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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Authoritative, forward-thinking resource presenting strategies and technologies to mitigate water scarcity and improve water quality
Founded on the idea that conventional procedures are unsuccessful in providing a solution to water security as a whole, Water Scarcity Management delivers integrated, cross-cutting approaches to solve some of the biggest problems that the world faces in terms of freshwater through a nature-based approach.
Written by a team of authors and leaders in the field of environmental science and technology, this book explores topics including:
- Water availability, management, governance, and quality and policy development in the Anthropocene
- New global trends of water management and wastewater reuse, as well as novel integrated strategies and technologies for the mitigation of biotic and abiotic emerging contaminants
- Water stress due to decades of poor management, over-extraction of groundwater, and contamination of freshwater supplies
- Rising demand of freshwater due to rapid population growth, urbanization, and increasing needs across sectors including agriculture, industry, and energy
Water Scarcity Management is a timely, essential, forward-thinking resource on the subject for environmental engineers, microbiologists, environmental scientists, policy developers and modelers seeking to integrate findings on water scarcity, availability, management, reuse, conservation, and treatment into policy development.
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Seitenzahl: 559
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
1 Emerging Contaminants and Water Conservation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Emerging Contaminants
1.3 Best Management Practises for Water Conservation
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Water Security in Asia
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Water Security in Asia
2.3 UNSDG Goals and Water Security Index
2.4 Key Dimensions (KD) of Water Security
2.5 Factors Affecting Water Security
2.6 Opportunities and Challenges in Achieving Water Security
2.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3 Water Security in Africa
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors Affecting the Water Security and Availability
3.3 Causes of Lack of Water Availability in Africa
3.4 Challenges in Water Security and Availability
3.5 Use Cases of Better Water Management
3.6 Increasing Water Security and Availability in Africa
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 Water Security in South America
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Natural Water Resources in South America
4.3 Water‐Deficit Nations in South America
4.4 Water‐Related Challenges in South America
4.5 Water Treatment Practices in South America
4.6 Water Treatment Treaties and Agreements in South America
4.7 Wastewater Treatment Projects in South American Countries
4.8 Conclusions
References
5 Water Security in Australia
5.1 Water in Australia – Background
5.2 Water Availability and Resources
5.3 Emerging Technologies for Water Resource Management
5.4 Water Consumption
5.5 Dual Challenges
5.6 Cause of Inadequate “Water Security”
5.7 Strategies to Strengthen Water Security (Government Acts/Policies and Regulation)
5.8 Security vs Availability
5.9 Worst Hit Areas
5.10 Public’s Role/Responsibility/Behavior to the Challenge
5.11 Conclusion
5.12 Way Ahead
References
6 Water Security in North America and Europe
6.1 Introduction
6.2 North America
6.3 Europe
6.4 Importance of Addressing These Challenges for Sustainable Development
6.5 Key Factors Influencing Water Security and Availability in these Regions
6.6 Solutions to Water Security
6.7 Case Studies: Examples of Successful Water Management Initiatives and Projects in North America
6.8 Examples of Successful Water Management Initiatives and Projects in Europe
6.9 Future Directions and Recommendations
References
7 Indigenous Technology and Modern Practices in Asia
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Modern Technology
7.3 Conclusion
References
8 Indigenous and Modern Practices for Water Conservation and Management in Africa
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Methods
8.3 Water Conservation Practices
8.4 Solar‐Based Irrigation Systems (SBIS): A Modern Practice
8.5 Discussion on Case Studies
8.6 Impact
8.7 Mitigative Measures
8.8 Conclusion
References
9 Water Security in South America
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Water Security in South America
9.3 Opportunities and Challenges in Achieving Water Security in South America
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Indigenous Technology and Modern Practices in Australia
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Water Resources in Australia
10.3 Indigenous Water Treatment and Conservation Technologies in Australia
10.4 Modern Water Treatment Practices in Australia
10.5 Water Conservation and Demand Management
10.6 Forums and Initiatives for Implementing Water Management Technologies
10.7 Conclusions
Statement of Declaration
Data Availability
References
11 Indigenous Technology and Modern Practices in North America and Europe
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Wastewater Treatment – Traditional Water Purification Technology
11.3 Extensive Purification Traditional Technologies
11.4 Advanced Scientific Technologies for Water Purification
11.5 Disease Management
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Water‐Related Traditional and Indigenous Practices
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Ancient Hydraulic Civilization – The Backbone for Irrigated Agriculture
12.3 Historical Knowledge of Hydrological Cycle and Measurement of Its Processes
12.4 Ancient Water Governance
12.5 Sri Lanka: As a Pioneering Case Study for Tank Irrigation Practices
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 Water‐Related Traditional and Indigenous Practices
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Common Practices of Water Harvesting Across the Globe
13.3 Common Practices of Water Harvesting in India
13.4 Current Methods of Water Harvesting
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Modern Water Treatment and Technological Solutions
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Era of Water Treatment Methods
14.3 Emerging Water Treatment Technologies
14.4 Ultrafiltration
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Current Challenges and Solutions to Achieving Sustainable Solutions to Water Security
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Challenges to Water Security
15.3 Other Challenges
15.4 New Perspectives on Water Security
15.5 Sustainable Solutions for Managing Risks Related to Water
15.6 Future Prospects of Water Security for Long‐Term Sustainability
15.7 Conclusion
References
16 Enabling Solutions to Water Security
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Water Security Definitions
16.3 The Relationships Between Water, the Local Environment, and Human Security
16.4 Water Security Evaluation
16.5 Solutions for Addressing Water Shortages
16.6 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Emerging contaminants (ECs) in various water sources, their conce...
Table 1.2 Overview of contaminant classes, associated contaminants, health ...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Various industrial activities and their impact on water quality....
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 African countries with high WASH‐related mortalities.
Table 3.2 Per capita water availability in Africa.
Table 3.3 Cost of irrigation projects.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Water Salinity classifications and applications.
