed in the stu...
Figure 13.2 Flowchart of the snowmelt runoff model (SRM).
Figure 13.3 SCA calculated for the Beas River basin using Landsat 8 imagery ...
Figure 13.4 The 12 altitudinal zones extracted for this research are shown o...
Figure 13.5 Area distribution in the 12 distinct elevation zones is shown on...
Figure 13.6 Distribution of snow cover in the Beas River basin's 12 various ...
Figure 13.7 Measured runoff versus computed runoff for the period from 2013 ...
Figure 13.8 Measured runoff versus computed runoff for the period from 2014 ...
Figure 13.9 Measured versus computed daily discharge to calibrate the model ...
Figure 13.10 Measured versus computed daily discharge to validate the model ...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Location map of the study area.
Figure 14.2 Study area drainage map.
Figure 14.3 Stream order map of the study area.
Figure 14.4 TIN map of Tapi microwatershed.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Human life loss in the past decade due to flash floods in India....
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Location showing lateral moraine sliding (left yellow pin in the...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 (a) Currently existing proglacial lake system of the South Lhona...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Location map of the study area showing the rain gauge stations a...
Figure 18.2 Bar diagram showing the (a) Percentage of rainfall events for di...
Figure 18.3 Return period of seasonal maximum daily rainfall.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 North East Region of India
Figure 19.2 Zabo farming system in Kikruma Village.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Diagram shows possible mountain front limits depicting the zones...
Figure 20.2 Interlinkages of the author and index keywords on Scopus literat...
Figure 20.3 Distribution of water types along with land use pattern of the s...
Figure 20.4 Three evolutionary pathways of dominant facies (Banaja et al. 20...
Figure 20.5 The diagram is drawn from the inferences drawn from the present ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Water Resources Management in Mountain Regions
Edited by
Virendra Bahadur Singh
Department of Environmental Studies
Ram Lal Anand College
University of Delhi
New Delhi
India
Sughosh Madhav
Department of Civil Engineering
Jamia Millia Islamia
New Delhi
India
Rakesh Kumar Gupta
Professor
Department of Microbiology
Ram Lal Anand College
University of Delhi
New Delhi
India
Prerna Diwan
Professor
Department of Microbiology
Ram Lal Anand College
University of Delhi
New Delhi
India
Amit Kumar
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Dehradun
Uttarakhand
India
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Singh, Virendra Bahadur, editor. | Gupta, Rajesh Kumar (Of Ram Lal Anand College), editor. | Diwan, Prerna, editor. | Kumar, Amit (Geologist), editor.Title: Water resources management in mountain regions / edited by Virendra Bahadur Singh, Rajesh Kumar Gupta, Prerna Diwan, Amit Kumar.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2025. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2024038874 (print) | LCCN 2024038875 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394249589 (hardback) | ISBN 9781394249602 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394249596 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Water resources development–Himalaya Mountains Region. | Water quality management–Himalaya Mountains Region.Classification: LCC TC405 .W355 2025 (print) | LCC TC405 (ebook) | DDC 363.6/1095496–dc23/eng/20240923LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024038874LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024038875
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Virendra Bahadur Singh
Dedicated to my lovely daughter Vritika and beloved son Rakshit.
Dr. Virendra Bahadur Singh
About the Editors
(1) Dr. Virendra Bahadur Singh
Dr. Virendra Bahadur Singh is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Environmental Studies, Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. He has also worked as a Dr. D. S. Kothari Postdoctoral Fellow (DSKPDF) in the Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India. He has worked in the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India as National Postdoctoral Fellow (NPDF). He has obtained his doctoral degree from the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. He has also received a very prestigious Commonwealth Split‐site Scholarship tenable at the University of Bristol, United Kingdom, awarded by the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission, UK. He has also participated as a Scientist in the Indian Arctic Expedition, fifth batch at the Indian Scientific Station “Himadri,” Ny‐Ålesund, Norway.
