Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive survey of exemplary wetlands that highlights their importance for local livelihoods as well as for global biodiversity
Covering 17 different regions, Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa provides detailed information on some of the world’s most important wetlands and wetland types across those countries, as well as their current and potential biological resources. Each wetland is analyzed by a regional expert.
Written with UN sustainable development goals in mind, Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa includes information on:
- Recommendations for the sustainable management of wetlands in the Asian and African tropics
- The importance of sustaining local economic livelihoods in each wetland region by providing food resources as well as recreational opportunities
- Wetland ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, water filtration, nutrient retention, and flood mitigation
- Threats to the integrity of each wetland region as well as management strategies and practical conservation and restoration measures
Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa is an essential reference on the subject for ecologists, conservation scientists, hydrologists, and environmental and water resource managers. Governmental agencies and professionals in fisheries, agriculture, and rural development will also find value in the book.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editor
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Recommendations for Sustainable Management of Wetlands in Indian Tropics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Methodology
1.3 Status of Wetlands in India
1.4 Inland and Coastal Wetlands
1.5 Natural and Man‐Made Wetlands
1.6 Overall Findings
1.7 Challenges Faced by Natural Wetland Ecosystem in India
1.8 Recommendations for Managing Wetlands Sustainably
1.9 Conclusion
References
2 Wetlands of Bangladesh: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Wetlands in Bangladesh
2.3 Biodiversity
2.4 Red Listed Species By IUCN
2.5 Livelihoods of People Living in Wetland Areas
2.6 Conservation
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Wetlands of Myanmar: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Wetlands in Myanmar
3.3 Important Wetland Sites in Myanmar
3.4 Wetland Management Policy and Practices in Myanmar
3.5 Challenges in Wetland Management in Myanmar
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Wetlands of Plains of Pakistan
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Wetlands in Plains of Pakistan
4.3 The Haleji Wetland
4.4 The Keenjhar Lakes
4.5 Chashma Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary
4.6 Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary
4.7 Astola Island
4.8 Jiwani Wetland
4.9 Miani Hor
4.10 Uchhali Complex
4.11 Indus River Basin Wetlands
4.12 Mekran Coastal Wetlands
References
5 Wetlands of Sri Lanka: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biodiversity
Acknowledgments
References
6 Wetlands of Israel
6.1 Introduction to the Climate, Topography, Geomorphology, and Hydrology of Israel
6.2 Lotic Habitats
6.3 The Jordan River
6.4 Lentic Habitats
6.5 Dalia Marsh
6.6 Measures of Rehabilitation and Restoration
6.7 Vernal Pools
References
7 Wetlands of Angola: Locations, Biodiversity, and Conservation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methodology
7.3 Results
7.4 Discussion
7.5 Conclusions
References
8 Wetlands of Benin (West Africa): Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methods
8.3 Results
8.4 Discussion
References
9 Wetlands of Burkina Faso: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Burkina Faso and Its Wetlands
9.3 Biodiversity in Wetlands of Burkina Faso
9.4 Wetland Goods and Services
9.5 Wetland Conservation Measures
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Wetlands of Cameroon: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Potentials of Wetlands Biodiversity
10.3 Wetland Species
10.4 Importance and Values of Wetlands for Livelihoods and Development in Cameroon
10.5 Threats to Wetlands Degradation and Loss in Cameroon
10.6 Overview of Evolving Strategies for Mainstreaming Wetlands Conservation and Wise Use into Livelihoods Development and Poverty Reduction Efforts in Cameroon
10.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
11 Wetlands of Ghana: Biodiversity, Community Livelihoods, and Conservation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Types of Wetlands in Ghana
11.3 Biodiversity Richness of Ghanaian Wetlands
11.4 Wetland Resources and Community Livelihoods
11.5 Threats to Ghanaian Wetlands
11.6 Conservation Actions and Initiatives Taken by Ghana to Manage Its Wetlands
11.7 Conclusion
References
12 Biodiversity, Change, and Use of Moroccan Wetlands
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Wetlands Biodiversity
12.3 Conservation Status
12.4 Wetland Services
12.5 Drivers of Changes
12.6 Planning and Management
12.7 Concluding Remarks
References
13 Does Malawi Need a Wetland Policy to Achieve the Wise Use Principle of the Ramsar Convention?
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Wetland Concepts and Definitions
13.3 Wetland's Benefits and Its Contribution to UN SDGs
13.4 Threats to Wetland Sustainability
13.5 Wetland Management Policy Dilemma
13.6 Wetland Management Options
13.7 Conclusion
References
14 Wetland Ecosystems in Nigeria
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Wetlands in Nigeria
14.3 Case Study of Biodiversity of Wetlands in Northern and Southern Nigeria
14.4 Wetland of Nigeria in Relation to Blue Carbon and Sequestration
14.5 Wetlands and Their Ecosystem Services
14.6 Resilience of Wetland Ecosystems
14.7 Geospatial Assessment of Nigeria's Wetlands
14.8 Policy and Institutional Framework for Wetlands Protection in Nigeria
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 Wetlands of Senegal: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Wetland Types and Biodiversity
15.3 Livelihoods
15.4 Wetland Conservation
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Wetlands of Zimbabwe: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Wetland Type and Distribution in Zimbabwe
16.3 Wetland Biodiversity
16.4 Nature of Livelihood Benefits Derived from Wetlands by Surrounding Communities
16.5 Initiatives to Promote Wetland Conservation and Human Livelihoods
16.6 Shortcomings and Enforcement Challenges of Wetland Protection and Conservation Approaches
16.7 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
17 Wetlands of Sudan: Types, Conservation, and Socioeconomics
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Wetlands of Sudan
17.3 Wetland Types
17.4 Biodiversity
17.5 Conservation Aspects
17.6 Socioecological Importance
References
18 Wetlands and Conservation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Wetlands of South Africa
18.3 Biodiversity of Wetlands
18.4 Livelihoods and Economic Contributions of Wetlands
18.5 Threats and Conservation of Wetlands in South Africa
18.6 Conservation of Wetlands
18.7 Management Strategies, National Policies, and Legislations Against Natural Threats
18.8 Future Enhancements
18.9 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Wetlands classification as per the National Wetland Inventory of ...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The lists of the major flora and fauna biodiversity in the wetlan...