Table 5.2 Academic topic matter and emphasis on water security.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Some of the traditional methods of water conservation in differen...
Table 7.2 Some of the modern technique methods of water conservation.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Comparison of key aspects of Indigenous and modern water conserva...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 The traditional wastewater purification technology.
Table 11.2 The traditional water practices.
Table 11.3 The advanced scientific technologies for water purification.
Table 11.4 The history of water contamination and mitigation strategies.
Table 11.5 Developments and further scope of research and developments in wa...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Different types of irrigated agriculture in the past and their d...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Various historical water harvesting techniques used across the g...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Classification of emerging contaminants that impact on soil, wate...
Figure 1.2 Sources of heavy metal concentration in food plants and trophic t...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Earth’s freshwater distribution highlighting the sectoral consump...
Figure 2.2 Future country‐level water stress for 2040 under pessimistic scen...
Figure 2.3 Linkage between United Nations Sustainable Development (UN SDG) G...
Figure 2.4 Five Pillars of National Water Security (NSW): Household (KD1), E...
Figure 2.5 Ranking of countries according to the Water Security Index that i...
Figure 2.6 Key dimension of water security in different regions of Asia.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Prominent water stressed countries by 2040.
Figure 3.2 Withdrawal to supply ratio of African countries.
Figure 3.3 People affected in different regions of Africa due to storms (per...
Figure 3.4 People affected in different regions of Africa due to drought (pe...
Figure 3.5 People affected in different regions of Africa due to flood (per ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 (a) Map of South America showing its countries.(b) Major Rive...
Figure 4.2 (a) Water stress in the South American countries by 2020.(b) ...
Figure 4.3 Satellite image of severe droughts in South America from the year...
Figure 4.4 Water security index of 10 biggest nations of South America.
Figure 4.5 Relation between per capita GDP and access to healthy drinking wa...
Figure 4.6 Comparison of traditional and modern techniques for water treatme...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Distribution of Australia’s water sources year 2020.
Figure 5.2 Year‐wise share capacity of water stored in the dam.
Figure 5.3 Year‐wise accessible volume of water in Australia.
Figure 5.4 Year‐wise national storage for water in Australia.
Figure 5.5 An overview of ground water level in Australia.
Figure 5.6 Capacity (GL) and supply (GL) of desalination in major urban citi...
Figure 5.7 Recycled water capacity through urban areas, 2019.
Figure 5.8 Sector‐wise water consumption in 2021.
Figure 5.9 Year‐wise water usage and average precipitation in Australia.
Figure 5.10 Water consumption by industry and households in Australia.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Countries exposed to extremely high water stress.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Shows the different Indigenous technology in Asia.
Figure 7.2 Shows the different modern practices images.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 A map of Sub‐Saharan Africa showcasing the different study areas ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 (a) Water scarcity level and (b) mean water crowding index 10‐yea...
Figure 9.2 Various factors affecting the water security in South America.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Annual rainfall map of Australia for the period 2023–2024.
Figure 10.2 Various notable river basins and lakes in Australia.
Figure 10.3 Groundwater resources of Australia.
Figure 10.4 Relation between water, culture, country and people as viewed by...
Figure 10.5 Graphical representation of various processes involved in modern...
Figure 10.6 Household water consumption in Australia for the years 2015–2022...
Figure 10.7 Percentage of water contribution of the various desalination pla...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 A few examples of tank cascades in the dry zone of Sri Lanka.
Figure 12.2 Ancient tank reservations in the dry zone of Sri Lanka.
Figure 12.3 Three types of Bethma Systems in Sri Lanka.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Different membrane filtration methods (Fatima et al. 2021).
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 This figure is covered by the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 I...
Figure 15.2 This figure is covered by the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 I...
Figure 15.3 Future population growth (this figure is covered by the Creative...
Figure 15.4 Water security dimension (UN water).
Figure 15.5 IWRM stages of planning and implementation.
Figure 15.6 High‐level panel on water (HLPW) approach for efficiency enhance...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Dimensions of water security and sustainability.
Figure 16.2 Nevada's Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Lake Mead, the bigges...
Figure 16.3 The components of a rainwater harvesting system.
Figure 16.4 The Los Angeles Aqueduct diverts the flow of several eastern Cal...
Figure 16.5 Reverse osmosis is one method of desalination. In this process, ...
Figure 16.6 Flowchart of water reuse.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Water Scarcity Management
Enabling Technologies
Edited by
Kanchan D. Bahukhandi
Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced EngineeringUPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Manish Kumar
Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de MonterreyMonterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced EngineeringUPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Research and Development Initiative, Chuo UniversityKasuga, Bunkyo‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
Durga P. Panday
Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnologico de Monterrey Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
Tushara G.G. Chaminda
University of Ruhuna
Matara, Sri Lanka
This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:
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Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Manish Kumar
About the Editors
Professor Kanchan D. Bahukhandi
Dr. Kanchan D. Bahukhandi is a Senior Associate Professor in the Sustainability Cluster at the School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, with over 22 years of experience in environmental science, sustainability, water pollution, hydrogeochemistry, and solid waste management. She has published more than 50 research papers in international journals, contributed 30 book chapters, and edited 3 books. Dr. Bahukhandi has delivered invited lectures at premier institutions and organizations and presented around 50 research papers at national and international conferences.
Professor Manish Kumar
Dr. Manish Kumar received his PhD in Environmental Engineering from the University of Tokyo. He is a Distinguished Professor at Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico; UPES, Dehradun; and Chuo University, Hachioji, Japan. A fellow of FRSC, JSPS, and WARI, he has supervised 10 PhD students, edited over 15 books, and published more than 250 SCI/SCIE papers with over 14,000 citations. Featured among the world’s top 2% researchers, he has led major global projects on water sustainability and wastewater epidemiology while serving on editorial boards of top journals including npj Clean Water.