Dr. Singh's research work mainly focuses on glaciology, hydrology, hydro‐meteorological correlation, meteorology, suspended sediment transport, hydrogeochemistry, water stable isotopes, mass balance, glacier retreat, biogeochemistry, water pollution, and climate change. He has worked in the fields of glaciology, hydrology, hydrogeochemistry, and water resources in the mountainous environment for the past 15 years. He has published 36 research papers in various peer‐reviewed national and international journals. He has also edited three books published by international publishers such as Wiley and Elsevier. He has reviewed many research papers published by various high‐impact international journals such as Nature Communications; Journal of Hydrology; Science of the Total Environment; Hydrological Processes; CATENA; Environment, Development and Sustainability; Applied Geochemistry; Polar Science; Groundwater for Sustainable Development; Environmental Processes; and Sustainable Water Resources Management.
(2) Dr. Sughosh Madhav
Dr. Sughosh Madhav is presently a Dr. D. S. Kothari Postdoctoral Fellow (DSKPDF) in the Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India. He has obtained his master’s degree from the Department of Environmental Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. He earned his doctorate from the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
Dr. Madhav's research work mainly focuses on hydrogeochemistry, water resources, water pollution, river water, wetland, water quality, climate change, disaster management, chemical weathering, biogeochemistry, wastewater treatment, bioremediation, trace elements contamination, urban water crisis, and soil contamination. He has published 25 research papers in various national and international journals. He has also edited 12 books published by various international publishers, such as Wiley, Springer, and Elsevier, on different environmental issues.
(3) Professor Rakesh Kumar Gupta
Professor Rakesh Kumar Gupta is the Principal of Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India, and a Professor in the Department of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. He obtained his Ph.D from the National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal, Haryana, India. He has also worked as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Center for Environmental Biotechnology and the Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.
His research work mainly focuses on applied microbiology, water quality management, molecular biology, detection of heavy metal ions, environmental metagenomics, etc. Professor Gupta has two US Patents and two International Patent Publications. He has developed a whole cell biosensor for real‐time detection of estrogen in natural water bodies. He has received various national and international prestigious fellowships such as the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Fellowship and the National Dairy Research Institute Fellowship. Professor Gupta has associations with various professional bodies such as the Association of Microbiologists of India and the Biotechnology Research Society of India. He has published more than 50 research publications in various national and international journals and has also published eight books and book chapters.
(4) Professor Prerna Diwan
Professor Prerna Diwan is a Professor in the Department of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. She has obtained her Ph.D from the Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. She has postdoctoral research experience at the Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, South Korea, and the Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Canada.
Professor Diwan’s research focuses on water and air metagenomics, AMR, bioremediation of heavy metals, and oral microbiome studies in the field of microbiology. She has published more than 20 research papers in various high‐impact national and international journals and has also published eight book chapters.
(5) Dr. Amit Kumar
Dr. Amit Kumar is a Scientist at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India, specializing in glaciology and hydrology of the Himalaya‐Karakoram region. He holds a PhD in Geology from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Master’s from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
Since joining WIHG’s Centre for Glaciology in 2009, he has led multiple projects sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, on glacier monitoring and associated hazards. With over a decade of fieldwork and research, Dr. Kumar has advanced techniques in glacier monitoring and glacier hydrology, earning accolades like the Young Scientist Award from the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, in 2014. His research focuses on water resource management and mitigating glacier and climate‐driven hazards, particularly flash floods, contributing to numerous peer‐reviewed publications. His ongoing efforts aim to establish integrated multi‐hazard early warning systems for vulnerable regions in the Himalayas.