Table 2.2 Red listed species in Wetland of Bangladesh.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Important species of mangroves of Sri Lanka (de Silva and de Silv...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Proposed Ramsar sites in Angola, identified as of June 2021.
Table 7.2 The hierarchical approach to wetland classification inventory....
Table 7.3 Global datasets extracted for the purpose of wetland mapping in A...
Table 7.4 Major ongoing and future threats to wetlands in Angola.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Typology, description, and geographic location of the major wetla...
Table 8.2 Conservation status of wetlands in Benin.
Table 8.3 Plant diversity in the three most important wetlands in Benin....
Table 8.4 Animal diversity in the three most important wetlands in Benin....
Table 8.5 Major local uses of plant species found in wetlands in Benin.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 List of some important wetlands among other reported in Burkina F...
Table 9.2 List of some mammal species recorded in Burkina Faso.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Cameroon hydrological basins.
Table 10.2 Estimating the size of wetland habitats in Cameroon.
Table 10.3 Classification of wetlands ecosystem services.
Table 10.4 Hydroelectrical dams in Cameroon.
Table 10.5 International, national, and traditional conservation systems and...
Chapter 11
Appendix 11.1 Importance of the Ghanaian coastal Ramsar sites for waterbirds...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Specific richness (%) of algae families from Morocco.
Table 12.2 Species diversity of Moroccan freshwater Animalia.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Species diversity indices for the studied areas at Ibeju‐Lekki.
Table 14.2 The species list of Avifauna resources in the Hadejia‐Nguru wetla...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Wetland type and their associated common flora.
Table 16.2 Wetland type and their associated fauna.
Table 16.3 Wetland type and their associated livelihood option.
Table 16.4 Initiatives to promote wetland conservation and human livelihoods...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Classification of Sudanese wetlands.
Table 17.2 Wetlands of Sudan.
Table 17.3 Biodiversity studies on the important wetlands of Sudan.
Table 17.4 Role of wetlands in supporting local communities.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Threats against wetlands and proposed solutions.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Percentage distribution of wetland types according to National We...
Figure 1.2 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands between 2006–2007 and...
Figure 1.3 State‐wise change in area under wetlands between 2006–2007 and 20...
Figure 1.4 Percentage change in wetland distribution between assessment year...
Figure 1.5 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands according to Level I ...
Figure 1.6 State‐wise change in area under wetlands according to Level I cla...
Figure 1.7 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands according to Level II...
Figure 1.8 State‐wise change in area under wetlands according to Level II cl...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Wetlands distribution in Bangladesh.
Figure 2.2 Eight hydrological divisions in Bangladesh with digital elevation...
Figure 2.3 Haor distribution is in the northeastern part of Bangladesh.
Figure 2.4 This figure provides a comprehensive overview of special wetland ...
Figure 2.6 Ganges River dolphin and Hilsa of the Riverine Wetland.
Figure 2.7 Land diversity in Haor region in dry and rainy seasons.
Figure 2.8 (a) The picture represents the dense vegetation in Sundarbans. (b...
Figure 2.9 (a) Royal Bengal tiger.
Source:
(a) Photo by Bangladesh ...
Figure 2.10 The figure represents the livelihood of five types of wetland: B...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Location of the 13 important wetlands in Myanmar.
Figure 3.2 Examples of globally threatened birds that occur in the wetlands ...
Figure 3.3 The endangered Irrawaddy Dolphin,
Orcaella brevirostris
.
Figure 3.4 The Critically Endangered mangrove,
B. hainesii
.
Figure 3.5 Migratory waterbirds in Pyu Lake.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Location of Haleji Lake.
Figure 4.2 The Keenjhar Lake.
Figure 4.3 Astola Island.
Figure 4.4 Green Sea turtles.
Figure 4.5 Jiwani Island.
Figure 4.6 The Miani Hor Lagoon (60 km away from SW of Karachi) with mangrov...
Figure 4.7 Mangrove plantation in Miani Hor wetland.
Figure 4.8 Uchali complex.
Figure 4.9 Flamingos in Uchhali complex.
Figure 4.10 Location map of the Makran coast in the northwestern Indian Ocea...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Geographical sequence of presentation of wetland formations accor...
Figure 5.2 Wetlands of Sri Lanka. (a) Salt marsh (VW). (b) Salt marsh. (c, d...
Figure 5.3 Wetlands of Sri Lanka. (a) Brackish Water Marsh. (b) Brackish Wat...
Figure 5.4 Wetlands of Sri Lanka. (a, b) Seasonally Flooded Inland Marsh. (c...
Figure 5.5 Wetlands of Sri Lanka. (a) Gilgai Wetland – in wet condition. (b)...
Figure 5.6 Wetlands of Sri Lanka. (a, b) Dry Riverine Evergreen Forest. (c, ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 All basins of Israel.
Figure 6.2 Western basin.
Figure 6.3 Eastern baisn.
Figure 6.4
Felis chaus
road cam Yarkon authority.
Figure 6.5
Acanthobrama lissneri
Eldad Elron.
Figure 6.6
Latonia nigriventer
Uri Roll.
Figure 6.7
Persicaria lanigera
NPA Ranger.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The locations of wetland sites in Angola that have been put forwa...
Figure 7.2 The major physical properties of Angola of relevance to the distr...
Figure 7.3 Properties of water in Angola. (a) WorldClim mean annual precipit...
Figure 7.4 The CIFOR global wetland classification map for Angola.
Figure 7.5 (a) Satellite view of the Cuito‐Cuanavale River confluence in Cua...
Figure 7.6 Field photos (from a drone survey) of geomorphic elements of the ...
Figure 7.7 (a) Satellite view of the Kameia floodplain region, Moxico Provin...
Figure 7.8 (a) Satellite view of the Kuanza River floodplain draining into L...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Map of the study area showing the major water areas of Benin.
Figure 8.2 Map showing the distribution of existing wetlands in Benin.
Figure 8.3 Fishing in mangroves in Benin.
Figure 8.4 Rice production in inland valleys in Benin.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Burkina Faso location in Africa and its border.
Figure 9.2 Wetlands climate sectors in Burkina Faso.
Figure 9.3 Main rivers basins and their sectors encountered in Burkina Faso....