Professor Durga P. Panday
Dr. Durga P. Panday, an Associate Professor at UPES and investigator postdoc at Tecnologico de Moneterrey, specializes in Water Resources Engineering and Management, focusing on water quality, hydroclimatic extremes, and transboundary water sharing using game theory. With a decade of teaching experience, he is dedicated to sustainable water management through high‐impact research and pragmatic strategies in premier journals.
Professor Tushara G.G. Chaminda
Dr. Tushara G.G. Chaminda is a full Professor in Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka. He also serves as a Director Board member of the National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka. With over 200 scientific publications, his primary research interests include emerging pollutants in urban waters, antibiotic‐resistant bacteria, virus indicators in water and soil, sustainable water usage, and green building technology.
List of Contributors
Sonali AggarwalDepartment of Management StudiesGraphic Era (Deemed to be University)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
ApoorvaSustainbaility Cluster, School of AdvancedEngineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Urvashi AryaDepartment of Management StudiesGraphic Era (Deemed to be University)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Sushila AryaDepartment of Agriculture, Dev BhoomiUttarakhand University, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Durgesh BahugunaGraduate School of BusinessTulas Institute, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Kanchan D. BahukhandiSustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPESDehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Vishal BhardwajDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University)Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Ganesh Datt BhattCollege of Agriculture SciencesAn ICAR Accredited CollegeTeerthanker Mahaveer UniversityMoradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Aditi BishtDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University)Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Uttamasha B. BorahDepartment of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences (Energy Cluster)School of Advanced EngineeringUPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Khem ChandMM Institute of ManagementMaharishi Markandeshwar(Deemed to be University)Ambala, Bharat, India
S.S.K. ChandrasekaraDepartment of Agricultural EngineeringFaculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Divya ChaudharyDepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and TechnologyUdham Singh NagarUttarakhand, India
Kanika DograSustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Navjot HothiDepartment of Physics, School of Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Kishor JoshiCTVS, Mira Heart Centre, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Nitin KambojDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Amrit KumarDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Avinash KumarDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Manish KumarEscuela de Ingeniería y CienciasTecnológico de Monterrey, MonterreyNuevo León, México
Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Research and Development InitiativeChuo University, Kasuga, Bunkyo‐kuTokyo, Japan
Pawan KumarDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Sunil KumarGurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University)Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Aanchal KumariSustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPESDehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Gagan MattaDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Ruchi MehrotraDepartment of Management Studies, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Anjali NayakDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Nirlipta P. NayakEnergy Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Durga P. PandaySustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Escuela de Ingeniería y CienciasTecnológico de Monterrey, MonterreyNuevo León, Mexico
Minakshi PandeyDepartment of Chemistry, School of Science, IFTM University, MoradabadUttar Pradesh, India
Neeraj PandeyDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Gaurav PantDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Saumya PatelDepartment of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences (Energy Cluster), School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
M.P. PereraDepartment of GeographyFaculty of Arts, University of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka
Deepali RanaDepartment of Zoology, Dolphin (PG)Institute of Biomedical & Natural SciencesDehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Saumyaranjan SahooDepartment of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Himanshu SainiDepartment of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), HaridwarUttarakhand, India
Aseem SaxenaSustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPESDehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Madhu SharmaCentre of Excellence – Energy and Eco‐sustainability Research, Uttaranchal Institute of Technology, Uttaranchal University, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Pushpa SharmaDepartment of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences (Energy Cluster)School of Advanced Engineering, UPESDehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Rajesh TiwariDepartment of Management StudiesGraphic Era (Deemed to be University)Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Sachin TripathiSustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, DehradunUttarakhand, India
Escuela de Ingeniería y CienciasTecnológico de Monterrey, MonterreyNuevo León, Mexico
M. VithanageEcosphere Resilience Research Center Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, NugegodaSri Lanka
National Institute of Fundamental StudiesKandy, Sri Lanka
Foreword
Water scarcity is emerging as one of the most critical challenges facing humanity in the 21st century. As the global population increases, industrial activities expand, energy generation rises, the standard of living improves, and climate change continues to reshape ecosystems, the demand for fresh, clean water is growing at an unprecedented rate. Addressing this challenge requires not only technological innovation but also a deep understanding of traditional and indigenous knowledge, which has led to sustainable management of water resources for centuries.
This book, Water Scarcity Management: Enabling Technologies, offers a comprehensive examination of water scarcity through both modern and historical lenses. Divided into four sections, it provides a thorough exploration of current water contaminants, conservation practices, and security trends across different regions of the world.
The book’s first section sets the stage by outlining current water contaminants and conservation practices. It serves as a reminder that the roots of water scarcity are complex, often involving a web of factors, such as pollution, mismanagement, and overexploitation. The second section turns our attention to the status of water security and availability across continents, offering detailed analyses of regions that are facing some of the most severe water crises, from Asia and Africa to the Americas, Australia, and Europe.
One of the most innovative aspects of this book is its third section, which highlights the significance of indigenous technologies and traditional water management practices. From Asia to the islands, these practices offer a wealth of knowledge, often overlooked, that could be vital in developing sustainable solutions for modern water challenges.
The final section focuses on actionable solutions – both traditional and modern – that could mitigate the growing water crisis. It not only discusses the technological advances in water treatment but also dives into the critical question of sustainability. Chapters on traditional water‐related practices, modern technological solutions, and the challenges in achieving long‐term water security shed light on how integrated approaches are essential for securing our global water future.
In compiling this volume, the editors have made a significant contribution to both academic discourse and practical applications. The diverse perspectives and interdisciplinary approaches presented here are crucial, as we navigate the complex relationship between water, technology, and society in the Anthropocene.
This book comes at a critical time, and I am confident it will provide valuable insights to researchers, practitioners, and policymakers who are working tirelessly to solve one of the defining issues of our time.