List of Contributors
Bedour AlsabtiWater Research Centre, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR)Kuwait City, Kuwait
Naman AroraDepartment of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Raghavendra AshritNational Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF)Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)Noida, India
Kainat AzizDepartment of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, GuwahatiAssam, India
Kiran BishwakarmaState Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment (TPESRE), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Subhashree BiswalDepartment of Geology, Ravenshaw UniversityCuttack, India
Smitha C. ChDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education FoundationGuntur, India
Shalini Singh ChhetriHimalayan Women Awareness and Livelihood (HIMWAL) SocietyDehradun, India
Sabarathinam ChidambaramWater Research Centre, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR)Kuwait City, Kuwait
Lobzang ChorolDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines)Dhanbad, India
Tanveer DarCentre for Cryosphere and Climate Change Studies, National Institute of HydrologyRoorkee, India
Pallavi DasDepartment of Environmental Science Indira Gandhi National Tribal UniversityAmarkantakMadhya Pradesh, India
Sayantan DasSchool of Computer and Systems SciencesJawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew Delhi, India
Mayura D. DeshmukhDepartment of Geology, Shri Shivaji Science College, AmravatiMaharashtra, India
Subash DhakalRural Management and Development Department, Government of SikkimGangtok, Sikkim, India
Jaydeo Kumar DharpureCentre of Excellence in Disaster Mitigation and Management, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Water Resources System Division, National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Deepika DimriHimalayan Women Awareness and Livelihood (HIMWAL) SocietyDehradun, India
Dwarika P. DobhalCentre for Glaciology, Wadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India
Enviromental Geomorphology, Wadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India
Fan ZhangState Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment (TPESRE), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Vinay K. GaddamDepartment of Civil Engineering Siddhartha Academy of Higher EducationVijayawada, India
Vinay K. GaddamDepartment of Civil EngineeringV.R. Siddhartha Engineering College Deemed to be University, Kanuru Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
Nagappan GaneshDepartment of Earth SciencesAnnamalai University, ChidambaramTamil Nadu, India
M. Geetha PriyaCIIRC, Jyothy Institute of TechnologyBengaluru, India
Ashvani K. GosainDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology DelhiNew Delhi, India
Ajanta GoswamiCentre of Excellence in Disaster Mitigation and Management, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Guanxing WangKey Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Land Surface Processes and Ecological Conservation, College of Geographical Science, Qinghai Normal UniversityXining, China
Qinghai Province Key Laboratory of Physical Geography and Environmental Process, College of Geographical ScienceQinghai Normal University, Xining, China
Mousumi GuptaSikkim Manipal Institute of TechnologySikkim Manipal University, MajitarSikkim, India
Sunil K. GuptaDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines)Dhanbad, India
Sunila HoodaDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Sanjay Kumar JainWater Resources System Division, National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Om P. KaptanDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Tirumalesh KeesariIsotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research CentreMumbai, India
Department of Atomic EnergyHomi Bhabha National InstituteMumbai, India
Ashok K. KeshariDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology DelhiNew Delhi, India
S.F.A. KhadriDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, Acharya Nagarjuna University Nagarjuna Nagar, GunturAndhra Pradesh, India
S.F.R. KhadriDepartment of Civil EngineeringV.R. Siddhartha Engineering College Deemed to be University, Kanuru Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
Sayyad Fazal Rahman KhadriDepartment of Civil Engineering Siddhartha Academy of Higher EducationVijayawada, India
Narayan P. KhanalNepal Environment and Development Consultant Pvt. Ltd.Kathmandu, Nepal
Deen D. KhandelwalCentre for Glaciology, Wadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India
Ashita S. KhasaDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Vinod KhattiHimalayan Environmental Studies and Conservation Organization (HESCO)Dehradun, India
Liza G. KibaDepartment of Agricultural Engineering School of Agricultural SciencesNagaland University, MedziphemaNagaland, India
Anil Vishnupant KulkarniDivecha Center for Climate Change Indian Institute of Science, BangaloreKarnataka, India
Ambika KumarBhagalpur National College, BhagalpurBihar, India
Anil KumarForest Ecology and Climate Change Division, ICFRE‐Himalayan Forest Research Institute, ShimlaHimachal Pradesh, India
Arun KumarDepartment of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Deepak KumarDepartment of Chemistry, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, HisarHaryana, India
Devansh KumarDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Pawan KumarDepartment of Natural Resources Management, Maharana Pratap Horticultural University, KarnalHaryana, India
Priyanka KumariDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Chitrasen LairenjamDepartment of Agricultural EngineeringSchool of Agricultural Sciences, Nagaland University, MedziphemaNagaland, India
Ambrish K. MahajanDepartment of Environmental Sciences Central University of Himachal Pradesh DharamshalaHimachal Pradesh, India