Figure 9.4 Distribution of artificial wetland in Burkina Faso.
Figure 9.5 Response of fish species and biomass to different levels of human...
Figure 9.6 Box‐plot comparing fish diversity between impaired wetlands and p...
Figure 9.7 Some species of fish recorded in wetlands.
Figure 9.8 Some species of amphibians recorded in wetlands in Burkina Faso....
Figure 9.9 Some species of birds reported in Wetlands.
Figure 9.10 Kobus population watering.
Figure 9.11 Some reptile species reported in Burkina Faso.
Figure 9.12 Families of macro‐invertebrates reported in wetlands.
Figures 9.13 Wetland goods and services reported in the case study in Burkin...
Figure 9.14 Adaptive management process of wetlands in Burkina Faso.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Map of Cameroon major watersheds.
Figure 10.2 Wetland habitats in Cameroon.
Figure 10.3 Wetland being a resource with different interests with conflicti...
Figure 10.4 Key conservation and mainstreaming elements in African wetlands....
Figure 10.5 Network of continental‐protected areas in Cameroon.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Map of Ghana showing the location of main coastal lagoons.
Figure 11.2 Hippos at the Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary in northern Ghan...
Figure 11.3 (a) A woman trader descaling tilapia fish at Densu delta wetland...
Figure 11.4 Changes in the coverage of the Densu delta Ramsar site from 2000...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 (a) Cutting and in situ drying of
Juncus maritimus
biomass, M'di...
Figure 12.2 (a) Managed ponds, Amghas‐Azrou, 2002. (b) Partially managed pea...
Figure 12.3 Situation of wetlands with current or planned conservation statu...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Lake Chilwa Wetland.
Figure 13.2 Elephant Marsh wetland in Lower Shire Malawi.
Figure 13.3 (a–d) Wetland socioeconomic and ecological importance.
Figure 13.4 (a–b) Lake Chilingali wetland (a) dried out in 2015 and Lake Chi...
Figure 13.5 Elephant Marsh algal bloom (a) and Lake Chilwa (b) nutrient enri...
Figure 13.6 Lake Chilwa (a) and Lake Malawi wetland fishing activities (b)....
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Major wetland belts in Nigeria.
Figure 14.2 Ecological services provided by wetlands according to the Millen...
Figure 14.3 Example of wetland mapping using remote sensing.
Figure 14.4 Comparison of wetland mapping images for the southern part of Ni...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Location of Senegalese wetlands.
Figure 15.2 Wetland examples in each Senegalese eco‐geographical zone: (a) C...
Figure 15.3 Wetlands of the Senegal River Delta and Valley in 2000 and 2020 ...
Figure 15.4 Waterbird species with more than 1000 individuals recorded in th...
Figure 15.5 Wetlands in the Groundnut Basin in 2000 and 2020 (numbers in bra...
Figure 15.6 Waterbird species with more than 1000 individuals recorded in th...
Figure 15.7 Niayes wetlands in 2000 and 2020. Numbers between brackets corre...
Figure 15.8 Waterbird species with more than 1000 individuals recorded in th...
Figure 15.9 Wetlands in the Ferlo sylvopastoral zone in 2000 and 2020 (numbe...
Figure 15.10 Wetlands of Eastern Senegal in 2000 and 2020 (numbers between b...
Figure 15.11 Bird species with more than 10 individuals recorded in eastern ...
Figure 15.12 Casamance wetlands in 2000 and 2020 (numbers between brackets c...
Figure 15.13 Waterbird species with more than 1000 individuals recorded in C...
Figure 15.14 Different livelihoods in some wetlands of Senegal: (a) mangrove...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 The Intunjambili wetland, Matobo district highlighting the wetla...
Figure 16.2 Distribution of wetlands in Zimbabwe.
Figure 16.3 The Driefontein wetland, highlighting the wetland in full flow w...
Figure 16.4 Horticultural activities being practiced by local communities in...
Figure 16.5 Vegetable and banana plantation in wetland in semiarid areas.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Jebel Marra/Deriba Caldera (crater lake).
Figure 17.2 Irrigated agricultural schemes (man‐made wetlands).
Figure 17.3 Dams of Sudan (man‐made reservoirs).
Figure 17.4 Sanganeb Marine National Park and Dungonab Bay–Mukkawar.
Figure 17.5 Nukhaila Oasis, desert ecosystem.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Classification of wetlands according to levels.
Figure 18.2 Types of wetlands based on water type.
Figure 18.3 Some threatened wetland plants in South Africa.
Figure 18.4 Some animals found in wetlands.
Source:
f. 169169/Adobe Stock Ph...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editor
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Wetlands: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
Series Editor : Thammineni PullaiahSri Krishnadevaraya UniversityAnantapur, India
Wetlands of Mountainous Regions: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
By Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394235209
Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
By Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394235247
Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical South and Central America: Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
By Thammineni PullaiahISBN: 9781394307135
Wetlands of Tropical and Subtropical Asia and Africa
Biodiversity, Livelihoods and Conservation
Edited by
Thammineni Pullaiah
Department of Botany
Sri Krishnadevaraya University
Anantapur
Andhra Pradesh
India
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About the Editor
Dr. T. Pullaiah is a former professor at the Department of Botany at Sri Krishnadevaraya University in Andhra Pradesh, India, where he has taught for more than 35 years. He has held several positions at the university, including Dean, Faculty of Biosciences, Head of the Department of Botany, Head of the Department of Biotechnology, and Member of Academic Senate. He was the president of Indian Botanical Society (2014), president of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy (2013), and fellow of Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences. Under his guidance 54 students obtained their doctoral degrees. He has authored 70 books, edited 40 books, and published over 340 research papers. His books include Redsanders: Silviculture and Conservation (Springer), Genetically Modified Crops (Springer), Sandalwood: Silviculture, Conservation and Applications (Springer), Advances in Cell and Molecular Diagnostics (Elsevier), Camptothecin and Camptothecin Producing Plants (Elsevier), Paclitaxel (Elsevier), Monograph on Brachystelma and Ceropegia in India (CRC Press), Ethnobotany of India (5 volumes, Apple Academic Press), Global Biodiversity (4 volumes, Apple Academic Press) and Invasive Alien Species (4 volumes, Wiley Blackwell). He was also a member of Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Professor Pullaiah received his PhD from Andhra University, India, attended Moscow State University, Russia, and worked as post‐doctoral fellow during 1976–1978.