Professor Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., D. Eng. (HC, Waterloo), D.Sc. (HC, Guelph), Ph.D. (HC, Basalicata), D.Sc. (HC, McGill), P.E., P.H., BC WRE (Hon.), D. EWRA (Hon.), Dist.M. ASCE, Hon.Dist. M. IWRA, Dist.F. AGGS, Hon.M. AWRA, F.AGU, EASA, Academician (GFA), NAE
Distinguished Professor and Regents Professor
Caroline and William N. Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Zachry Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, USA
Preface
With the world facing an acute water crisis in terms of both quantity and quality, our focus shifts towards traditional knowledge and indigenous technologies to ensure water security. This book extensively traversed continents, observing the interconnections between stakeholders, diverse water laws, and evolving water security concerns. As we delve into the past, we find the ever‐changing landscape of water pollutants, from early industrialization to modern‐day contaminants. This historical context prepares the background to address the complexities of present‐day pollution.
The book has revealed the traditional wisdom and indigenous technologies that have long played a role in managing water resources through its chapters. We have brought out innovative practices of tribal, rural, and urban communities and modern water treatment methods that align with ecological balance.
The last phase of the book leads to sustainable solutions. We analyzed the long‐term viability and environmental impacts of nature‐based and modern technologies. This book aims at providing tangible, sustainable solutions to the world's water challenges. This book represents our collective effort to deepen our knowledge of the current issues surrounding water security and sustainability, offering a roadmap for safeguarding this precious resource on a global scale. We believe the solutions to the present problems can be solved through historical traditional practices and indigenous knowledge but with modern technological implementation.
Editors:
Kanchan D. Bahukhandi
Manish Kumar
Durga P. Panday
Tushara G.G. Chaminda
1Emerging Contaminants and Water Conservation: Challenges, Strategies, and Solutions for Sustainable Water Management
Sachin Tripathi1,2, Durga P. Panday1,2, and Manish Kumar1,2,3
1 Sustainability Cluster, School of Advanced Engineering, UPES, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
2 Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
3 Research and Development Initiative, Chuo University, Korakuen Campus 1‐13‐27, Kasuga, Bunkyo‐ku, Tokyo, Japan
1.1 Introduction
As the number of people living on Earth continues to increase and there is a corresponding decrease in the amount of available water, water conservation has emerged as an increasingly pressing issue (Alotaibi et al. 2023). Emerging pollutants, on the other hand, pose a substantial danger to both the quality of the water supply and human health (Tripathi et al. 2023). The purpose of this chapter is to give a complete analysis of contemporary developing pollutants as well as water conservation practises, covering the sources, impacts, and management measures associated with these contaminants.
Emerging pollutants may have their origins in a wide number of sources, such as agricultural practises, industrial operations, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), or consumer products. Emerging contaminants (ECs) may come from industrial, municipal (household), agricultural, hospital, or laboratory effluent (Figure 1.1). Surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and WWTP effluent include environmental pollutants (Tripathi et al. 2023). Municipal wastewater is known to emit novel contaminants into the environment. These contaminants come from non‐point and point sources, industrial activities, storm water runoff, home wastewater, and water treatment facilities (Pradhan et al. 2023). Due to high EC values in sludge, management is becoming more concerned (Das et al. 2022, Kumar et al. 2023a, b).
The use of agricultural practises such as pesticides and fertilisers, among other things, can contribute to the presence of newly discovered pollutants in both surface water and groundwater. WWTPs, which are designed to eliminate conventional pollutants but are less successful at removing ECs, are a substantial source of ECs (Dubey et al. 2023). This is because of the way that they are designed. Manufacturing and mining are two examples of industrial activity that might contribute to the discharge of chemicals into rivers. Last but not least, consumer goods, such as flame retardants and plasticizers, have the potential to make their way into water sources (Macklin et al. 2023).
Figure 1.1 Classification of emerging contaminants that impact on soil, water, plants, and treatment processes.
It has been discovered that ECs have a wide range of effects on both human health and the environment (Neog et al. 2024). These effects can be broken down into several categories. Pharmaceuticals and personal care items, for instance, have been connected to endocrine disruption, which can have an effect on both the function and development of the reproductive system (Kumar et al. 2023d). There is evidence that flame retardants cause neurotoxicity, and certain per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been related to cancer and dysfunction in the immune system. Microplastics, which are small plastic particulates that can be discovered in water sources, have the potential to have both a physical and a chemical impact on the creatures that live in water (Farooq et al. 2023).
Emerging pollutants, in addition to having these effects, can also have ecological repercussions, such as changing the composition of microbial communities and disrupting the regular functioning of ecosystems (Li et al. 2023). These consequences can have cascade repercussions throughout food webs, which can have an effect on the health of organisms living in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. The Figure 1.1 represents a classification of emerging contaminants and their varied impacts on soil, water, and plants, highlighting the complex challenges they pose to environmental health. Additionally, it illustrates how these contaminants influence treatment processes, often requiring advanced or modified remediation strategies due to their persistence and resistance to conventional methods.
1.1.1 Sources of Heavy Metal
Approximately 40% of the world’s lakes and rivers have been contaminated by heavy metals (Zhou et al. 2020), stemming from both natural and human activities. Natural sources involve interactions with metal‐containing rocks and volcanic eruptions (Ali et al. 2019). Volcanic emissions, including geothermal activity and degassing, contribute sporadically (Naggar et al. 2018). Anthropogenic sources encompass industrial processes, agriculture, and domestic practices (Gautam et al. 2014); as shown in Figure 1.2.
Mining, pivotal for many economies, releases heavy metals into water bodies, impacting groundwater, soil erosion, and health. Urbanisation and industrialisation exacerbate pollution levels, as evidenced by arsenic in India’s drinking water and various heavy metals in Nigeria’s mining communities. Latin America faces chronic exposure issues, with millions affected by arsenic‐contaminated water exceeding WHO limits. China grapples with high metal concentrations in coastal rivers (Xu et al. 2017), while mercury contamination plagues Venezuela’s artisan gold mining areas. Turkey also battles heavy metal contamination. Mitigating heavy metal pollution is crucial globally, with economic challenges hindering remediation efforts in developing nations.