Mohit MarwahDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Manish MehtaEnviromental Geomorphology, Wadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India
Gnana S.S.V. MenduDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, Siddhartha Academy of Higher EducationVijayawada, India
Anil K. MisraDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Hemant MohokarIsotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research CentreMumbai, India
Sobhana MummaneniDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, Siddhartha Academy of Higher EducationVijayawada, India
Grace NengzouzamDepartment of Agricultural Engineering School of Engineering and Technology Nagaland University, KohimaNagaland, India
Jharana NepalState Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment (TPESRE), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
and
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Banajarani PandaDepartment of GeologyRavenshaw UniversityCuttack, India
Diksha PantIsotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research CentreMumbai, India
and
Department of Atomic EnergyHomi Bhabha National InstituteMumbai, India
Ramesh R. PantCentral Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan UniversityKathmandu, Nepal
Akansha PatelCentre of Excellence in Disaster Mitigation and Management, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, RoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Krity RaiDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Deepansha RainaDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Prem RanjanDepartment of Agricultural Engineering North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, NirjuliArunachal Pradesh, India
Rakesh K. RanjanDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Gopinadh RongaliNational Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF)Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)Noida, India
Piyali SabuiDepartment of Environmental Science Indira Gandhi National Tribal UniversityAmarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India
Arpan SharmaAsian Development Research InstitutePatna, Bihar, India
Narpati SharmaSikkim State Council of Science and Technology, Government of SikkimGangtok, Sikkim, India
Saurabh K. SharmaSchool of Computer and Systems Sciences Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew Delhi, India
K. ShrutiCIIRC, Jyothy Institute of Technology Bengaluru, India
Sunil K. SingalDepartment of Hydro and Renewable Energy, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Shakshee SoniDepartment of Environmental Science Indira Gandhi National Tribal UniversityAmarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India
Shalini SwamiDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Nihitha VemulapalliDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering, Siddhartha Academy of Higher Education, Vijayawada, India
Aman VermaSchool of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew Delhi, India
Arbind Kumar VermaDepartment of Agricultural Engineering School of Agricultural Sciences, Nagaland University, Medziphema, Nagaland, India
Nidhi VermaDepartment of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Nishchal WanjariDepartment of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, GangtokSikkim, India
Ayushii YadavDepartment of Environmental Science Indira Gandhi National Tribal UniversityAmarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India
Yuxuan XiangState Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment (TPESRE), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
and
University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
Preface
Various water resources such as glaciers, lakes, rivers, and streams are found in the mountain regions which are the source of water for the downstream region of mountains. Numerous aspects are included in the management of water resources in the mountain region such as monitoring, managing, availability, planning, and importance of water resources. Nowadays, water resources management study is very important due to the high demand of water for a growing population, drinking, hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, etc. Water resources management plays a crucial role in the growth and economic development of any country. Hence, there is a need to know about the different aspects of water resources management.
This book contains the management of various water resources situated in the mountain regions. It covers various aspects of water resources management in the mountainous environment such as hydrological characteristics and hydro‐meteorological correlation of water resources, the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on the water resources, hydrogeochemical and biogeochemical characterization of various water resources, hydrological modeling for water resources management, glacier change and mass balance in the high‐altitude region of mountainous environment, use of water resources for the hydroelectric power generation, irrigation and drinking purposes, and the weather pattern in the vicinity of various water resources in the mountain regions. This book also deals with the transport of suspended sediment from various water resources, the impact of sediment transport on hydroelectric power generation, and water quality assessment of lakes and springs in the mountain regions. Disaster and flash flood caused by water resources and climate change, challenges associated with water resources management, and various indigenous techniques used for water resources management in the mountain regions is also discussed in this book. Remote sensing is a very important tool used for monitoring various water resources situated in the mountain regions and is also part of this book. Overall, this book brings a holistic knowledge about water resources management in the mountain regions.
