Wetlands of Mountainous Regions E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wetlands: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 804

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

A comprehensive survey of exemplary wetlands that highlights their importance for local livelihoods as well as for global biodiversity

Covering 12 mountainous regions ranging from medium to high altitudes, Wetlands of Mountainous Regions provides detailed information on the world’s most important wetlands and wetland types across Eurasia and the Americas as well as their current and potential biological resources. Each wetland is analyzed by a regional expert.

Written with UN sustainable development goals in mind, Wetlands of Mountainous Regions includes information on:

• Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya, Nepal, Pakistan, Armenia, Georgia, Slovakia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Argentina, and Serbia
• The importance in sustaining local economic livelihoods of each wetland region by providing food resources as well as recreational opportunities
• Wetland ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, water filtration, nutrient retention, and flood mitigation
• Threats to the integrity of each wetland region as well as management strategies and practical conservation and restoration measures

Wetlands of Mountainous Regions is an essential reference on the subject for ecologists, conservation scientists, hydrologists, and environmental and water resource managers. Governmental agencies and professionals in fisheries, agriculture, and rural development will also find value in the book.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

About the Editor

List of Contributors

Preface

1 Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Wetlands Categories of the Eastern Himalayas

1.3 Floristic Composition of the Shallow Fresh Marsh, Seasonally Flooded Flat Basins, Poor Fen, and Freshwater Meadows of Eastern Himalaya Wetlands

1.4 Spring Wetlands on the Lower Slope Areas of the Hillside in the Eastern Himalaya (Figure 1.3a and b)

1.5 Riverine and Floodplain Wetlands Above 2500 M in the Eastern Himalayas (Figure 1.6a and b)

1.6 The Livelihood in Wetlands of the Eastern Himalaya and the Conservation Measures

1.7 Conservation Measures

References

2 Wetlands of Nepal

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Wetland Biodiversity

2.3 Wetlands in Nepal

2.4 Livelihood Issues Associated with the Wetlands

2.5 Threats to Wetlands

2.6 Wetland Conservation Initiatives

2.7 Recommendations and Conclusion

Acknowledgments

3.A Common Flora (Plant Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal

3.B Common Fauna (Animal Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal

References

3 Wetlands of Himalayan and Hindu Kush Regions of Pakistan

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Geographical Setting

3.3 Biodiversity

3.4 Flora

3.5 Threats

3.6 Conservation Strategies

3.7 Gaps in Conservation Efforts

References

4 Wetlands of Armenia

4.1 Overview

4.2 Biodiversity

4.3 Human Factors

4.4 Conservation

Acknowledgments

References

5 Wetlands of Georgia

5.1 Kolkheti Landscapes and Their Condition

5.2 Agroclimatic Characteristics of Kolkheti Lowland

5.3 Soils of Kolkheti

5.4 Wetland Landscape as an Economic Resource Phenomenon

5.5 The Future of Kolkheti Wetlands: Development Prospects

5.6 Livelihood of Kolkheti Lowland

References

6 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Slovakia

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Legislative Protection of Wetlands in Slovakia

6.3 Protection of Wetlands by International Treaties

6.4 List and Description of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia

6.5 Conservation Status of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia

6.6 Threats and Management of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia

6.7 Management and Restoration of Wetlands in Slovakia

6.8 Determination of Priorities and Protection Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance

6.9 Contribution of Slovak Mountain Wetlands to Livelihood

References

7 Wetlands of Mountainous Region of Bosnia and Herzegovina

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Distribution and Factors of Formation of Peatland Ecosystems

7.3 Overview of Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of Mountain Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina

7.4 Spectrum of Indicator Values of Peatland Ecosystems in Bosnia and Herzegovina

7.5 Overview of Algae Diversity in Peatlands of Bosnia and Herzegovina

7.6 Pressures on the Peatland Ecosystems of Bosnia and Herzegovina

7.7 Principles of Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Peatland Ecosystems

References

8 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Mexico

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Location of Mexico

8.3 Importance of Wetlands

8.4 Common Issues Affecting Wetlands Located in Mexican Mountains

8.5 Conclusions

References

9 Mountain Bogs of Costa Rica

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Distribution of Mountain Bogs and Characterization of Their Plant Diversity

9.3 Biogeography of the Talamanca Mountain Range

9.4 Plant Biogeography

9.5 Structure of Plant Communities

9.6 Birds

9.7 Amphibians and Reptiles

9.8 Predators

9.9 Limnological Properties of Mountain Bogs

9.10 Biogeographic Importance of Mountain Bogs as Record Keepers of Past Glaciations

9.11 Ecological Role of Mountain Bogs

9.12 Impact of Climate Change

9.13 Management and Conservation of Mountain Bogs

Acknowledgments

References

10 Wetlands of Mountain Regions of Bolivia

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Wetlands’ Landscapes and Processes in High Andes of Bolivia

10.3 Vegetation Patterns and Representative Biotic Species

10.4 Natural Processes in High Mountain Wetlands and Conservation

10.5 Conservation of Andean Wetlands

10.6 Biodiversity Used by Local Communities

Acknowledgments

References

11 Mountain Wetlands of Argentina

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Wetland Regions and Subregions of Argentina

11.3 High Andean and Puna Wetlands Region

11.4 Mountain Pre‐Andean and Sub‐Andean Wetlands Region

11.5 Patagonian Wetlands Region

11.6 Final Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

12 Wetlands in the Mountain Region of Serbia

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Biodiversity

12.3 Livelihoods

12.4 Nature Conservation

12.5 Conclusion

References

Regulations

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Wetlands of international importance (Ramsar sites) in Nepal.

Table 2.2 Wetland‐related key policies, strategies, and plans formulated by...

Table 2.3 Wetland‐related key legislation formulated by the Government of N...

Table 2.4 Wetland‐related key conventions and commitments in Nepal.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Vegetation types of PAs of Colchic Rainforests (Mtirala NP, Matsa...

Table 5.2 Wild flora diversity (Ajara region/Ajara PA).

Table 5.3 Fauna of Ajara PAs: The dispersion of taxa into large taxonomical...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Status of mountain wetlands according to the monitoring of habita...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Carbon stock in Mexican wetland soils based on field studies.

Table 8.2 Fauna and general issues of mountain wetlands in Mexico.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Vascular flora of the Talamanca Mountain Bogs.

Table 9.2 Expected mammal species associated with mountain bogs based on ele...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Plant species represented in the high Andean wetlands of Bolivia...

Table 10.2 Main protected areas that include whole mountain wetlands landsc...

Table 10.3 Ramsar highlands of Bolivia: distribution, year of creation, sur...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Amphibian species recorded in wetlands at high altitudes in Serb...

Table 12.2 Reptile species recorded in wetlands at high altitudes in Serbia...

Table 12.3 The list of priority habitat types for protection in wetlands in...

Table 12.4 Amphibian species recorded in wetlands at high altitudes in Serb...

Table 12.5 Reptile species recorded in wetlands at high altitudes in Serbia...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Valley bottom wetlands: (a) the valley bottom wetland at Phobjikh...