1.1.2 Irrigation Water Quality
1.1.2.1 Sodium Percent
Sodium, when interacting with soil, diminishes its permeability. Higher levels of sodium prompt a cation exchange process, leading to a reduction in water and air movement within the soil, particularly under moist conditions (Hopkins et al. 2007). The term “sodium percent” is defined as follows:
Figure 1.2 Sources of heavy metal concentration in food plants and trophic transfer to human
Wilcox diagram is used to classify irrigation water based on sodium percent.
1.1.2.2 Chloride
Chloride levels in irrigation water contribute to its overall salinity and can pose toxicity risks to plants when concentrations are excessively high. Elevated chloride levels can lead to foliar burns when deposited on leaves. Some plant species are more vulnerable to chloride damage than others. To mitigate the harm caused by high chloride levels in irrigation water, options include selecting less sensitive crop varieties, utilising irrigation methods such as furrow, flood, or drip irrigation to minimise foliar contact, and rinsing plants at the conclusion of each irrigation cycle if a source of high‐quality water is accessible. Excessive chlorine in plants can lead to leaf tissue accumulation, resulting in a burnt appearance, despite chlorine being a micronutrient essential for plant growth (Hopkins et al. 2007).
1.1.2.3 Salinity
Irrigation water with an electrical conductivity below 0.2 μS/cm, as discussed earlier, can lead to issues with soil permeability. When water salinity is very low, it can leach out calcium and cause soil particles to become more prone to breaking apart, resulting in difficulties with water infiltration. To prevent these infiltration problems, it is suggested to add a calcium salt such as gypsum or calcium chloride to the irrigation water, increasing the salinity to 0.2–0.3 μS/cm (Hopkins et al. 2007).
1.2 Emerging Contaminants
1.2.1 Pharmaceuticals
Due to the widespread use of pharmaceuticals in the medical treatment of human and animal diseases, accidents, and illnesses, this industry is considered to be one of the largest contributors to the world’s most critical environmental problems. Pharmaceutically active compounds are complex molecules that contain a variety of diverse functions and physical properties in order to engage in specific biological activities (Kumar et al. 2023c). Pharmaceuticals and medications contain these compounds. The vast quantity of these compounds necessitates their subdivision into a variety of sub‐classes.
Non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) are the compounds most frequently used to relieve pain which are frequently detected in surface water and are especially resistant to conventional wastewater treatment methods (Khumalo et al. 2023). Hormones and oestrogens are considered to be significant emerging pollutants due to their ability to persist in living organisms for extended periods of time and also disrupt the endocrine systems (Almazrouei et al. 2023). Compared to other oestrogens, 17‐ethinylestradiol is a prevalent oral contraceptive for women that possesses endogenous activity (Thacharodi et al. 2023). Typically discovered in wastewater, it is notoriously challenging to eradicate. Antibiotics are complex chemical compounds used to inhibit or eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. Most frequently detected in the environment are the antibiotics amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, and penicillin. Table 1.1 shows the concentration of various emerging contaminants reported globally.
1.2.2 Personal Care Products
There are a variety of over‐the‐counter health, cosmetic, and drug products referred to as PCP (personal care product) (Benny et al. 2024). Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters, preservatives, and fragrances are the three categories of contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs) that are most prevalent in PCPs (Chaturvedi et al. 2021a). In general, the compounds that comprise PCPs are conjugated with other medications or pollutants present in pharmaceutical products, such as antidandruff cleansers (Krishnan et al. 2021). As preservatives in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, parabens are compounds. Triclosan is another compound extensively used as an antimicrobial agent in soaps, deodorants, skin creams, toothpaste, and plastics, and it is frequently detected in surface water. Among the most frequently detected PCPs in surface water, parabens must be considered; these compounds are used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Due to their lipophilic nature, a number of these pollutants can bioaccumulate in organisms after being ingested or absorbed through the epidermis. They are then excreted through urine or merely removed by washing, and eventually, they make their way into aquatic and soil environments.
1.2.3 Plasticizers
Plasticizers are clear, colourless liquids with a viscous consistency. They have a low‐molecular weight and are commonly used as additives to increase the flexibility or distensibility of a material. This makes working with the material simpler during the manufacturing process and during the formulation of final products. Plasticizers can be categorised into a variety of groups based on the molecular structure of their molecules; among these, phthalates have garnered a great deal of attention due to the frequency with which they are employed and the quantity of phthalates that are discharged into water sources. They are esters of phthalic acid and have a benzene ring with two functional ester groups, as in diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) (Mehraie et al. 2022). In addition, there are DEP and DBP. Phthalates can readily migrate and disperse throughout the environment due to their low‐molecular weight. In addition, the lipophilic nature of phthalates allows them to pass through natural barriers such as the skin, lungs, and gut tissue of humans, which can contribute to bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
Table 1.1 Emerging contaminants (ECs) in various water sources, their concentrations, health and environmental impacts, and detection methods (liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry [LC‐MS/MS], gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry [GC‐MS], high‐performance liquid chromatography [HPLC]).