This book is very useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students of universities and colleges, teachers, scientists, environmental engineers, and research scholars especially those working in the fields of hydrology, sediment transport, climate change, water pollution, hydrogeochemistry, flash flood, civil engineering, environmental science, and water resources management. It covers theoretical, practical, modeling, and social aspects of water resources management in the mountain regions. We have included the book chapters of various authors from different disciplines and institutions, which cover different aspects of water resources management. We are thankful to all the authors and reviewers and the publisher of this book for their support, guidance, and dedicated work in publishing an edited volume in the field of water resources management in the mountain regions.
December 2024
Virendra Bahadur Singh, Sughosh Madhav, Rakesh Kumar Gupta, and Prerna Diwan
New Delhi, India
Amit Kumar
Dehradun, India
1Management Challenges of Water Resources in Sikkim Mountain Regions
Anil K. Misra1, Om P. Kaptan1, Priyanka Kumari1, Krity Rai1, Rakesh K. Ranjan1, Nishchal Wanjari1, and Subash Dhakal2
1 Department of Geology, School of Physical Sciences, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim, India
2 Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim, Gangtok, Sikkim, India
1.1 Introduction
The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is a treasure trove of natural beauty and resources, but it is also a fragile ecosystem facing a myriad of challenges due to climate change. This region boasts breathtaking landscapes, from majestic glaciers to perennial rivers nourished by their meltwaters, and a rich tapestry of flora and fauna. However, the threat of climate change casts a shadow over these wonders, triggering concerns about its impact on the communities that rely on these local resources for their livelihoods. The threats posed by climate change in the Himalayas are wide‐ranging and complex. They encompass a spectrum of challenges, including devastating floods, prolonged droughts, and perilous landslides, as underscored by recent research (Kuniyal et al. 2021). These climatic upheavals not only endanger human lives and property but also disrupt agricultural practices, imperil biodiversity, and erode the very foundations of food security in the region. Compounding these challenges is the rapid pace of economic growth in many parts of the northeastern Himalayan region. This growth surge has sparked an unprecedented demand for natural resources, leading to their overexploitation and drastic alterations in land use and cover. The resulting habitat fragmentation and unsustainable development practices further exacerbate the vulnerability of the region's ecosystems. Moreover, the economic boom has reshaped consumption patterns and spurred massive investments in infrastructure. While these investments promise progress, they also carry a host of unintended consequences, including adverse social and environmental impacts. Demographic shifts, with an increasing concentration of the population in urban centers, are anticipated to compound these challenges by intensifying the strain on vital resources, such as water, food, and energy. In the present chapter, management challenges and mitigation measures related to water resources of Sikkim are discussed.
1.1.1 Sikkim State
Located within the embrace of the eastern Himalayas, Sikkim, India's second smallest state, spanning 7096 km2, exhibits geological youth within its fold mountains. Its climatic spectrum ranges from subtropical in the south to tundra in the north. The northern expanse, covered in snow and glaciers for up to half the year, witnesses night temperatures dipping below freezing point, with the high‐elevation tundra zones experiencing bone‐chilling lows below −40°C. Despite this, the state maintains an average annual temperature of approximately 18°C, with peak rainfall during the monsoon months of July and August, as documented in the National Wetland Atlas (2011). Sikkim boasts a rich network of water bodies, with the Teesta and Rangeet rivers serving as major perennial sources along with high‐altitude wetlands of varying sizes and shapes (Hussaina et al. 2018). Among its natural wonders, high‐altitude lakes such as Gurudongmar and Cholamu punctuate the landscape, with Cholamu Lake earning distinction as India's highest lake and the source of the Teesta River. These lakes, nourished by both rivers and snowmelt, contribute to the state's ecological diversity, alongside notable water bodies like Changu (Tsomgo), Khechodpalri, Memencho, and Lampokhari (Chatterjee et al. 2010). However, Sikkim grapples with significant challenges in water resource management, owing to its rugged terrain and ecological sensitivity. The formidable mountainous topography poses formidable obstacles to essential water infrastructure development, including the construction of dams, reservoirs, and pipelines. The technical complexities and substantial costs inherent in such undertakings are further compounded by the threat of landslides and soil erosion, which not only jeopardize water quality but also compromise the structural integrity of vital water‐related infrastructure.