Figure 1.2 Some selected plant species in the bogs/fens of the Eastern Himal...

Figure 1.3 Spring wetlands on the lower slope areas of the hillside, Timphu‐...

Figure 1.4 Highland Peat bog at Khashitaba, Jigme Dorji National Park, Gaza ...

Figure 1.5 Flag marsh vegetation at Tshothana, Jigme Dorji National Park, Ga...

Figure 1.6 Riverine and floodplain wetlands above 2500 m: (a) Riverine veget...

Figure 1.7 Natural recovery of the spring wetlands versus reforestation with...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Map of Ramsar sites of Nepal.

Figure 2.2

Marsilea minuta

(Water clover).

Figure 2.3

Nelumbo nucifera

(Sacred lotus).

Figure 2.4

Nymphaea nouchali

(Blue water lily).

Figure 2.5

Nymphoides indica

(Water snowflake).

Figure 2.6

Potamogeton crispus

(Curly‐leaf pond‐weed).

Figure 2.7

Trapa natans

(Water nut).

Figure 2.8

Typha angustifolia

(Bulrush).

Figure 2.9

Bombax ceiba

(Silk–cotton tree).

Figure 2.10

Shorea robusta

(Sal tree).

Figure 2.11

Pontederia crassipes

(Water hyacinth).

Figure 2.12

Sphagnum junghuhnianum

(Sphagnum moss).

Figure 2.13

Anser indicus

(Bar‐headed goose).

Figure 2.14

Ardea purpurea

(Purple heron).

Figure 2.15

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

(Pheasant‐tailed Jacana).

Figure 2.16

Leptoptilos javanicus

(Lesser adjutant).

Figure 2.17

Microcarbo niger

(Little cormorant) and

Ardea intermedia

(Medium...

Figure 2.18

Phalacrocorax carbo

(Great cormorant).

Figure 2.19

Papilio machaon

(Swallowtail butterfly).

Figure 2.20

Duttaphrynus melanostictus

(Asian common toad).

Figure 2.21

Gavialis gangeticum

(Ghariyal).

Figure 2.22

Bubalus arnee

(Wild water‐buffalo).

Figure 2.23

Semnopithecus schistaceus

(Nepal gray‐langur).

Figure 2.24

Axis axis

(Spotted deer).

Figure 2.25 (a and b) Site map and view of Gokyo Lake.

Figure 2.26 (a and b) Site map of Gosainkunda Lake and associated lakes and ...

Figure 2.27 (a and b) Site map and view of Shey‐Phoksundo Lake.

Figure 2.28 Panoramic view of Phoksundo Lake, Dolpa.

Figure 2.29 (a and b) Site map and View of Rara Lake.

Figure 2.30 (a and b) Site map and view of Mai Pokhari.

Figure 2.31 (a and b) Site map and view of Fewa Lake: Lake Cluster of Pokhar...

Figure 2.32 (a and b) Site map and view of Koshi Tappu wetland.

Figure 2.33 (a and b) Site map and view of Beeshazar Lake.

Figure 2.34 (a and b) Site map and view of Jagdishpur Reservoir.

Figure 2.35 (a and b) Site map and view of Ghodaghodi Lake.

Figure 2.36 Sinjema Lake, Taplejung.

Figure 2.37 Barju Tal wetland, Sunsari.

Figure 2.38 Tilicho Lake, Manang.

Figure 2.39 Syarpu Tal, Western Rukum.

Figure 2.40 Kupinde daha, Salyan.

Figure 2.41 Ramaroshan Lake, Achham.

Figure 2.42 Wetland‐dependent livelihoods in Koshi Tappu.

Figure 2.43 Collection of logs after flooding in the Saptakoshi River.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 The High Mountain HKH region of South Asia.

Figure 3.2 Attabad Lake; one of the famous lakes of northern Pakistan.

Figure 3.3 Geographical distribution of some glaciers in northern Pakistan....

Figure 3.4 A Himalayan Brown Bear.

Figure 3.5 Snow Leopard (

Panthera unica

).

Figure 3.6 A Male Markhor in its glory.

Figure 3.7 A pair of Rudy Shelduck in flight.

Figure 3.8

Bufotes latastii,

one of the regional Bufonidae species in wetlan...

Figure 3.9 Great Crested Newt, a member of Gekkonidae family of north Himala...

Figure 3.10 Flora of the Shimshal Pamir Lakes area, located in the extreme a...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Relict salt marshes of the Ararat Plain with

Juncus acutus

commun...

Figure 4.2 Salt marshes of Ararat Plain.

Figure 4.3 Thickets of common reed

Phragmites australis

(Cav.) Steud. on sta...

Figure 4.4 Saltwort semideserts along the banks of wetlands, Khor Virap Stat...

Figure 4.5

Juncus acutus

, Ararat salt marshes.

Figure 4.6

Microcnemum coralloides

subsp.

anatolicum,

Ararat salt marshes....

Figure 4.7

Iris musulmanica

, Ararat salt marshes.

Figure 4.8 Black‐winged Stilt

Himantopus himantopus

in Armash Wetlands.

Figure 4.9 White‐tailed Lapwing

Vanellus leucurus

in Armash Wetlands.

Figure 4.10

Natrix tesellata

.

Figure 4.11

Bufotes sitibundus

.

Figure 4.12

Plebeius christophi

.

Figure 4.13

Tetragnatha extensa

.

Figure 4.14

Argiope lobata

.

Figure 4.15

Clubiona neglecta

.

Figure 4.16 Lake Dlinni Liman, Lori Plateau.

Figure 4.17 Urasar Lake, Lori Plateau.

Figure 4.18

Nymphaea alba

.

Figure 4.19

Nymphoides peltata

.

Figure 4.20

Salvinia natans

.

Figure 4.21 Yellow Wagtail

Motacilla flava feldegg

. Grassy marshes in Lori P...

Figure 4.22 Northern Lapwing

Vanellus vanellus

. Grassy marshes in Shirak Pla...

Figure 4.23

Natrix

.

Figure 4.24

Rana macrocnemis

.

Figure 4.25

Phengaris nausithous

.

Figure 4.26

Brenthis ino

.

Figure 4.27

Pisaura mirabilis

.

Figure 4.28

Araneus quadratus

.

Figure 4.29

Pardosa amentata

.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Kolkheti National Park.

Figure 5.2 Kolkheti National Park.

Figure 5.3 Buzzard.

Figure 5.4 Colkhis Pheasant.

Figure 5.5 Ispani II Freshwater pond.

Figure 5.6 Ispani II Sphagnum.

Figure 5.7 Ispani I Relict Kolkhi forest with peat cover.

Figure 5.8 Ispani I

Osmunda regalis

/Royal fern.

Figure 5.9 Shekvetili Dendrological Park.

Figure 5.10 Shekvetili Dendrological Park.

Figure 5.11 Shekvetili Dendrological Park.

Figure 5.12 Shekvetili Dendrological Park.