Category of ECs
ECs
Source
Max. conc. (ng/L)
Detection method
Potential health/environmental impact
Regulatory limit (if applicable)
Country
References
Pesticides
Atrazine
Surface water
171
LC‐MS/MS
Endocrine disruption, carcinogenic
3 μg/L (EU)
Brazil
Abubakar et al. (
2020
)
Hexazinone
Surface water
44.1
GC‐MS
Potential groundwater contamination
N/A
2‐hydroxy atrazine
Surface water
130
HPLC
Toxic to aquatic life
N/A
Hexazinone
Surface water
100
GC‐MS
Soil leaching, toxic to plants
N/A
Australia
Almazrouei et al. (
2023
)
Simazine
Surface water
100
LC‐MS/MS
Possible endocrine disruptor
0.1 μg/L (EU)
Pharmaceutical products
Triclosan
Surface water
8.6
LC‐MS/MS
Antibiotic resistance, aquatic toxicity
N/A
Brazil
Benny et al. (
2024
)
Ibuprofen
Groundwater and surface water
49.4
HPLC
Disrupts aquatic ecosystems, possible kidney effects in humans
N/A
India
Chaturvedi et al. (
2021b
)
Paracetamol
Surface water
106,900
LC‐MS/MS
Toxic to aquatic species
N/A
Kenya
Kesari et al. (
2021
)
Ibuprofen
Surface water
106,900
LC‐MS/MS
Aquatic toxicity, persistent pollutant
N/A
Carbamazepine
Surface water
660
GC‐MS
Persistent, harmful to aquatic life
N/A
Personal care products
Benzophenone‐3
Drinking water
5.7
HPLC
Skin and eye irritation, environmental toxicity
N/A
Italy
Krishnan et al. (
2021
)
Diethyltoluamide
Drinking water
98
GC‐MS
Neurotoxic, environmental hazards
N/A
United States
Kumar et al. (
2023a
)
Galaxolide
Drinking water
110
HPLC
Bioaccumulative, disrupts aquatic life
N/A
Propyl paraben
Surface water
3.61
LC‐MS/MS
Endocrine disruptor, possible carcinogen
N/A
Spain
Kumar et al. (
2023b
)
Surfactants and plasticizers
Bisphenol A
Surface water
4800
HPLC
Endocrine disruption, reproductive harm
0.1 μg/L (EU)
Spain
Kumar et al. (2023b)
4‐n‐nonylphenol (4‐n‐NP)
Surface water
1030
LC‐MS/MS
Persistent, bioaccumulative, aquatic toxicity
N/A
Bis(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate
Surface water
2050
GC‐MS
Endocrine disruptor, possible carcinogen
6 μg/L (EPA)
Taiwan
Gou et al. (
2016
)
Dibutyl phthalate
Surface water
163
LC‐MS/MS
Endocrine disruption, developmental effects
N/A
Anthropogenic markers
Bromoform
Source water
3300
GC‐MS
Possible carcinogen, harmful to aquatic life
80 μg/L (EPA)
United States
Glassmeyer et al. (
2017
)
Nicotine
Groundwater
28.3
HPLC
Neurotoxic, affects aquatic organisms
N/A
Italy
Riva et al. (
2018
)
Fluorinated compounds
Perfluorobutanoic acid
Surface water
725
LC‐MS/MS
Persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic to humans and wildlife
N/A
Spain
Pico et al. (2019)
Perfluorooctane sulfonate
Source water
48.3
LC‐MS/MS
Persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic to aquatic life
70 ng/L (EPA)
United States
Glassmeyer et al. (
2017
)
Sulfluramid
Surface water
2
LC‐MS/MS
Highly toxic to aquatic organisms
N/A
Australia
Sardina et al. (2019)
1.2.4 Pesticides
Pesticides are any mixture of substances that can prevent, eliminate, repel, or mitigate the effects of an insect or other pest (Abubakar et al. 2020). The most prevalent varieties of pesticides are fungicides, herbicides, bactericides, and insecticides. Two of the most prevalent sources of pesticide contamination are surface runoff from agricultural areas and urban wastewater. It is possible to recognise various sub‐classes based on chemical structure, including organochlorines (which include aldrin and DDT), organophosphates (which include diazinon and malathion), carbamates (which include carbaryl and propoxur), triazines (which include atrazine), and chloroacetamides (which include metolachlor and alachlor) (Parlapiano et al. 2021). Unfortunately, because pesticides are persistent in the environment, such as organochlorines, which have a lengthy half‐life in the environment, they bioaccumulate in the food chain. Moreover, the extensive use of these compounds can readily induce poisoning via a variety of distinct toxicity pathways (Savoca and Pave 2021). When it comes to environmental contamination, the use of these substances in liquid form is far more detrimental than when they are administered in powder form.
1.3 Best Management Practises for Water Conservation
The demand for freshwater resources can be reduced by the implementation of water conservation practises, which in turn lowers the risk that newly discovered toxins will make their way into water supplies (Banaduc et al. 2022). Reusing and recycling water, collecting rainwater, and using technologies that are more water‐efficient are just a few of the many methods that can be utilised in order to save water (Varma 2022).
The process of processing effluent in order to reuse it for non‐potable applications, such as irrigation or industrial operations, is referred to as water reuse and recycling. This practise has the potential to lower the demand for freshwater resources and also to assist in lowering the amount of toxins that are discharged into water sources (Kesari et al. 2021). The process of collecting and storing rainwater for later use, often for irrigation or other inside applications that do not require potable water, is known as rainwater harvesting. This practise has the potential to lower the demand for freshwater resources, which can be especially advantageous in locations that receive a low amount of precipitation. Finally, water‐efficient technology, such as low‐flow fixtures and appliances, can help cut down on the quantity of water needed for day‐to‐day activities like taking showers and washing clothes. These technologies can lower the amount of water required for these tasks (Abu‐bakar et al. 2021).
1.3.1 Strategies for the Management of Newly Emerging Contaminants
The management of ECs calls for an approach that incorporates a number of different strategies, including source control, remediation technology, monitoring programmes, and regulatory strategies (Ritter et al. 2002). Eliminating or minimising the discharge of newly discovered pollutants at their point of origin is an essential component of source control. For instance, best management practises in agriculture can assist reduce the amount of pesticides and fertilisers that are used, and industrial processes can be adjusted to limit the amount of hazardous chemicals that are used (Leong et al. 2020). Emerging pollutants can be eradicated from water sources through the utilisation of treatment technology. For instance, it has been demonstrated that highly developed oxidation techniques, which make use of chemical reactions to break down contaminants, are successful at removing pharmaceuticals and personal care products from effluent (Xu et al. 2017). Last but not least, monitoring programmes can assist in locating newly discovered pollutants in water sources and tracking the quantities of these contaminants over time (Panday et al. 2021a, b; Panday and Kumar 2023).