Despite the abundance of water resources in Sikkim, rural areas located in South and West Sikkim face a significant hurdle in accessing clean and safe drinking water. Addressing this challenge requires the establishment of sustainable and dependable water supply systems, particularly in remote regions. Further, Sikkim's pursuit of energy security has led to a growing reliance on hydropower projects. However, the development of such projects must be approached cautiously, considering the environmental consequences, including the preservation of river ecosystems and ensuring adequate downstream water availability. Spring and river water pollution pose a significant threat to Sikkim's water resources, with industrial activities, agriculture, and human settlements contributing to degradation. Implementing robust monitoring and management strategies is essential to maintain water quality and mitigate the adverse impacts of pollution. The challenging weather conditions and rugged terrain in Sikkim further complicate the maintenance of water infrastructure. Regular and rigorous maintenance is indispensable to ensure the longevity and functionality of critical structures, such as dams, water pipelines, and other facilities. In tackling these multifaceted challenges, a comprehensive and integrated approach is paramount to ensure the sustainable and equitable management of Sikkim's precious water resources.
1.1.2 Climate
Sikkim's climate spans from subtropical in the south to tundra in the north, presenting diverse conditions across altitudes. Moist tropical conditions prevail up to 600 m, followed by subtropical climates up to 1500 m, transitioning to cold temperate zones up to 3000 m, beyond which alpine climates dominate. Rainfall ranges from 1250 to 5000 mm annually, with the majority occurring between April and October. Higher elevations experience significant snowfall in winter, with snow thickness reaching 30–40 m (Basu 2013). Temperature fluctuates with elevation, varying from 4°C to 30°C in the lesser Himalayan regions. Areas around 1800 m typically range between 1°C and 25°C, while elevations exceeding 4000 m see summer temperatures rise to 15°C and freezing conditions in winter, early spring, and late autumn (Basu 2013). Sikkim heavily depends on glacial meltwater for its water supply, rendering it susceptible to reduced availability and compromised quality. Erratic weather patterns, characterized by unpredictable rainfall and snowmelt, exacerbate water resource management challenges. Preserving Sikkim's rich ecosystems necessitates meticulous planning and sustainable practices to mitigate adverse environmental impacts.
1.1.2.1 Analysis of Precipitation Indices
In a recent study conducted by Dubey et al. (2022), a comprehensive analysis of spatial and temporal variations in extreme precipitation intensity indices in Sikkim was undertaken. The study used sophisticated methodologies, including Kriging for interpolation, to discern patterns and trends in precipitation across the region. The investigation focused on several key indices, notably Consecutive Dry Days (CDD), Consecutive Wet Days (CWD), PRCPTOT (total precipitation), as well as threshold indices such as R10, R20, and R30, which signify the number of days when precipitation values fall below or above specific thresholds. Additionally, percentile‐based indices like R95P and R95PTOT were calculated based on a reference period spanning from 1963 to 2012.
The analysis of CDD revealed a concerning negative trend, particularly pronounced in the eastern region of Sikkim. This trend suggests a reduction in the number of days with minimal rainfall (<1 mm), indicating potential challenges regarding water resource availability in these areas. Conversely, CWD exhibited an opposing trend, with an increase in occurrences noted in the northern part of the region, implying alterations in precipitation patterns. PRCPTOT, which measures the total precipitation from wet days, displayed varied changes across Sikkim. Significant decreases were observed in the northern and western parts, suggesting potential shifts in rainfall distribution and intensity within the region (Figure 1.1).
Threshold indices highlighted spatial disparities in heavy precipitation days, with higher frequencies noted in the eastern and northern regions. Furthermore, percentile‐based indices indicated significant negative trends, particularly in the northern region, suggesting a reduction in heavy precipitation events over time. Maximum single‐day (RX1DAY) and five‐day precipitation indices (RX5DAY) exhibited mixed trends across Sikkim, with negative trends prevalent in the northern, western, and southern regions. These trends underscore potential changes in extreme precipitation events within the region (Figure 1.2).