Figure 5.13 Matshakhel NP.

Figure 5.14 Matshakhel Protected Landscape.

Figure 5.15 Mtirala NP.

Figure 5.16 Kintrish NP.

Figure 5.17

Primula megaseifolia

.

Figure 5.18 Galanthus krasnovii.

Figure 5.19 Epigaea gaultherioides.

Figure 5.20

Quercus pontica

.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Classification of mountain areas in Slovakia.

Figure 6.2 Distribution of mountain wetland habitat types in Slovakia.

Figure 6.3 Map of the Ramsar Sites in Slovakia.

Figure 6.4 Map of administrative units within which Slovakia implements the ...

Figure 6.5 Oligotrophic to mesotrophic standing waters of plains to subalpin...

Figure 6.6 Watercourses of plain to montane levels with the

Ranunculion flui

...

Figure 6.7 Mountain watercourses and their woody vegetation with

Myricaria g

...

Figure 6.8 Active raised bog on Slepé pleso in Tatra Mountains.

Figure 6.9 Alkaline fens on Demänovská slatina in Low Tatra Mountains.

Figure 6.10 Assessment of ecosystem services provided by mountain wetlands i...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Well‐developed peatland ecosystem on Vranica Mt.

Figure 7.2

Sphagnum

sp. – main constituent of peatland ecosystem.

Figure 7.3 Well‐preserved peatland on protected landscape Bijambare.

Figure 7.4 Winter aspect of Vranica Mt.

Figure 7.5 Summer aspect of Vranica Mt. and Prokosko lake.

Figure 7.6 Mountain creek on Vranica Mt. with peatland ecosystem.

Figure 7.7 Spectrum of floristic elements in

Sphagnetum recurvo‐subsecundi

...

Figure 7.8 Spectrum of life‐forms in

Sphagno‐Piceetum montanum

Stef, 1...

Figure 7.9 Spectrum of life‐forms in

Abieti‐Piceetum illyricum

Fuk, 19...

Figure 7.10 Drainage of the peatland on Zvijezda mountain.

Figure 7.11 Exploitation of wood near peatland on the Zvijezda Mountain.

Figure 7.12 Drainage channel built through the peatland.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Mexico location.

Figure 8.2 Ramsar sites in Mexico.

Figure 8.3 Bibliometric network map generated in VOSviewer from the search t...

Figure 8.4 Carbon sequestration studies in mountain wetlands of Mexico.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 (a–f) General aspects of different mountain bogs in the Talamanca...

Figure 9.2 Six representative plant species of the mountain bogs in the Tala...

Figure 9.3 (a) Droppings of Baird's Tapir (

Tapirus bairdii

) and (b) the Mexi...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Andean wetlands of Bolivia at an average altitude of 3200–5000 m...

Figure 10.2 Andean wetlands of Bolivia. (a) Titicaca Lake (NW Bolivia and sh...

Figure 10.3 Members of Aymara communities in the application of agricultural...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Location of Argentina at the southern tip of South America.

Figure 11.2 Wetland regions and subregions of Argentina. Those including mou...

Figure 11.3 (a) Hydro‐wetlands associated with alluvial plains in Rosario de...

Figure 11.4 Typical wildlife species inhabiting the high Andean vegas and sh...

Figure 11.5 (a) General view of the Olaroz Salt Flat, Jujuy Province.and...

Figure 11.6 (a) Valley bottom vegas in the Quebrada de las Vacas, Blanco Riv...

Figure 11.7 (a) Karstic wetlands: “Nuri” shallow lake located on karstic rel...

Figure 11.8 View of the Laguna del Tesoro, Tucumán Province.

Figure 11.9 San Francisco River, Jujuy Province, a typical mountain river la...

Figure 11.10 Landscape modification by the “counterurbanization” process in ...

Figure 11.11 Pictures from typical Argentinian Patagonia highland wetlands. ...

Figure 11.12 Representation of one study area (Mt. Cónico, Patagonia, Argent...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Diversity of wetland habitats in the mountainous region of Serbi...

Figure 12.2

Salamandra atra

(Krizmanić, I.).

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

About the Editor

List of Contributors

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Wetlands of Mountainous Regions

Series Editor : Thammineni PullaiahSri Krishnadevaraya UniversityAnantapur, India

Wetlands of Mountainous Regions: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation

by Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394235209

Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation

by Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394235247

Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical South and Central America: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation

by Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394307135

Wetlands of Mountainous Regions

Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation

Edited by

Thammineni Pullaiah

Department of BotanySri Krishnadevaraya UniversityAnantapurAndhra PradeshIndia

This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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About the Editor

Dr. Thammineni Pullaiah is a former professor at the Department of Botany at Sri Krishnadevaraya University in Andhra Pradesh, India, where he has taught for more than 35 years. He has held several positions at the university, including Dean, Faculty of Biosciences, Head of the Department of Botany, Head of the Department of Biotechnology, and Member of Academic Senate. He was the president of Indian Botanical Society (2014), president of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy (2013), and fellow of Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences. Under his guidance, 54 students obtained their doctoral degrees. He has authored 70 books, edited 40 books, and published over 340 research papers. His books include Redsanders: Silviculture and Conservation (Springer), Genetically Modified Crops (Springer), Sandalwood: Silviculture, Conservation and Applications (Springer), Advances in Cell and Molecular Diagnostics (Elsevier), Camptothecin and Camptothecin Producing Plants (Elsevier), Paclitaxel (Elsevier), Monograph on Brachystelma and Ceropegia in India (CRC Press), Ethnobotany of India (5 volumes, Apple Academic Press), Global Biodiversity (4 volumes, Apple Academic Press), and Invasive Alien Species (4 volumes, Wiley Blackwell). He was also a member of Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Professor Pullaiah received his PhD from Andhra University, India, attended Moscow State University, Russia, and worked as post‐doctoral fellow during 1976–1978.

List of Contributors

Elena AbrahamInstituto Argentino de Investigaciones enZonas Áridas (IADIZA‐CONICET)MendozaArgentina

Víctor Acosta‐ChavesCenter for Ecological Resilience StudiesThe School for Field StudiesBeverlyMAUSA

Sede del AtlánticoUniversidad de Costa RicaRecinto de Paraíso30201 ParaísoCartagoCosta Rica

Rafael Acuña‐CastilloSchool of BiologyUniversity of Costa RicaSan PedroCosta RicaandCenter for Research in Biodiversity andTropical Ecology (CIBET)University of Costa RicaSan JoséCosta Rica

Herbario Luis A. Fournier Origgi (USJ)Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad yEcología TropicalUniversidad de Costa RicaSan JoséCosta Rica

Karen AghababyanBirdLinks Armenia NGO and Scientific Centreof Zoology and Hydroecology of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the Republic ofArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Levon AghasyanScientific Centre of Zoology and Hydroecologyof the National Academy of Sciences of theRepublic of ArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Janna AkopianTakhtajan Institute of Botany of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the Republic ofArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Guram AleksidzeGeorgian Academy of Agricultural SciencesTbilisiGeorgia