List of Contributors
Ouéda AdamaLaboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie animales (LBEA), UFR/SVTUniversité Joseph KI‐ZERBO (Burkina Faso) Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Adeyemi Ojutalayo AdeeyoInstitute of Nanotechnology and Water SustainabilityFlorida, South Africa
Adebola Rashidat AdewaleDepartment of FisheriesFaculty of Science, Lagos State UniversityLagos, Nigeria
Gordon N. AjoninaCameroon Wildlife Conservation SocietyCWCS Coastal ForestsMangrove & Marine ProgrammeYaoundé, Cameroon
Institute of Fisheries and Aquatic SciencesUniversity of Douala (Yabassi)Douala, Cameroon
Shehu AkintolaDepartment of FisheriesFaculty of Science Lagos State UniversityLagos, Nigeria
Mercy Adewumi AlabiDepartment of MicrobiologySchool of Life SciencesUniversity of KwaZulu‐NatalDurban, South Africa
Al‐JubaerInstitute of Remote Sensing and GISJahangirnagar UniversityDhaka, Bangladesh
Thiri Dae We AungBiodiversity and Nature Conservation AssociationYangon, Myanmar
Taïbou BaDepartment of Education, Science, Technology & Innovation African Union CommissionAddis Ababa, Ethiopia
Nitin BassiCouncil on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW)New Delhi, India
Andleeb BatoolDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahore, Pakistan
Nard BennasFaculty of SciencesAbdelmalek Essaâdi UniversityTetouan, Morocco
Gnansounou S. ConstantLaboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations ForestièresFaculté des Sciences AgronomiquesUniversité d’Abomey‐CalaviCotonou, République du Bénin
Christopher J. CurtisDepartment of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy StudiesUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburg, South Africa
Akodékou A. DavidLaboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations ForestièresFaculté des Sciences AgronomiquesUniversité d’Abomey‐Calavi CotonouRépublique du Bénin
Abdoul Aziz DioufEcological Monitoring CenterResearch & Development ProgramDakar, Senegal
Thomas E. EfoleInstitute of Fisheries and Aquatic SciencesUniversity of Douala (Yabassi)Douala, Cameroon
Mohamed El HaissoufiPolydisciplinary Faculty of TazaSidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah UniversityFez, Morocco
Isa Olalekan ElegbedeDepartment of FisheriesFaculty of Science Lagos State UniversityLagos, Nigeria
Department of Environmental ScienceNational Open University of NigeriaAbuja, Nigeria
Department of Environmental Planning Brandenburg University of TechnologyCottbus, Germany
Abdeslam EnnabiliSuperior School of TechnologySidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah UniversityFez, Morocco
Mathieu GueyeDepartment of Botany and Geology Laboratory of Botany, IRL 3189 EnvironnementSanté et Société, IFAN Ch. A. DiopDakar, Senegal
Saiba GuptaCouncil on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW)New Delhi, India
Ibrahim Mohammed HashimSudanese Wildlife SocietyKhartoum, Sudan
Dassou G. HospiceDépartement de Biologie VégétaleLaboratoire des Sciences du Végétal et Pharmacopée, Ecole Doctorale des Sciences de la Vie et de la TerreUniversité d'Abomey‐Calavi, Cotonou République du Bénin
Amira M. HotaibaDepartment of Environmental SciencesFaculty of ScienceAlexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Mohamed Elmekki Ali Elbadawi HussienDepartment of WildlifeUniversity of Sinnar, Suki, Sudan
Kaboré IdrissaLaboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie animales (LBEA), UFR/SVTUniversité Joseph KI‐ZERBO (Burkina Faso)Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Emily Osa IduseriDepartment of Environmental ScienceNational Open University of NigeriaAbuja, Nigeria
Sheikh Tawhidul IslamInstitute of Remote Sensing and GISJahangirnagar UniversityDhaka, Bangladesh
Ayushi KashyapCouncil on EnergyEnvironment and Water (CEEW)New Delhi, India
Abdelmajid KhabbachFaculty of Sciences, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah UniversityFez, Morocco
Jasper KnightSchool of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental StudiesUniversity of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg, South Africa
Bramley Jemain LemineDepartment of Chemical Engineering Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyBellville, South Africa
Department of Water ScienceUniversity of Western CapeBellville, South Africa
Mohamed LibiadFaculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaâdi UniversityTetouan, Morocco
Mauro LourencoNational Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project, Wild Bird TrustJohannesburg, South Africa
A.H. Magdon JayasuriyaEML Consultants PLCPitakotte, Sri Lanka
Rodgers MakwinjaDepartment of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy StudiesUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburg, South Africa
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Natural Resources & Climate ChangeLilongwe, Malawi
Thomas MarambanyikaDepartment of Geography Environmental Sustainability and Resilience Building Midlands State UniversityGweru, Zimbabwe
Sawadogo Yabyouré Marc‐FlorentLaboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie animales (LBEA)UFR/SVT, Université Joseph KI‐ZERBO (Burkina Faso)Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Paterne Arnaud Bernard MingouDepartment of Botany and Geology, Laboratory of Botany IFAN Ch. A. Diop Dakar, Senegal
Krishna Prosad MondalInstitute of Remote Sensing and GISJahangirnagar UniversityDhaka, Bangladesh
Titus A.M. MsagatiInstitute of Nanotechnology and Water SustainabilityFlorida, South Africa
Maryam MukhtarDepartment of ZoologyUniversity of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Oshneck MupepiDepartment of Geography Environmental Sustainability and Resilience BuildingMidlands State UniversityGweru, Zimbabwe
Tatenda MusasaInstitute of Water Studies, Faculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of the Western CapeCape Town, South Africa
Department of Geography Environmental Sustainability and Resilience BuildingMidlands State UniversityGweru, Zimbabwe
Naseeba MustafaviDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahore, Pakistan
Thet Zaw NaingMyanmar Bird and Nature SocietyYangon, Myanmar
Mishal NawazDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahore, Pakistan
Barthelemy NdongoDepartment of Rural EngineeringFaculty of Agronomy & Agricultural Sciences, National Focal Point of Ramsar ConventionUniversity of DschangDschang, Cameroon
Tinyiko Rivers NkunaDepartment of Earth ScienceFaculty of Science Engineering and AgricultureUniversity of VendaLimpopo, South Africa
Yaa Ntiamoa‐BaiduCentre for Biodiversity Conservation ResearchUniversity of GhanaAccra, Ghana
Department of Animal Biology and Conservation ScienceUniversity of GhanaAccra, Ghana