In addition, regulatory strategies are being developed in order to handle newly discovered pollutants (Geissen et al. 2015). For instance, in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has compiled a Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) of chemicals that are currently being researched for the possibility of being regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act. In a similar manner, the European Union has compiled a list called the Priority Substances list, which identifies newly discovered toxins that call for additional research and monitoring (Lapworth et al. 2019).
1.3.2 The Integration of Water Conservation with the Management of Emerging Contaminants
The incorporation of water conservation practises and the management of ECs might potentially yield major benefits for both the health of humans and the water resources themselves. For instance, the implementation of water‐saving technologies can cut down on the need for available freshwater resources, which in turn lowers the risk that newly discovered toxins will be able to make their way into water supplies (Talib and Randhir 2017). In a similar vein, the recycling of effluent after it has been treated has the potential to cut down on the discharge of newly discovered toxins into surface water and groundwater (Panday and Kumar 2022). In addition, the incorporation of EC management into water conservation programmes can assist in the process of increasing knowledge regarding the possible effects that emerging pollutants may have on both the health of humans and the water resources (Gogoi et al. 2018). Table 1.2 provides an overview of various contaminant classes and their associated contaminants, emphasizing the potential health hazards linked to each. It also outlines water conservation practices that can mitigate pollution risk, offering insights into sustainable approaches for reducing contamination and safeguarding public health.
Table 1.2 Overview of contaminant classes, associated contaminants, health hazards, and water conservation practices for mitigating pollution risk.
Contaminants class
Contaminants
Major health hazards
Water conservation practices
Environmental impact
Regulatory standards
(if applicable)
Source of contamination
Remediation techniques
Pharmaceuticals
Acetaminophen, amoxicillin, caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, estradiol, ibuprofen, naproxen, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, triclosan
Endocrine disruption, antibiotic resistance, cancer, developmental effects, reproductive effects, neurological effects, hormone disruption, and immune system effects
Proper disposal of unused medications
Implementing effective wastewater treatment technologies
Educating the public about the risks of improper disposal of pharmaceuticals
Persistent in aquatic ecosystems, promotes antibiotic‐resistant bacteria
N/A (varies by country)
Wastewater discharge, improper disposal of pharmaceuticals
Advanced oxidation processes, activated carbon filtration
Personal care products
Benzophenone‐1, benzophenone‐3, octylphenol, octyl phenol ethoxylates, phthalates, triclocarban, triclosan
Endocrine disruption, cancer, developmental effects, reproductive effects, neurological effects, hormone disruption, and immune system effects
Avoiding the use of personal care products containing emerging contaminants
Using natural and eco‐friendly personal care products
Proper disposal
Bioaccumulation in wildlife, toxic to aquatic life
N/A (some limits in EU for phthalates)
Domestic wastewater, runoff from personal care product usage
Biodegradation, eco‐friendly alternatives, membrane filtration
Flame retardants
Brominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)
Endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, developmental effects, reproductive effects, and cancer
Reducing the use of products containing flame retardants
Proper disposal of products containing flame retardants
Implementing effective waste management and recycling programs
Persistent organic pollutants, bioaccumulation, toxic to marine organisms
EU Restriction on BDEs, Stockholm Convention bans
Industrial waste, household waste
Adsorption, incineration, waste recycling programs
Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
PFAS
Cancer, thyroid hormone disruption, immune system effects, developmental effects, reproductive effects, and liver damage
Avoiding the use of products containing PFAS. Implementing effective wastewater treatment technologies
Persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic to aquatic life and humans
70 ng/L (EPA limit in drinking water for some PFAS)
Industrial effluents, firefighting foams
Granular activated carbon, ion exchange, reverse osmosis
Microplastics
Microbeads, microfibers
Ingestion of microplastics by organisms in food chain, transfer of contaminants from microplastics to organisms
Avoiding the use of products containing microbeads and using natural and eco‐friendly cleaning products
Accumulation in marine environments
Microbeads banned in cosmetics (US, EU)
Domestic runoff, textile washing, improper plastic disposal
Waste management programs, bioremediation
1.3.3 Removal of CECs
In a particular instance that takes place in the real world, the adsorption process is affected by a variety of elements, including surface area, the kind of analytes being absorbed and their starting concentration, temperature, the pH of the solution, the kind of adsorbate being absorbed and how much of it there is, etc. It is necessary to carry out tertiary treatments that make use of a wide variety of sorbent materials in order to get rid of CECs, which are generally found in wastewater (Joseph et al. 2019).
Activated carbon, often known as AC, is the type of adsorbent that is used most frequently and extensively in WWTPs. AC is a form of charcoal that has undergone both physical and chemical modification in order to enhance the adsorbent qualities it possesses (Mestre et al. 2022). The production of AC is possible using a wide variety of raw materials, some of which include coal, coconut shells, lignite, and wood, among others. Following the pyrolysis of organic matter with oxidising gases, the inorganic elements of the carbonised material are effectively eliminated, leaving behind either powder activated carbon (PAC) or granular activated carbon particles (GAC) with a significant surface area (Yu et al. 2022). There are two different ways to accomplish this goal. There has been some consideration given to the possibility of utilising AC as an efficient adsorbent for the removal of persistent or non‐biodegradable organic molecules such as CECs. Although many writers feel that it is difficult to differentiate biochar (BC) from AC, BC is a stable carbon source that may be created from biomass via thermal or hydrothermal methods at high temperatures with limited or zero oxygen environment (Panwar and Pawar 2022). BC can be used in a wide variety of applications, including the production of fuels and chemicals, as well as the treatment of water and soil. A wide number of applications are attainable with the use of BC. BC is capable of receiving additional chemical activation in a manner analogous to that of AC, and this can take place either through an acidic or a basic process. This ultimately leads to the creation of novel functionalities on the surface of the sorbent, which, in turn, improves the interactions with the contaminants and increases the adsorption of those pollutants (Veeramalai et al. 2022).