Macanović ArminUniverzitet u SarajevuPrirodno‐matematiči fakultetSarajevoBosnia and Herzegovina

Yanina ArzamendiaGrupo de investigación VICAMInstituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOACONICET‐UNJu)Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias e INBIALUNJuSan Salvador de JujuyArgentina

Gerardo AvalosSchool of BiologyUniversity of Costa RicaSan PedroCosta RicaandCenter for Ecological Resilience StudiesThe School for Field StudiesBeverlyMAUSA

Jorge L. BaldoGrupo de investigación VICAMInstituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOACONICET‐UNJu)Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias e INBIALUNJuSan Salvador de JujuyArgentina

Andleeb BatoolDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahorePakistan

Paula Calderón‐MesénResearch Center in Microscopy StructuresUniversity of Costa Rica UCRSan PedroCosta Rica

Ján ČerneckýInstitute of Landscape Ecology of the SlovakAcademy of SciencesNitraSlovakia

Prabina DahalAmrit CampusTribhuvan UniversityLainchaurKathmanduNepal

Alejandra I. DomicHerbario Nacional de BoliviaLa PazBoliviaandDepartment of Anthropology and Departmentof GeosciencesPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity ParkPAUSA

Viktória ĎuricováInstitute of Botany of the Slovak Academy ofSciencesBratislavaSlovakia

Luis EpeleCentro de Investigacióon Esquel de Montaña yEstepa Patagónica (CONICET‐UNPSJB)ChubutArgentina

Mašić ErminUniverzitet u SarajevuPrirodno‐matematiči fakultetSarajevoBosnia and Herzegovina

Astghik GhazaryanBiological DepartmentYerevan State UniversityYerevanArmenia

Dragana Jenačković GocićDepartment of Biology and EcologyFaculty of SciencesUniversity in NišNišSerbia

Susanna HakobyanScientific Centre of Zoology and Hydroecologyof the National Academy of Sciences of theRepublic of ArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Abdul JabbarDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of the PunjabLahorePakistan

Givi JaparidzeGeorgian Academy of Agricultural SciencesTbilisiGeorgia

Karen JenderedjianMinistry of Environment of the Republic ofArmeniaYerevanArmenia

José Esteban JiménezFlorida Museum of Natural History andDepartment of BiologyUniversity of Florida HerbariumGainesvilleFLUSA

Herbario Luis A. Fournier Origgi (USJ)Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad yEcología TropicalUniversidad de Costa RicaSan José,Costa Rica

Jardín Botánico LankesterUniversidad de Costa RicaCartagoCosta Rica

Ján KadlečíkState Nature Conservancy of the SlovakRepublicBanská BystricaSlovakia

Mark KalashianScientific Centre of Zoology and Hydroecologyof the National Academy of Sciences of theRepublic of ArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Patricia KandusInstituto de Investigación e IngenieríaAmbiental (3iA)Escuela de Hábitat y Sostenibilidad (EHyS)Universidad Nacional de San MartínBuenos AiresArgentina

Bert KohlmannBioAlfa Barcoding ProjectSanto Domingo de HerediaCosta Rica

Imre KrizmanićInstitute of ZoologyFaculty of BiologyUniversity of BelgradeBelgradeSerbia

Rabindra MaharjanForest Research and Training CentreMoFEBabarmahalKathmanduNepal

Zurab ManvelidzeBatumi Shota Rustaveli State UniversityBatumiGeorgia

José Luis Marín‐MuñizAcademy of Sustainable RegionalDevelopmentEl Colegio de VeracruzVeracruzMexico

Mónica Moraes R.Herbario Nacional de BoliviaLa PazBoliviaInstituto de EcologíaUniversidad Mayor de San AndrésLa PazBolivia

Maryam MukhtarDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of the PunjabLahorePakistan

Naseeba MustafaviDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahorePakistan

Biljana PanjkovićInstitute for Nature Conservation of VojvodinaProvinceNovi SadSerbia

Asia ParveenDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahorePakistan

Sara PavkovDepartment of Biology and EcologyFaculty of SciencesUniversity of Novi SadNovi SadSerbia

Ranko PerićInstitute for Nature Conservation of VojvodinaProvinceNovi SadSerbia

Samvel PipoyanArmenian Pedagogical State University afterKhachatur AbovyanYerevanArmenia

Oscar PlataHerbario Nacional de BoliviaLa PazBoliviaandMuseo Nacional de Historia NaturalLa PazBolivia

Rubén D. QuintanaIIIA (CONICET UNSAM)Instituto de Investigación e IngenieríaAmbientalEscuela de Hábitat y Sostenibilidad (EHyS)Universidad Nacional de San MartínBuenos AiresArgentina

Dimitrije RadišićDepartment of Biology and EcologyFaculty of SciencesUniversity of Novi SadNovi SadSerbia

Sanjeev K. RaiDepartment of Plant ResourcesMoFEThapathaliKathmanduNepal

Milica RatDepartment of Biology and EcologyFaculty of SciencesUniversity of Novi SadNovi SadSerbia

Dania RazzaqDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahorePakistan

Verónica RojoGrupo de investigación VICAMInstituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOACONICET‐UNJu)Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias e INBIALUNJuSan Salvador de JujuyArgentina

Cecilia RubioInstituto Argentino de Investigaciones enZonas Áridas (IADIZA‐CONICET)MendozaArgentina

Clara RubioInstituto Argentino de Investigaciones enZonas Áridas (IADIZA‐CONICET)MendozaArgentina

Ricardo Sánchez‐CalderónCenter for Ecological Resilience StudiesThe School for Field StudiesBeverlyMAUSA

Nenad SekulićInstitute for Nature Conservation of SerbiaNew BelgradeSerbia

Barudanović SenkaUniverzitet u SarajevuPrirodno‐matematiči fakultetSarajevoBosnia and Herzegovina

Krishna K. ShresthaCentral Department of BotanyTribhuvan UniversityKirtipurKathmanduNepal

Natalia SolísGrupo de investigación VICAMInstituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOACONICET‐UNJu)Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias e INBIALUNJuSan Salvador de JujuyArgentina

Jana ŠpulerováInstitute of Landscape Ecology of the SlovakAcademy of SciencesBratislavaSlovakia

Kitichate SridithDivision of Biological ScienceFaculty of SciencePrince of Songkla UniversityHat YaiSongkhlaThailand

Gerardo Umaña‐VillalobosCenter for Research in Marine Sciences andLimnology (CIMAR)University of Costa RicaSan PedroCosta Rica

Sergio A. Zamora CastroFaculty of EngineeringConstruction and HabitatUniversidad VeracruzanaVeracruzMexico

Noushig ZarikianScientific Centre of Zoology and Hydroecologyof the National Academy of Sciences of theRepublic of ArmeniaYerevanArmenia