Abdul Rahamon OlodoDepartment of Environmental PlanningBrandenburg University of TechnologyCottbus, Germany
Kehinde Moyosola OsitimehinDepartment of Environmental StudiesOhio University, AthensOH, USA
Asia ParveenDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahore, Pakistan
Kelvin S.‐H. PehSchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
Syed Hafizur RahmanDepartment of Environmental SciencesJahangirnagar UniversityDhaka, Bangladesh
Dania RazzaqDepartment of ZoologyGovernment College UniversityLahore, Pakistan
Konaté Sidiki RolandLaboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie animales (LBEA), UFR/SVTUniversité Joseph KI‐ZERBO (Burkina Faso)Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Glèlè Kakaï RomainLaboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations ForestièresFaculté des Sciences AgronomiquesUniversité d’Abomey‐Calavi CotonouRépublique du Bénin
Abdulwakil Olawale SabaDepartment of FisheriesFaculty of Science Lagos State UniversityLagos, Nigeria
Soumic SamadResearch Consultant, Remote Sensing Division, Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS)Dhaka, Bangladesh
Monishankar SarkarInstitute of Disaster Management and Vulnerability StudiesUniversity of DhakaDhaka, Bangladesh
Zanvo M. G. SergeLaboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations ForestièresFaculté des Sciences AgronomiquesUniversité d’Abomey‐Calavi CotonouRépublique du Bénin
Byomkesh TalukderDepartment of Global HealthFlorida International UniversityMiami, FL, USA
Emmanuel Nii Attram TayeCentre for Biodiversity Conservation ResearchUniversity of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Department of Animal Biology and Conservation ScienceUniversity of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Solomon G. TesfamichaelDepartment of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy StudiesUniversity of Johannesburg, Johannesburg South Africa
Minette Eyango Tomedi‐TabiInstitute of Fisheries and Aquatic SciencesUniversity of Douala (Yabassi)Douala, Cameroon
Avi UzanIsrael Nature and Parks AuthorityJerusalem, Israel
Salako K. ValèreLaboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations ForestièresFaculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey‐CalaviCotonou, République du Bénin
Bancé VictorLaboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie animales (LBEA)UFR/SVT, Université Joseph KI‐ZERBO (Burkina Faso)Ouagadougou Burkina FasoCentre Universitaire de MangaUniversité Norbert ZONGOKoudougou, Burkina Faso
Ding Li YongBirdLife International (Asia)Tanglin International CentreSingapore, Singapore
Preface
Wetlands are globally recognized as important habitats for wildlife and human productivity. Wetlands provide numerous ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, water filtration, nutrient retention, and flood mitigation. In addition, wetlands are important migratory stops for birds and mammals and breeding habitats for amphibians, birds, and some reptiles. Wetlands are threatened due to anthropogenic activities such as wetland draining or filling, hydrological alterations, chronic degradation due to non‐point source pollution, and invasion of exotic species. There are increasing concerns regarding the effects of climate change, such as sea‐level rise, salination, and desertification. If these wetland resources are not conserved with heart and soul with the help of Governments and International Agencies, they may be lost forever. Wetlands have experienced an estimated 50% loss over the last century; their conservation importance is particularly recognized in several multi‐lateral environmental agreements, such as the Water Framework Directive and the Ramsar Convention. Information on wetlands from around the world is available but scattered in grey literature, local languages, and on various aspects on a piecemeal basis, namely plant and animal biodiversity, ecotourism, livelihoods, and peoples’ dependence. This book attempts to formulate the information together in a concise and systematic manner which will benefit the readers. This will also benefit academics, researchers, and a wide range of interested people. This book gives an account of the wetland ecosystem and its ecology, the resources and potentials of wetlands, conservation efforts, wetland ecosystem services, and threats to conservation.
I wish to express my grateful thanks to all the contributors for their cooperation and erudition. Since it is a voluminous subject, we might have missed some of the aspects. Readers are requested to give their suggestions for improvement in the coming edition. We could not cover all the countries either due to the shortage of expertise or due to the busy schedule of the experts. I thank Dr. Frank Weinreich of Wiley Publishers for his thought‐provoking inputs during the book formulation.
Thammineni Pullaiah
1Recommendations for Sustainable Management of Wetlands in Indian Tropics
Nitin Bassi, Ayushi Kashyap, and Saiba Gupta
Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), New Delhi, India
1.1 Introduction
India has a highly variable climate, with substantial differences in both spatial and temporal extent of rainfall and temperature. The north and northeastern regions receive high rainfall and experience low temperatures in comparison to the western, central, and peninsular India. As a result, India is unique in terms of water availability, with perennial rivers in the north and northeastern regions and seasonal rivers in the rest of India. Also, there is high year‐on‐year variability in rainfall and temperature in different parts of the country.
The natural water systems in India include rivers, lakes, estuaries, lagoons, mangrove swamps, and many other water bodies. Most of them qualify as wetlands as per the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, an international treaty signed in 1971 for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. As per Article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention, wetlands are “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.” As of 22 March 2024, there are 172 contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention, and 2513 wetlands with an area of about 257 million hectares (m ha) have been designated as Ramsar sites. Out of these, 1133 sites are in Europe: 431 sites in Asia; 425 sites in Africa; 216 sites in South America; 222 sites in North America; and 86 sites in Oceania (Ramsar Secretariat 2024). However, the area designated as Ramsar sites is only a small proportion in comparison to estimates of global wetland area, which is about 1.5–1.6 billion hectares (Davidson and Finlayson 2019).