The Simple Daily Intensity Index (SDII), calculated as annual precipitation divided by the number of wet days (rainfall > 1 mm), showed varying trends. Significant decreases were observed in the northern region, while increases were noted in the eastern part, reflecting alterations in rainfall distribution patterns across Sikkim (Figure 1.3).
It is notable that while Sikkim receives high rainfall, it primarily occurs within a short duration during the monsoon months. These findings highlight the importance of understanding precipitation patterns for effective water resource management in Sikkim, with implications for agricultural practices and hydrological studies. The study emphasizes the need for proactive measures to adapt to changing precipitation patterns and ensure sustainable water resource management in the region (Dubey et al. 2022).
Figure 1.1 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim state: (a) CDD, (b) CWD, (c) PRCTOT, (d) R10.
Source: Dubey et al. 2022/Springer Nature.
1.1.3 Geology of Sikkim
Sikkim is a landlocked state of India and serves as a gateway to the Eastern Himalaya. The Sikkim Himalaya has been divided into different lithotectonic units separated by various folded thrust systems. From north to south, these lithotectonic units are the Greater Himalayan sequence (GHS), the Lesser Himalayan sequence (LHS), and the Sub‐Himalayan sequence (SHS), separated by the corresponding thrusts, which are the Main Central thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary thrust (MBT), and the Main Frontal thrust (MFT).
Figure 1.2 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim state: (a) R20, (b) R30, (c) R95P, (d) R95PTOT.
Source: Dubey et al. 2022/Springer Nature.
The main lithological units of Sikkim comprise the GHS, comprising migmatites, gneisses, high‐grade schists, and amphibolites, and is generally known as Kanchenjunga gneiss or the Darjeeling Group of rocks. To the immediate south of this lies the LHS, comprising low‐grade, thick metasedimentaries such as phyllites, schists, and quartzites of the Daling Group. Lingtse granite gneiss exposures are recorded along the contact of the GHS and the Daling Group of rocks (Figure 1.4). The granite gneiss is also observed intruding into the Daling Group of rocks at various places. Also, a band of garnetiferous chlorite‐biotite schist is recorded at the contact of the Darjeeling and Daling Group of rocks. To the south of this granitized metasedimentary sequence, Gondwana Group of rocks comprising Rangit pebble, slate, Damuda sandstones, and shales with coal bands.
The parent rocks for the GHS and Daling Group appear to be a sequence of shale, sandstone, and limestone that got variably metamorphosed. The Buxa formation comprises quartzites and limestone/dolomite. The stromatolitic assemblage of Buxa dolomite also indicates a middle/upper Proterozoic age. It also appears that the sandstones and limestones have sufficient lateral continuity, though they were deposited in stable shelf condition.
Figure 1.3 Spatial changes in extreme indices of precipitation in Sikkim state: (a) RX1DAY, (b) RX3DAY, (c) RX5DAY, (d) SDII.
Source: Dubey et al. 2022/Springer Nature.
The SHS, found further south of Sikkim state (in the northern part of the West Bengal), comprises weakly to unmetamorphosed mollase deposits of Siwaliks. The Siwaliks are overlain by quaternary sediments in the Duar plains of West Bengal. The dip of the strata shows an entirely reverse sequence (i.e. Siwaliks overlain by Gondwanas, which in turn are overlain by the Daling Group of rocks, and then the Central Crystallines). This inversion of sequence, or overturning of beds, is explained by the concept of thrusting, which is common in Himalayas.