Preface

Wetlands are globally recognized as important habitats for wildlife and human productivity. Wetlands provide numerous ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, water filtration, nutrient retention, and flood mitigation. In addition, wetlands are important migratory stops for birds and mammals and breeding habitat for amphibians, birds, and some reptiles. Wetlands are threatened due to anthropogenic activities such as wetland draining or filling, hydrological alterations, chronic degradation due to nonpoint source pollution and invasion of exotic species. There are increasing concerns regarding the effect of climate change, as sea‐level rise, salination, and desertification. If these wetland resources are not conserved with heart and soul with the help of governments and international agencies, they may be lost forever. Wetlands experiencing an estimated 50% loss over the last century, their conservation importance is particularly recognized in several multilateral environmental agreements, such as the Water Framework Directive and the Ramsar Convention. Information on wetlands from around the World is available but scattered in gray literature, local languages, and on various aspects in piece meal basis, viz. plant and animal biodiversity, ecotourism, livelihoods and peoples’ dependence. This book attempts to formulate the information together in a concise and systematic manner which will benefit the readers. This will also benefit academics, researchers, and a wide range of interested people. This book gives an account on the wetland ecosystem and its ecology, the resources and potentials of wetlands, conservation efforts, wetland eco‐system services, and threats to conservation.

I wish to express my grateful thanks to all the contributors. I thank them for their cooperation and erudition. Since it is a voluminous subject, we might have missed some of the aspects. Readers are requested to give their suggestions for improvement in the coming edition. We could not cover all the mountainous areas and countries either due to the shortage of expertise or due to the busy schedule of the experts. I thank Dr. Frank Weinreich of Wiley publisher for his thought‐provoking inputs during the book formulation.

1Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation

Kitichate Sridith

Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand

1.1 Introduction

According to Wetlands International, the wetlands are where water meets land. These unique habitats include mangroves, peatlands and marshes, rivers and lakes, deltas, floodplains, flooded forests, rice fields, and coral reefs. Healthy wetlands are central to solving the interconnected climate, biodiversity, and water crises (www.wetlands.org). According to the Ramsar Convention, wetlands are the areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, and areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 m (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013, 2019). The wetlands play essential roles as ecological service units. Regarding groundwater, wetlands occur inland, where groundwater is exposed to the air or discharged. The Eastern Himalayas are essential for biodiversity as they contain crisis ecoregions, biodiversity hotspots, endemic bird areas, mega‐diversity countries, and global ecosystems (Brooks et al., 2006). Wetlands include many wet environments that differ in landscape, soil, water regime, climate, vegetation, and anthropogenic activities (Ruto et al., 2012).

Considering wetlands in the Eastern Himalayas, the landscape of the Eastern Himalayas could be distinguished and characterized by the high mountain of disordered weather, separated by a deep valley, the so‐called valley bottom, a wide glacial valley with meandering streams running through the open valley. This created unique conditions for valley bottom wetlands that characterized the Eastern Himalaya wetlands. Besides, there are river valleys. Therefore, several types of riparian vegetation occur along the valleys of different areas, from the subtropical ones to the temperate ones, then up to an exclusively alpine region. This riparian vegetation has accommodated various numbers of plants as well as wildlife. Moreover, many of the ancient trade and communication routes in this region of the Himalayan areas could be seen by many archaeological relics; both left ruins and old ongoing temples along the rivers and valley paths, e.g. ancient relics of Stupa, which were often found along streams in remote areas in countries like Bhutan, Nepal, or India. The inhabitants of the Eastern Himalayas have survived harmoniously along the rivers and wetlands using biodiversity resources for centuries. In the biodiversity aspect, the region contains parts of 3 of the 36 global biodiversity hotspots: 39% of the Himalayan hotspot, 8% of the Indo‐Burma hotspot, and 13% of the Mountains of Southwest China hotspot, taking in 25 ecoregions (WWF, 2006). The Eastern Himalayas extend from the Kaligandaki Valley in central Nepal to northwest Yunnan in China, including Bhutan, the northeast Indian states and northern Bengal in India, southeast Tibet and parts of Yunnan in China, and northern Myanmar. The five countries in the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, and Nepal, have very different geopolitical and socioeconomic systems and contain diverse cultures and various ethnic groups. The region is the meeting place of three realms: Indo‐Malayan, Palearctic, and Sino‐Japanese (Sharma et al., 2009). The wetlands significantly impacted the culture of human society as they provided ecological service to the human community. On the other hand, the human community also significantly impacts the wetlands by spoiling the biodiversity resources and changing the landscape accordingly. However, culture can never be separated from nature, as culture is made of nature. Therefore, depleting nature depletes culture and human civilization as well.

The wetlands are most likely the first among the eco‐hydrological systems affected by climate change. Water‐related hazards (glacial lake outburst floods, flash floods, and landslides) are becoming more frequent at the cost of lives, property, and natural resources, and these are likely to be exacerbated by climate change (Xu et al., 2008; Shrestha and Devkota, 2010). The region's complex topography and extreme altitudinal gradients – from less than 300 m (tropical lowlands) to more than 8000 m (high mountains) over a few hundred kilometers – have contributed to the highly varied vegetation patterns. The complex mountain topography has created diverse bioclimatic zones (near tropical, subtropical, lower temperate, upper temperate, subalpine evergreen, alpine evergreen, and alpine shrubs and meadows) and “island‐like” conditions for many species and populations, making them reproductively isolated. This isolation has given rise to genetic differences among populations, thereby contributing to the vibrant array of biodiversity (Sharma et al., 2009).

1.2 Wetlands Categories of the Eastern Himalayas

1.2.1 The Valley Bottom Wetlands (Figure 1.1a and b)

Valley bottom wetlands are the critical repository of richer floral and faunal diversity than other habitat types (Munishi et al., 2011). However, significant changes due to agricultural intensification, tourist development, cattle grazing, and anthropogenic intervention have threatened the wetland ecosystem (Gordon and Duncan, 1988; Gherardi et al., 2009). Similarly, habitat alterations by cultivation and cattle grazing cause changes in plant communities and the extinction of native species (Meng et al., 2017). Although several factors typically influence wetland plant communities, soil properties, elevation, and disturbances are recognized as the most common and influential factors (Tshewang and Sridith, 2021) that cause the degradation of wetland ecosystems (Welch et al., 2006). Results differed based on sites and habitats, making ecologists intrigued by mixed results (Yang et al., 2015). Therefore, understanding wetland plant communities and their relationship with environmental variables and soil nutrients is fundamental for sustainable and appropriate wetland conservation strategies (Zheng et al., 2019).