As of 2020, India has about 5% of its area under wetlands (Space Application Centre 2011) and 80% Ramsar sites (Ramsar Secretariat 2024). The total wetland area under Ramsar sites in India is about 1.3 m ha (Ramsar Secretariat 2024). Initial attempts to prepare the wetland inventory of India were made between the 1980s and early 1990s. As per the Country Report of Directory of Asian Wetlands (Woistencroft et al. 1989) and the Directory of Indian Wetlands 1993 (WWF India and Asian Wetland Bureau 1993), the areal spread of wetlands in India was around 58.3 m ha. Paddy fields accounted for nearly 71% of this wetland area. Subsequently, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1990) estimated the wetlands area to be about 4.1 m ha, but excluded the mangrove swamps.
The first scientific mapping of wetlands of the country was carried out using satellite data of 1992–1993 by the Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad, which classified wetlands based on the Ramsar Convention definition. As per this inventory, the area of wetlands was about 7.6 m ha (Garg et al. 1998). These estimates did not include paddy fields, rivers, canals, and irrigation channels. Subsequently, the National Wetland Atlas 2011 was prepared by SAC and the entire country was considered for assessment. A total of 201,503 wetlands were identified and mapped on a 1 : 50,000 scale (SAC 2011). In addition, 555,557 wetlands (area <2.25 ha, which is smaller than the minimum measurable unit) were identified as point features. As per these estimates, a total wetland area of 15.3 m ha was estimated. The latest inventory was prepared for 2017–2018 and released in 2021 (SAC 2011). As per these estimates, the total wetland area in India is about 15.98 m ha.
Wetlands offer several benefits and services, which are categorized into provisioning (for instance, freshwater and food), regulating (for instance, climate resilience), supporting (such as nutrient cycling), and cultural (like recreation and tourism) functions. However, these unique ecosystems are under threat due to anthropogenic pressures and climate change. The main anthropogenic reasons include diversion for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes and pollution.
To improve their conservation, many policies (schemes and programs) were adopted in India. The most recent scheme launched in the budget of 2023–2024 called the Amrit Dharohar targets to maintain a healthy and well‐managed network of identified Ramsar sites by promoting their conservation values over the course of three years (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2023). The activities within the scheme focus on enhancing multiple ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, pollution abatement, flood control, biodiversity support, and cultural significance generated by the Ramsar sites.
In 2022, another policy called the Amrit Sarovar Mission was launched to increase water conservation by rejuvenating 75 ponds in each district of the country (Government of India 2023a). The Mission was completed on 15 August 2023, and nearly 50,000 ponds across the country were rejuvenated. On the back of the success of this policy, the target was doubled. As of April 2024, work on 66% of the identified sites has been completed under the Amrit Sarovar Mission (Mission Amrit Sarovar 2024). Both Amrit Sarovar and Amrit Dharohar place importance on increasing people’s participation in conservation activities and local livelihood generation.
Further, specific to coastal wetlands, the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) was launched in 2023 that aims to develop a 540 km2 stretch of mangroves through the sharing of best practices between mangrove hosting Indian states and enable resource mobilization through Public Private Partnership (Government of India 2023b).
An equally important centrally sponsored scheme for the conservation and restoration of wetlands is the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA), which was launched in 2015. The scheme follows a four‐pronged approach of baseline information collection, rapid assessment of wetland health, stakeholder engagement, and development of an Integrated Management Plan for their conservation (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2020). NPCA is being upscaled from 33 wetlands in the first cycle to 1000 in the next phase to enhance water quality and improve biodiversity within ecosystems (Khanduja et al. 2023).
Similarly, the National Mission for Clean Ganga Programme specifically focuses on wetland conservation planning within the Ganga basin. There are other policies as well, such as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation 2.0, that seek to improve the quality of wetlands and rejuvenate deteriorated water bodies by investing in the proper disposal of sewage, restoring polluted drains and planning the better management of landscapes linked to wetlands (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs 2021).
Implementation of new schemes has been instrumental in increasing the focus on wetland management within the overall water agenda. However, there is a need for more comprehensive management strategies (Bassi et al. 2014) to achieve target 6.6 of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which deals with protecting and restoring water‐related ecosystems such as wetlands. For this to happen, the established and planned institutional mechanisms must operate in coherence to counter the anthropogenic and climate‐related threats to wetlands and their associated landscapes.
Following the introduction, the second section provides the methodology. The third section provides a detailed account of wetland status in India, it compares two time periods 2006–2007 and 2017–2018 for which the wetland inventories were analyzed. The fifth section provides a detailed account of the challenges faced by the wetland ecosystems in India. The last section provides recommendations to strengthen actions on wetland management in India.
1.2 Methodology
An eclectic approach was followed for developing the chapter. For analyzing the status of wetlands in terms of their type, number, and area, the national inventories for 2006–2007 and 2017–2018 were compared.
As discussed in the introduction (Section 1.1), India has so far undertaken two rounds of National Wetland Inventory and Assessment. It is a geo‐databased approach to track the evolving status of wetland distribution in the country. A national‐level database is maintained by classifying wetlands based on the Ramsar definition (Table 1.1) and tracking the spatial and temporal transition of wetlands at different regional scales. The first inventory was prepared for 2006–2007.
Table 1.1 Wetlands classification as per the National Wetland Inventory of India.
Source: India Wetland Portal and the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
Level I
Level II
Level III
Inland wetlands
Natural: High‐altitude Himalayan lakes, wetlands lying in the flood plains of major rivers, saline and temporary wetlands lying in the arid to semiarid regions
Lakes
Ox‐bow lakes/cutoff meanders
High‐altitude wetlands
Riverine Wetlands
Waterlogged (natural)
River/Stream
Man‐made: Wetlands constructed for storing water, fish cultivation, or for recreation
Reservoirs/Barrages
Tanks/Ponds
Waterlogged (man‐made)
Salt Pans (inland)
Aquaculture ponds (inland)
Coastal Wetlands
Natural
Lagoons/Backwaters
Creek
Sand/Beach
Intertidal mud flats
Salt marsh
Mangroves
Coral Reefs
Man‐made
Salt Pans (coastal)
Aquaculture ponds (coastal)
The second round of the National Wetland Inventory and Assessment was undertaken by the Space Applications Centre, ISRO Ahmedabad using data available for the years 2017–2018. Subsequently, the National Wetland Decadal Change Atlas, 2017 (Gupta et al. 2021) was published to compare the change in wetland statistics since the first assessment undertaken for 2006–2007. As of 2017–2018, a total of 231,195 wetlands have been mapped in the country having an area of 15.98 m ha or 4.86% of the total geographical area of India. Rivers and streams, reservoirs, intertidal mud flats, and tanks and ponds comprise the majority of wetland types in the country (Figure 1.1).