1.2 Water Resources in Sikkim
The Sikkim Himalaya region is witnessing a noticeable decline in glaciated areas and a shift in snow cover patterns across seasons. These changes in cryospheric resources hold profound implications for the sustainability of water resources, posing significant threats to communities and livelihoods throughout the region. The observed and projected alterations are expected to exert immediate pressure on water resources and exacerbate the region's susceptibility to climate‐induced stressors. Initially, the discharge and water availability in the Sikkim Himalayan region are anticipated to rise due to increased snow and glacier melt driven by rising temperatures. However, this trend is projected to reverse over time as diminishing snow and glacier ice mass leads to decreased water availability. This dual impact underscores the urgent need for proactive measures to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and ensure the resilience of communities and ecosystems in the face of evolving environmental challenges. Usually, in Himalayan region settlements, the majority of the population relies on streams and springs for drinking water, agricultural use, and domestic purposes. Similarly, in Sikkim, over 80% of the hill population heavily depends on small streams and perennial springs for their residential and agricultural needs (Tambe et al. 2009). The overall geographic area of Sikkim is around 7096 km2, and its features include gorges, V‐ and U‐shaped valleys at different elevations, steep slopes, and escarpments with terraces (Tambe et al. 2012b). An area of approximately 440 km2 is covered by 84 glaciers, and 251 km2 is the entire area of permanent snowfields (Sharma et al. 2013; SAC 2001). More than 315 glacial lakes with an average elevation of 4700 (+500) m have been created as a result of this unique geomorphology (CISMHE 2005). Sikkim has significant water resources from hill streams and rivers. A total of 3000 hectares are covered by the riverine length, which is 753 km for rivers and 147 km for lakes, ponds, reservoirs, canals/jhora, etc. Sikkim has more than 220 wetlands, including 59 riverine systems and 150 lacustrine areas. It is home to up to 2000 natural springs (Avasthe et al. 2013). Teesta and Rangeet are the two major rivers in the state. Sikkim's high‐altitude mountains are the source of these rivers. The estimated catchment area of the Teesta river in the hills is 8051 km2, of which 1121 km2 lies in the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal and the remaining 6930 km2 are in Sikkim (Avasthe et al. 2013). Springs are significant geohydrological markers that are created when the impermeable strata and groundwater table intersect and are caused by faults, fractures, etc. These springs receive most of their recharging from rainwater infiltration and are fed by groundwater. These mountain springs serve as the main source of water supply for urban and rural households. Rural homes mainly obtain water from springs using gravity‐based piped systems and manually sometimes.
Figure 1.4 Geological map of Sikkim and the Darjeeling Himalaya. Abbreviations: TSS, Tethyan sedimentary sequence; STDS, South Tibetan Detachment System; GHS, Greater Himalayan Sequence; MCT, Main Central thrust; LHS, Lesser Himalayan Sequence; RT, Ramgarh thrust; MBT, Main Boundary thrust; MFT, Main Frontal thrust.
Source: Modified and adopted from Kellett et al. (2014). Compiled from: Gansser, (1983), Bhattacharyya and Mitra (2009), Long et al. (2011b), Kellett et al. (2013), Mottram et al. (2014).
1.2.1 Water Security Issue
The rise in temperature, attributed to climate change, is anticipated to disrupt the quantity and timing of snow and glacier melt, significantly impacting water resources, particularly in the Himalayas (Arora et al. 2008; Buytaert 2012). Research conducted by Negi et al. (2018) over the past three decades has revealed that the mean temperature in the Himalayan region surpasses the global average. Concurrently, there has been a decrease in winter snowfall, accompanied by an increase in rainfall during this period. This shift in precipitation patterns underscores the dynamic nature of climate change's influence on water availability, necessitating comprehensive strategies to adapt and manage water resources effectively in the Himalayan region.
Mountain ecosystems are delicate ecosystems; even a slight variation in precipitation and temperature can affect the availability of water and other vital ecosystem services, increasing the likelihood of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and droughts (Basu et al. 2021; Tsering et al. 2010). Natural springs are directly impacted by changes in climate conditions that cause fluctuations in the trend and pattern of rainfall. Precipitation is not distributed uniformly; it varies in form (such as snow, rain, and hail), duration, intensity, and amount, as well as geographically, seasonally, and temporally (Chatterjee et al. 2016; Hasanean and Almazroui 2015; Westra et al. 2014). Scarcity of water has emerged as a major issue in the parts of the west and south districts of Sikkim. These parts get substantially less yearly rainfall, roughly 150 cm, than other regions of the state because they are situated in the rain shadow of the Darjeeling Himalayas (Barua et al. 2012; Tambe and Arrawatia 2012). According to the Rural Management and Development Department (RMDD 2012