The high‐altitude valley bottom wetland of the Eastern Himalayas was studied in Bhutan (Tshewang and Sridith, 2021, 2022). It was found that weeds and short species were the indicators of anthropogenic activities and higher grazing intensity in the wetland. Most are disturbed because the valley bottom is the appropriate place at a higher altitude for human settlement than others. The vegetation structure often found in the upper part of the wetland was taller and recorded with less weedy species as human settlements. As a result, grazing impacts were less compared to other areas. Species such as Berberis aristata, Rhododendron thomsonii, and Sphagnum palustre were usually found in poor fen habitats near the stream and gentle slope areas. The small stream that runs through the valley bottom wetland was associated with Primula denticulata, Rhododendron arboreum, Roscoea alpina, Rosa sericea, Urtica dioica, and Yushania microphylla. In open habitats that are temporarily wet during monsoon, plant species like Carex diandra, Chusua pauciflora, Juncus thomsonii, Pedicularis siphonantha, and Prunella vulgaris characterize species in the drained and open‐site habitats near the human settlements and grazing sites, species such as Cirsium falconeri, Rumex nepalensis, Sambucus adnata, and Senecio laetus. This is mainly due to the accessibility and convenience of cattle grazing at this wetland site. Poor fen habitats were located near small streams and bottomlands where Impatiens radiata, Rhododendron thomsonii, and the bog moss S. palustre characterized the vegetation. Such Sphagnum mosses formed mats that contributed water‐holding capacity to the wetlands and created peat formation with slightly acidic conditions. The middle part of such wetland vegetation may be dominated by herbaceous plant species, with some shrub species, e.g. R. sericea, along the meandering stream edges. The wetland is often with a more significant number of weed species and maximum cattle grazing. Another feature of such wetlands is stunted herbs, shrubs, and dwarf bamboo (Yushania microphylla). Flooded basins usually occur in the bottomland of such wetlands and habitats, marked by species such as Persicaria hydropiper, Potamogeton sp., and Schoenoplectus mucronatus.

Figure 1.1 Valley bottom wetlands: (a) the valley bottom wetland at Phobjikha Valley, Bhumtang Province, Central Bhutan; (b) disturbed cultivated areas in the valley bottom wetland of Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, Trashi Yangtse, Northeastern Bhutan, where the rare black‐necked cranes (Grus nigricollis) from the Tibetan Plateau visit the valley during the winter season to roost.

Source: Photos by Kitichate Sridith (Chapter author).

Soil, habitat types, and vegetation are the immense and conspicuous resources of valley bottom wetlands. Understanding variation in plant communities with location creates a platform to infer possible mechanisms of vegetation community assembly (Kadowaki et al., 2014; Yamaji et al., 2016). The distribution of vegetation in the wetlands would also be subsequently affected by changes in ion and nutrient availability (White, 1979). The main factors influencing valley bottom wetlands vegetation distribution were soil organic matter (SOM), available nitrogen (AN), potassium ion (K+), sodium ion (Na+), calcium ion (Ca2+), magnesium ion (Mg2+), hydroperiod, human disturbances, and cattle grazing The Ericaceous shrubs include Gaultheria nummulariodes D. Don and the common Rhododendron thomsonii Hook. f. is associated with exchangeable sodium, calcium, magnesium ions, and SOM (Tshewang and Sridith, 2021, 2022). Hydrology also influences the types of vegetation in a wetland (Mitsch et al., 2009; Rossi et al., 2014) and tends to remain in a zone and adapt to anoxic or reduced conditions with a small number of species (Keddy, 2000; Corry, 2012). Some specific plant communities usually thrive in a few seasonally inundated habitats, and hydroperiods may be the influential factor as they remain waterlogged for a certain period. Certain plant species are connected to drained habitats, close to anthropogenic activities, and maximum cattle grazing areas with more weed species. They revealed that overgrazing lowers the water table by increasing surface run‐off. Some species, such as Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall., Plantago erosa Wall., and Rumex nepalensis Spreng., were slightly influenced by AN. Studies recorded disturbances by cattle grazing, feces, and urine dropping into the soil that enriched nitrogen and influenced plant community (Steven and Lowrance, 2011). In studies conducted at high‐altitude wetlands of northern Bhutan in the Eastern Himalayas, disturbances were based on the presence or absence of weed species (Tendar et al., 2020) and the prevalence of houses, roads, and agricultural activities (Lhamo et al., 2020). The anthropogenic activities and cattle grazing might disturb much of the plant community. It might lead to the occurrence of many “weedy” herbaceous species in such a community (Xiong et al., 2003; Harris et al., 2005). However, the invasive species Trifolium repens L., which overgrows and spreads pervasively in the many wetlands, was introduced as livestock fodder, and invasive species can significantly affect the native species' biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (Roder et al., 2007). Similar studies conducted by (Lhamo et al., 2020; Tendar et al., 2020) in the Gangtey‐Phobji wetland and high‐altitude wetlands in Gasa, northern Bhutan, also recorded many exotic species due to the disturbances. The purposeful introduction of exotic species for grazing has happened in many wetlands systems and is a possible threatening process to the Pantanal wetland in central South America (Harris et al., 2005).

The abundance of lifeforms in such wetlands may vary from place to place. Anthropogenic activities and cattle grazing might create short vegetation and lead to the extinction of native species (Xiong et al., 2003; Harris et al., 2005). It might be the reason for finding herb‐dominant vegetation in many valley bottom wetlands, as it is the most appropriate place in the highland areas for human settlement and agriculture. The vegetation structure of different parts of wetlands and habitats depicts different grazing levels, disturbances, and uniqueness in supporting diverse species in their habitat. The occurrence of a few habitats, such as seasonally inundated basins, poor fen, and other microhabitats, might be one possible reason for supporting unique species (Tendar and Sridith, 2021). In seasonally flooded habitats, permanent water supports species like Juncus prismatocarpus, P. hydropiper, or Potamogeton sp. The hydrological period influences vegetation types in a wetland (Mitsch et al., 2009; Rossi et al., 2014) and tends to remain in a zone and adapt to anoxic or reduced conditions with a few species (Keddy, 2000; Corry, 2012). The poor fen habitats are primarily found in given patches of vegetation in any bottom valley wetlands, which could be indicated by Cotoneaster microphylla, Juncus thomsonii, Rhododendron thomsonii, and S. palustre . Sphagnum moss contributes to the deposition of thicker peat, creating a slightly acidic condition (Smith, 1966), and ericaceous shrubs such as Gaultheria nummulariodes and Rh. thomsonii were notable features of such habitats in the wetland (Figure 1.2). The most threatening to the wetland is the maximum number of weed species such as Cyanotis vaga, Galinsoga ciliata, Persicaria runcinata, Rumex acetosella, Stellaria vistata, Trifolium dubium, and T. repens with shorter heights in drained habitats and the middle part of the wetland (Figure 1.3). Unfortunately, the invasion of weedy species is an indicator of degrading wetland and habitat change, leading to the loss of many wetlands. Some wetlands are near the most populated human settlements with maximum anthropogenic activities and higher grazing intensity. Maximum conservation efforts primarily focused on faunal species and limited the floral components of the wetland, which are equally important to an ecosystem's existence (Tendar et al., 2020). Wetlands are also challenged by increasing farming practices, land cover and use changes, fertilizers and pesticides, population and land fragmentation, farm mechanization, new and unplanned infrastructure, and businesses. There is growing pressure to convert any valley bottom wetlands for economic development, particularly for roads, hotels, and other tourism infrastructure. Another immense threat to such wetlands is continuous grazing. These are evident in drained habitats, reduced land cover and land use patterns, invasive species, and waste management issues (Chaudhary et al., 2017; Lhamo et al., 2020). Therefore, policymakers, planners, communities, and organizations concerned must work collaboratively and develop appropriate action plans for this critical valley bottom wetlands protection and conservation for sustainable and appropriate conservation strategies (Tshewang and Sridith, 2022).