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are an allotrope of carbon with a structure similar to graphite (Tiwari et al. 2016). These carbon allotropes display varied degrees of adsorption depending on the degree of coil, the formation of the original sheet, the diameter, the internal geometry, their physicochemical properties, and the treatment procedure that was used to synthesise them.
Clay minerals are well‐known naturally occurring materials that display plastic capabilities, and they can be found in a variety of different forms. Clay minerals are sub‐micrometer‐sized particles that are mostly made up of hydrous layer silicates of aluminium, but they may also contain magnesium and iron. Clay minerals can be found in a variety of different environments. Clays such as montmorillonite, mica, kaolinite, pyrophyllites (talc), bentonite, and diatomite are good candidates for use as adsorbents. Clays like these are inexpensive, have a high porosity, and can be found in large quantities in nature. In the body of scientific literature, it has been demonstrated that a number of different sorbents, such as zeolites, metal oxide, graphene oxide, and polymeric resins, are capable of efficiently extracting CECs from water matrices. Because of their high selectivity towards bound target molecules and their adaptability to couple with a wide variety of materials in order to take advantage of synergistic features (Surana et al. 2022), molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have the potential to be an effective alternative sorbent in this context. MIPs with a core‐shell of TiO2 particles, which were generated through surface polymerisation, are used in applications such as the removal and photocatalytic degradation of the fungicide ortho‐phenylphenol (Motamedi et al. 2022).
The removal of ECs through biodegradation might be thought of as one of the most effective and kindest to the environment techniques available. The value of the kinetics constant is generally defined by the rate of biodegradation (compounds emerging/organic). Caffeine, estradiol, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen are examples of pollutants that are simple to biodegrade due to their high biodegradation constants. Carbamazepine and iopamidol, on the other hand, have a low biodegradation constant, which makes it difficult for them to be broken down. Over the course of many years, a number of different efforts have been made to enhance the biodegradation of persistent medication (Taoufik et al. 2020). This section will provide a brief summary of the different approaches, both conventional and unconventional, that have been employed to get rid of EC oxidoreductase, nitrifying agent, and fungal culture. In order for pollutants to be degraded, it is necessary to take into account a wide range of biological and non‐biological factors, including temperature, molecular features, redox potential, electron acceptor availability, main substrates, and physical and chemical qualities. The biodegradation of EC is believed to be the formation of metabolites and co‐metabolites, as stated by the relevant EC. Previous research has shown that the organism known as “Pseudomonas aeruginosa” is capable of transferring estradiol by way of its metabolism. Similarly, the degradation of estradiol as the only source of carbon by degrading (bacterial cultures with enhanced estradiol) is one example of this. In the event that bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics and other antibacterial agents, ammonium and carbonate must be employed to stimulate enzymes that are responsible for the biotransformation of such ECs. There are primarily two categories of bacteria that are responsible for biodegradation: autotrophic oxidants and heterotrophic bacteria. Among these, autotrophic bacteria that oxidise ammonia (such as ibuprofen, acetaminophen, and bisphenol) play the most important role in the breakdown of various ECs. The amount of ammonium in the environment is directly proportional to the rate of EC biodegradation. The evaluation of the biological mechanism that gets rid of EC has been going on for a good number of years. Some ECs have been successfully eliminated through the use of anaerobic membranes, aerobic membranes, and anoxic membrane reactors, whereas the untreated EC is treated through the utilisation of traditional and unconventional approaches. For example, the highest rate of xenoestrogens removed is 92% by traditional treatment through activated sludge, 80% with two oxidation ditch methods, 70% with various bioreactors, and 64% of which have 10 lagoons connected in series. This is the highest rate of xenoestrogens removed. In a similar vein, the removal of certain of the ECs necessitates the use of methods that are effective but costly due to the environmental persistence of the substance.
1.3.4 Irrigation and Water Conservation Practices
The main water source for irrigation was groundwater (Jara‐Rojas et al. 2012). Surface water from streams and bayous also contributed to irrigation. Additionally, some growers constructed on‐farm water storage and tailwater recovery systems capable of fully meeting their irrigation needs for certain fields. Growers using groundwater from depletable aquifers were expected to be more open to adopting water conservation practices. The most common irrigation method for row crops was furrow irrigation, Practices such as deep tilling, computerised hole selection (CHS), and surge irrigation were employed by a significant portion of growers to enhance furrow irrigation performance and conserve water.
Effective irrigation scheduling is essential for water management, with the use of soil moisture sensors (SMS) having the potential to save up to 50% of total water applied (Hassanli et al. 2009). Studies have shown that SMS can improve water use efficiency in furrow‐irrigated soybeans and corn without compromising yields compared to traditional farmer‐managed scheduling (Bryant et al. 2017). Flow meters along with pump timers which allow for automated starting and stopping of irrigation events at irrigation wells are crucial management tools.
1.3.4.1 Reducing Salts in Irrigation Water
Controlling salinisation involves leaching salt from the root zone, altering farm practices, and using salt‐tolerant plants. Improved irrigation methods such as partial rootzone drying and drip irrigation sustain irrigated farming (Shrivastava and Kumar 2015). To combat dryland salinity, deep‐rooted perennials are reintroduced to prevent excess water movement. Integrating perennials in farming systems enhance resilience to salinity stress, though widespread adoption is hindered by cost and water availability. Research focuses on developing strategies such as breeding resilient crop varieties and refining resource management practices (Shrivastava and Kumar 2015). Amendments like sulphur and gypsum can address soil salinity, but excess water is still needed for leaching. However, these treatments are effective only for sodium‐affected soils and may worsen salinity issues in saline soils (Fipps 2003).
1.4 Conclusion
Water conservation practices and EC management are both critical components of ensuring the sustainability of water resources and protecting human health. The integration of these two approaches can provide significant benefits for both, reducing the demand for freshwater resources while also managing the potential risks posed by ECs. Continued research and monitoring of ECs, along with the development and implementation of effective management strategies, will be crucial for ensuring the long‐term health and sustainability of our water resources.
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