For assessing the challenges faced by the natural wetland ecosystem in India, a thorough review of the existing published studies was undertaken. The selection of review papers was based on the purpose and use case, thus following a more traditional review approach rather than a systematic one.
Based on the findings from the assessment of wetlands status and a review of the challenges faced by them, recommendations to ensure their management on a sustainable basis were suggested. To a large extent, the recommendations were based on the authors' learnings and understanding of the governance, financial, data and information, and knowledge‐sharing landscape in India.
1.3 Status of Wetlands in India
The decadal analysis, between 2006–2007 and 2017–2018, shows that there has been an increase in the overall number of wetlands in India by around 9%. In the same period, the wetland area has increased by about 4%. This has been due to the expansion of existing wetlands as well as an increase in the formation of new wetland areas. Further, a small proportion of the previously existing wetland area (about 25 thousand ha) has disappeared.
In terms of state‐wise distribution, there has been a shift in the number (Figure 1.2) and area (Figure 1.3) of wetlands, with the majority of states recording an increase in the total wetland cover. As per the second assessment (2017–2018), the highest number of wetlands is recorded in Tamil Nadu (11.6%), Maharashtra (11.2%), Andhra Pradesh (10.4%), Uttar Pradesh (8%), and Gujarat (7.6%). In terms of area coverage, Gujarat (21.9%) takes the lead, followed by Maharashtra (7.2%), Andhra Pradesh (7.1%), West Bengal (7.1%), and Uttar Pradesh (6.9%). The highest change in wetland numbers between the two assessment periods is observed in Maharashtra.
Further, the distribution of wetland types is not uniform throughout the country. For instance, 42% of all lakes in India lie in the state of Tamil Nadu. Also, the distribution of wetland areas within each state is subject to geomorphological and prevailing socioeconomic conditions. For example, the majority (about 86%) of the area under the high‐altitude wetlands is within the state of Ladakh. Similarly, 95% of the area under man‐made inland salt pans is in Rajasthan due to an expanding salt production industry. The states of Gujarat, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu host several diverse wetlands, such as creeks, salt pans, salt marshes, intertidal mudflats, mangroves, and aquaculture ponds, in comparison to other states.
1.4 Inland and Coastal Wetlands
According to the 2017–2018 assessment, inland and coastal wetlands make up about 74 and 26% of the total wetland area, respectively. The decadal net change in the number and area of inland wetlands has seen a positive increase of about 8 and 5%, respectively, whereas for coastal wetlands it has been about 20 and 1%, respectively (Figure 1.4). It is to be noted that an increase in the number of wetlands may not always translate to larger area coverage, as demonstrated in the case of coastal wetlands. Percentage increase under different categories of wetlands is presented in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.1 Percentage distribution of wetland types according to National Wetland Inventory for 2017–2018.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
Figure 1.2 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands between 2006–2007 and 2017–2018. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
In 2017–2018, the highest number of inland wetlands was reported in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra (Figure 1.5). Madhya Pradesh jumped from the seventh position in 2006–2007 to the third position by recording a 13.5% increase in the area under inland wetlands (Figure 1.6). Gujarat recorded the highest number of coastal wetlands under both assessment periods. In 2017–2018, almost 23% of the total number of such wetlands were recorded in Gujarat.
1.5 Natural and Man‐Made Wetlands
The increase in the wetland area between 2006–2007 and 2017–2018 can be mainly attributed to an increase in man‐made wetlands such as tanks, reservoirs, and aquaculture ponds in both inland and coastal regions. The existing area (in 2017–2018) under man‐made wetlands is about 33%, an increase of about 13% from 2006 to 2007. The number of man‐made wetlands has increased as well by about 11% between 2006–2007 and 2017–2018. Nevertheless, the natural wetlands comprise about 67% of the total area under wetlands with no substantial change in the distribution during the two assessment periods.
Figure 1.3 State‐wise change in area under wetlands between 2006–2007 and 2017–2018. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
Figure 1.4 Percentage change in wetland distribution between assessment years.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
Figure 1.5 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands according to Level I classification. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
Further, the analysis shows that there is a substantial increase in area under reservoirs and tanks across all states leading to an increase in the percentage share of man‐made wetlands. A substantial increase in the construction of new reservoirs was recorded in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, salt pans in Gujarat, and inland aquaculture ponds in Andhra Pradesh. In Gujarat, large areas of natural marshlands have been converted to man‐made salt pans, causing a change in distribution between wetland types. Further, a high percentage increase in man‐made wetlands, in both numbers and area, was recorded in the northeastern states where inland aquaculture activities have increased (Figures 1.7 and 1.8).
In line with the 2006–2007 assessment, Gujarat had the highest number of natural wetlands in 2017–2018 as well. This is followed by West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. The area under inland rivers has increased in many states including Assam, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh. The major reason for this is due to river braiding or an increase in stream width. The area under coastal mangroves increased by about 4% between the two assessments. The major increase in the area under coastal mangroves was recorded in Gujarat, West Bengal, and the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar.
Figure 1.6 State‐wise change in area under wetlands according to Level I classification. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
1.6 Overall Findings
The indicator used to track the progress toward achieving SDG target 6.6 is a measure of the change within the aquatic ecosystem over time. The exercise of periodic mapping and assessment of wetland status through a systematic methodology is therefore important for establishing baseline data, recording underlying trends in the wetland ecosystem, and developing scientifically informed management strategies for wetland protection. The findings of the National Wetland Inventory and Assessment reveal that most of the wetland types have shown positive change in area as well as in numbers. The number of Ramsar sites in India has also steadily increased. The country now has 80 diverse Ramsar sites with a total area of about 1.3 m ha, which equals 9% of the total wetland area of India (Ramsar 2024).