1.2.2 Highland Bogs, Fens, and Marshes of the Eastern Himalayas (Figures 1.4a,b and 1.5a,b)

According to Tendar and Sridith (2021) and Tendar et al. (2020), based on the topographic features and vegetation of the wetlands, the four most characteristic habitat types inhabited by plants concerning bogs, fens, and marshes were proposed as follows (Tendar et al., 2020; Tendar and Sridith, 2021): I Shallow fresh marsh (Tendar and Sridith, 2021) was usually located near small streams and bottomlands. Only one aquatic species, Potamogeton crispus L., occurred in such open pools. The characteristic species, i.e. Enkianthus deflexus (Griff.) C.K. Schneid., Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross, and Rhododendron dalhousieae var. rhabdotum (Balf. f. & R.E. Cooper) Cullen, were prominently found adjacent to the habitat. Acorus calamus L. was abundant, and this characteristic species created a mat of vegetation that allowed small streams to run through channeling underneath. These channels run on the side of the habitat, ensuring minimal entry into the habitat's surface. During rainy seasons, these habitats were partially submerged but well drained within a few weeks.; II Seasonally flooded flat basins (Tendar and Sridith, 2021) usually occur in open bottomlands with floating mats dominated by C. diandra Schrank. This habitat usually occurs in a narrow zone where there is water underneath. These characteristic species are found only in the wettest part of this filled basin, including S. mucronatus (L.) Palla. The A. calamus L. vegetation inhabited next to some plant composition that could be seen, comprising species, e.g. C. diandra Schrank vegetation, Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude, Malus baccata (L.) Borkh, and Enkianthus deflexus (Griff.) C.K. Schneid; III The poor fen habitat (Tendar and Sridith, 2021) occurred in open and forest fragments of slightly higher elevations (2500 m and above). Some areas of S. palustre L. vegetation were confined to this habitat, and a thick layer of undecomposed peat within this vegetation was also prominent. Another characteristic species inhabited was Osmunda japonica Thunb. The ericaceous shrubs were prominent in such habitats, e.g. Rhododendron arboreum Sm. and M. baccata (L.) Borkh. The climber species Holboellia latifolia Wall. could also be found. This vegetation was usually influenced by precipitation in the area lacking groundwater and upstream components.; and IV The freshwater meadows (Tendar and Sridith, 2021) usually occur on the slopes, in open‐heath forests, and, sometimes, even in fallow lands. This habitat usually has no standing water but remains waterlogged most of the year. The diverse and characteristic species include Lyonia villosa (Wall. ex C.B. Clarke) Hand.‐Mazz., Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames, Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Tod., and Alnus nepalensis D. Don inhabit this habitat. Mostly the characteristic species of herbs in this habitat are stunted (Tendar and Sridith, 2021).

Figure 1.2 Some selected plant species in the bogs/fens of the Eastern Himalayas: (a) Rhododendron thomsoni; (b) R. edgeworthii; (c) Enkianthus deflexus; (d) Vaccinium retusum; (e) Gentiana capitata; (f) Gentiana pedicelata; (g) M. baccata; (h) Clematis montana.

Source: Photos by Kitichate Sridith (Chapter author).

Figure 1.3 Spring wetlands on the lower slope areas of the hillside, Timphu‐outskirt areas, Timphu, Bhutan: (a) spring vegetation with Larix griffithii‐ marked; (b) peat moss (Sphagnum palustre) deposited in the hillside spring wetlands vegetation.

Source: Photos by Kitichate Sridith (Chapter author).

Figure 1.4 Highland Peat bog at Khashitaba, Jigme Dorji National Park, Gaza Province, Northeastern Bhutan: (a) poor fen with Osmunda japonica scattered in the area; (b) peat moss (Sphagnum palustre) and peat deposits.

Source: Photos by Kitichate Sridith (Chapter author).

Soil pH in freshwater meadows and poor fens was significantly higher than in shallow fresh marshes and seasonally flooded basins of flats. Shallow fresh marshes had considerably higher available phosphorus concentrations; however, there were slight differences between seasonally flooded basins of flats, freshwater meadows, and poor fens. Soil depth was similar in freshwater meadows and poor fens. Nevertheless, there was a significant difference between shallow fresh marshes and seasonally flooded basins of flats. Freshwater meadows had statistically steeper slopes, but there were no significant differences between shallow fresh marshes and seasonally flooded basins of flats. Elevations in freshwater meadows and shallow fresh marshes differed, but there were no differences between seasonally flooded basins of flats and poor fens. Native species such as S. palustre, Carex capillacea, and Swertia bimaculata were highly correlated with higher elevation. Almost all freshwater meadow community species were associated with steeper slopes and higher soil pH. Several species indicate fewer acid soils; for example, Utricularia bifida, Neanotis calycina, and the fern Dryopteris sp., P. vulgaris, Carex rara, and S. sinensis . The characteristic species Persicaria perfoliata, A. calamus, and Ainsliaea latifolia are defined by deeper soil and higher available phosphorus concentrations (Tendar et al., 2020).

Figure 1.5 Flag marsh vegetation at Tshothana, Jigme Dorji National Park, Gaza Province, Northeastern Bhutan: (a) a shallow fresh marsh habitat dominated by A. calamus vegetation; (b) a water body runs underneath the surface vegetation – A. calamus dominated.

Source: Photos by Kitichate Sridith (Chapter author).

The shallow fresh marsh, characterized by A. calamus, resembles cattail‐dominated vegetation around the northern hemisphere (Markle et al., 2018). The firm mat‐like character of this vegetation could withstand strong winds and spring source water currents (Smith, 1966). Marsh vegetation is typical in most regions of the world, but dominance by A. calamus is uncommon (Cronk and Fennessy, 2001; Khan et al., 2004; Ilyas et al., 2012, 2015). The seasonally flooded basin of flat forms a “floating islands plant community.” Beneath such an island, a large waterbody with sediments remains throughout the year due to inadequate drainage and serves as a deterrent for foraging animals, minimizing anthropogenic disturbances. The invasive alligator weed forms floating islands in Wular Lake in the Kashmirian Himalaya, Alternanthera philoxeroides (Masoodi et al., 2013). Floating vegetation dominated by Typha elephantia, Nymphaea peltata, and Nymphaea odorata in the Hokersar wetland contained tall reeds such as Phragmites australis, Typha laxmanii, and T. angustata (Khan et al., 2004).

The dominance of C. diandra in specific plant communities in the Eastern Himalayas resembles the “Carex rostrata swamp” of Britain and Europe (Wheeler and Proctor, 2000). C. diandra is also commonly dominant in the North American peatlands (Schneider, 1992; Gage and Cooper, 2006). This vegetation was rarely described in earlier studies of the Western Himalayas (Khan et al., 2004; Hamid, 2009; Ilyas et al., 2012, 2015).

The freshwater meadow with various sedge species could be called a small sedge fen (Wheeler and Proctor, 2000), dominated by Cyperaceae such as Carex rara, the grass Isachne albens, the rush Juncus bufonius, and mosses such as Antitrichia sp. This community resembles the wet meadows of the central Afghanistan highland in the Western Himalayas (Bedunah et al., 2010). In addition to open‐heath forest fragments and abandoned lands dominated by Equisetum ramosissimum and small sedges in the Western Himalayas, this community was found adjacent to or intermingled with riparian shrub communities dominated by sedges. Moreover, the poor fen differed from the other habitats with Sphagnum carpets and acid‐loving ericaceous shrubs such as Gaultheria nummularioides (Richardson and Vepraskas, 2001; Man et al., 2019).

The four communities' floristic composition was correlated with elevation variation, soil pH, soil/peat depth, available phosphorus, and slope. The shallow fresh marsh and seasonally flooded basin are closely associated with thicker peat/soils and more available phosphorus. Rumex nepalensis was intermediate between these two community types, indicating its wide ecological amplitude and better adaptation to nutrient levels (Dad, 2019). It was found that the available soil nutrients remained much lower, and soil pH was slightly alkaline in the Western Himalayas (Ilyas et al., 2015). Therefore, high amounts of nutrients appeared to support the establishment of floating mats created by A. calamus (Zuidam et al., 2018). The dominance of A. calamus above the lake was influenced by nutrient availability, creating a zonal distribution of plants and communities that host distinct biota in each zone (Brand et al., 2015; Fan et al., 2017). Species in seasonally flooded flat basins occur in narrow zones such as bottomlands and depressions with more water storage, creating persistent anoxia. These communities contain a small number of species due to the high stress of anoxic soil and seasonal flooding (Dalmagro et al., 2016; Gaberščik et al., 2018). These communities were closely associated with thicker peat/soils. Community IV occurred at higher elevations on organic soil created by S. palustre (Smith, 1966). The peat may absorb anions from dissolved salts and increase the soil acidity, creating slightly lower soil pH (Smith, 1966). The availability of phosphorus in the soil was negatively correlated with freshwater meadows, indicating low available phosphorus that the peat may absorb (Smith, 1966; Bridgham et al., 2001). On the other hand, the poor fen habitat was associated with relatively steeper slopes that indicated slightly drier soil conditions supporting higher species richness (Jacot et al., 2012). Xiaolong et al. (2014) showed that soil pH was also positively correlated with species richness in similar Poyang Lake, China, communities.

1.3 Floristic Composition of the Shallow Fresh Marsh, Seasonally Flooded Flat Basins, Poor Fen, and Freshwater Meadows of Eastern Himalaya Wetlands

Concerning the floristic composition in the Eastern Himalayan wetlands, most families differed within Himalayan regions. The topmost dominant family is Ericaceae; however, it did not appear in the top 10 dominant families in the Western and Eastern Himalayas, indicating that it occurred mainly in the wetlands and their surroundings (ecotone). These ericaceous shrubs may be acid‐loving plants since they are mostly inhabited in the acidic soil/peat of wetlands. Therefore, the diversity of ericaceous shrubs is high, and the family representation is highest in the wetlands of the Eastern Himalayas. The second dominant family is Rosaceae; however, in the Western Himalayas, the family dominance stood at eighth position and might be changed when more details on the floristic composition of the whole region are achieved. The third dominant family is Cyperaceae, fifth in the Western Himalayas, which has a close affinity with the flora of the western region, and the family may have represented mostly from the wetlands. Asteraceae represented the fourth position in the Eastern Himalayas, and, therefore, their suitable habitats could be in wetlands of lower montane areas in the region. This family represented the second‐highest position in the Western Himalayas and may indicate diverse habitat preferences. However, one invasive species, Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R.M. King & H. Rob., is a severe threat to the wetlands, and habitat loss may threaten many wetland species. The species occurred due to anthropogenic disturbances since roads and human settlements were closed. Orchidaceae represented sixth position, the topmost dominant family in the Eastern Himalayas. The wetland habitats have favored these epiphytic and ground orchids to inhabit and around the wetlands, thereby diversifying species. Among the least represented families, Potamogetonaceae showed a unique species in the region. P. crispus L. is the common submerged aquatic plant in the wetlands, inhabited by small pools and running streams. The abundant and characteristic species, A. calamus L., had created a mat (0.1–0.4 m depth of peat and soil) of vegetation and a small stream flowing underneath the mat. The characteristic species, i.e. Enkianthus deflexus (Griff.) C.K. Schneid., P. nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross, and Rhododendron dalhousieae var. rhabdotum (Balf. f. & R.E. Cooper) Cullen, may have added local species richness in the wetlands. Therefore, such intact pools, streams running underneath mat vegetation, and adjacent (ecotone) vegetation may have supported diverse species in such habitats. The seasonally flooded basin of flat habitat occurred where permanent water underneath supported the floating mats ( C. diandra Schrank.) vegetation, indicating a specific habitat. This characteristic species was found only in the wettest part of this filled basin with a depth of about 2–2.5 m of moderately decomposed sedge peat. A. calamus L. and other species inhabited the forest's edge next to Calamus diandra Schrank vegetation, which may represent an ecotone for such habitat. The poor fen habitat occurred slightly at higher elevations with a thick layer of partial or undecomposed peat (about 0.4–0.8 m) of S. palustre L., which indicates the slower biological activity due to the cold weather. The ericaceous shrubs, Rhododendron arboreum Sm. and M. baccata (L.) Borkh., were characteristic species in such habitats. The fern Osmunda japonica Thunb. can often be densely found in selected locations. Some ericaceous shrubs occurred in some patches and may indicate territorializing the wetland habitats and supporting diverse species. The freshwater meadow usually occurs on the slopes and open‐heath forests, indicating no standing water during growing seasons. Due to this unique habitat, diverse herbs, shrubs, and trees are supported, including characteristic species such as S. sinensis (Pers.) Ames, M. struthiopteris (L.) Tod., Lyonia villosa (Wall. ex C.B. Clarke) Hand.‐Mazz., and A. nepalensis D. Don. The characteristic species of herbs in this habitat, such as E. ramosissimum Desf., Neanotis calycina (Wall. ex Hook. f.) W. H. Lewis, Galium aparine L., Ixeridium beauverdianum (H. Lév.) Spring., Pedicularis gracilis subsp. stricta (Prain) P.C. Tsoong, and S. sinensis (Pers.) Ames., are stunted. This may be due to fewer nutrients in the soil and anthropogenic disturbances since they are located close to human settlements.

1.4 Spring Wetlands on the Lower Slope Areas of the Hillside in the Eastern Himalaya (Figure 1.3a and b)