Figure 1.7 State‐wise change in the number of wetlands according to Level II classification. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
The positive change in wetlands is majorly led by the growth of areas under man‐made wetlands such as tanks, reservoirs, and aquaculture ponds in India. One of the likely reasons is the need for having such storage to fulfill the growing needs of irrigation, industrial and domestic water demands, fisheries, and flood control. There have been instances of natural wetlands being converted to man‐made wetlands, mainly in the states on the western coast. While man‐made wetlands do harbor biodiversity and provide provisional, regulatory, and cultural services, a healthy network of natural wetlands is important to maintain ecosystem productivity. Nevertheless, there is a need to corroborate national‐level findings with regional and local on‐ground assessments for concrete wetland management planning.
1.7 Challenges Faced by Natural Wetland Ecosystem in India
Wetlands in India and across the globe are facing increased anthropogenic pressures. This is mainly due to unplanned urbanization, land use changes, infrastructure development, and pollution from industrial effluent and agricultural runoff (Bassi et al. 2014). Further, climate change and variability have been identified as significant threats to wetlands, with rising temperatures and altered hydrological patterns (Erwin 2009). Some of the main challenges faced by wetland ecosystems in India are discussed below.
Figure 1.8 State‐wise change in area under wetlands according to Level II classification. Note: The values for the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli are spatially represented together.
Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. (2021).
1.7.1 Climate Change Related
Climate‐induced change is causing frequent extreme hydrological events, such as floods and droughts, impacting freshwater ecosystems globally (IPCC 2022). As per the latest progress on SDG 6 reported in 2023, one in five river basins in the world (over 20%) experienced rapid changes in the area covered by surface waters over a period of five years (2015–2020), compared to a 20‐year reference period (UN‐Water 2023). Some river basins are experiencing a rapid increase in their surface water area due to flooding, and others are experiencing a rapid decline due to the drying up of water bodies. Further, about 2.4 billion people in the world live in countries with water stress (UN‐Water 2023). Estimates suggest that in India too, 11 out of the 15 major river basins will be water stressed by 2025 (Bassi et al. 2023).
Water quality is also impacted in addition to the quantity of water entering freshwater ecosystems. The occurrence of climate‐induced extreme hydrological events alters the timing and magnitude of water received by water bodies (from surface run‐off, groundwater flows, and precipitation), as well as the degree of dilution or concentration of solutes, thus altering the water quality of freshwater systems (Jones 2013).
Among other climate‐induced threats, the rise in sea levels and seawater temperatures has received increased attention as of late. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global sea level is projected to rise by 8–25 cm by 2050 (IPCC 2019). As per estimates, a 1 m global mean sea level rise could threaten half of the world’s coastal wetlands. For India, this will lead to an estimated loss of 84% of coastal wetlands and 13% of saline wetlands (Blankespoor et al. 2016). Further, rising temperatures of seawater lead to changes in the distribution patterns of aquatic species and biodiversity. Even a difference of one degree Celsius in seawater temperature can impact the distribution of fish stock, with some tropic species likely to face regional extinction (Rao and Vivekanandan 2008). This will especially have adverse impacts on aquatic species that cannot relocate to suitable habitats and migratory species that rely on various wetland types throughout their life cycle (Bassi et al. 2014).
1.7.2 Anthropogenic
Anthropogenic factors such as population growth, urbanization, water pollution, gray infrastructure development, and reduced blue cover, combined with climate‐induced risks, impact wetland resources. Some of these factors are discussed below.
1.7.2.1 Urbanization and Land Use Changes
India has steadily urbanized over the past decades. The percentage of the total population living in urban areas has doubled from 17% in 1960 to over 35% as of 2022 (World Bank 2022). As a result, the area under agricultural and nonagricultural use (residential and commercial) has significantly increased between 1950–1951 and 2008–2009 to meet the rising water, food, and housing demands of the growing population (Bassi et al. 2014). This has been at the cost of changes in land use of floodplain areas, primary forests, grasslands, and associated freshwater ecosystems in most of the major river basins (Zhao et al. 2006). For instance, almost 50% of the wetland area in the National Capital Region of Delhi has decreased over a period of three decades (1989–2019). This is on account of the increase in area under cropland and built‐up due to rapid urban expansion (Venkatesh 2020). Another instance is that of the Greater Bengaluru metropolitan area, where due to massive concretization over the years, there has been a loss of almost 40% of the area under water bodies between 1973 and 2020. Over just six years between 2011 and 2017, the storage capacity of the city’s water bodies has reduced by 76% due to siltation (IISC 2017).
1.7.2.2 Agricultural, Municipal, and Industrial Pollution
Untreated runoff from agricultural land (consisting of pesticides and fertilizers) and untreated wastewater from urban areas adversely impact water quality due to siltation, excess nutrient loadings, and changes to water flows.
The intensification of agriculture in India over the last four decades has increased fertilizer consumption from 6 million tonnes in 1981–1982 to almost 30 million tonnes in 2021–2022 (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare 2022). These nutrients are discharged into surface water bodies through agricultural runoff and lead to eutrophication and harmful algal bloom. Algae consume the oxygen in water on decomposition, causing a reduction or elimination of fish stock and other organisms (EPA 2024).
In addition to agricultural runoff, the discharge of untreated urban wastewater is a significant reason for high levels of pollution in many of the major Indian rivers, primarily concentrated in the stretches passing through urban areas (Gupta et al. 2023). For instance, the stretch of the Yamuna from Wazirabad to Okhla in Delhi, which is less than 2% of the total river length, accounts for 80% of its total pollution load (NGT 2012). The situation is no different for other rivers passing through urban areas, with the Central Pollution Control Board identifying 311 polluted stretches across India with Biological Oxygen Demand (an indicator of fecal contamination and organic pollution) above 3 mg/l (CPCB 2022).
As of 2021, over 72,000 million liters per day of domestic wastewater was generated from India’s urban areas alone. The installed treatment capacity was 44%, but only 28% of the wastewater generated was actually treated (CPCB 2021). Many sewage treatment plants (STPs) do not function at maximum capacity or do not meet prescribed effluent water quality standards. In some cases, STPs are underutilized since the sewerage networks do not cover unauthorized colonies and suburban areas. Further, many urban utilities are unable to scale up wastewater treatment capacity as the capital and operating costs of building infrastructure are high. As a result, untreated and partially treated wastewater from urban areas is discharged into freshwater bodies leading to high levels of pollution (Gupta et al. 2023).
