Wind Energy Storage and Conversion E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 435

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

This book provides a comprehensive guide to the benefits and developments of wind energy, including energy storage and conversion methods, making it a must-read for those interested in sustainable energy.

By going through this book, one can learn more about the usefulness of adopting renewable energies, particularly in light of the widespread use of wind-based devices. Here, we present an in-depth presentation of several developments in wind technological systems, focusing on applications and operational approaches.

With the depletion of fossil fuel-based energy resources, the development of alternative sources of energy is becoming extremely crucial. Meanwhile, the planet is on the brink of an energy disaster due to the rapidly rising global need for energy. Additionally, the widespread usage of fossil fuel-based energy resources is aggravating global warming and harming the environment. However, there are reliable and eco-friendly substitutes to fossil fuels, for example wind and many other sustainable energies. Considering its low operational costs and easy accessibility, wind is among the most cost-effective and efficient renewable energies. With the increased use of wind energy, the need for storage has become critical. In addition to various storage procedures, fuel cells and batteries are two primary sources of compensation for RE systems. The wind technological system is on the cusp of development, but numerous improvements are required to make this technology overall cost-efficient. In this book, various energy storage and conversion methods for wind power applications are explored.

Additionally, this work covers the costs associated with electrical output in wind-powered power plants as well as the financial and environmental plans that describe the installation of wind technology systems.

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Wind Energy Storage and Conversion

From Basics to Utilities

Edited by

Inamuddin

Tariq Altalhi

and

Mohammad Luqman

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-20433-5

Front cover images supplied by Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

With the depletion of fossil fuel-based energy resources, the development of alternative sources of energy is becoming extremely crucial. Meanwhile, the planet is on the brink of an energy disaster due to the rapidly rising global need for energy. Additionally, the widespread use of fossil fuel-based energy resources aggravates global warming and harms the environment. However, there are reliable and eco-friendly substitutes to fossil fuels, like wind and many other sustainable energies. Considering its low operational costs and easy accessibility, the wind is among the most cost-effective and efficient renewable energies. With the increased use of wind energy, the need for storage has become critical. In addition to various storage procedures, fuel cells and batteries are two primary sources of compensation for renewable energy (RE) systems. The wind technological system is on the cusp of development, but numerous improvements are required to make this technology cost-efficient, overall.

In this book, various energy storage and conversion methods for wind power applications are explored. By going through this book, one can learn more about excellent illustrations of the usefulness of adopting renewable energies, particularly in light of the widespread use of wind-based devices and the in-depth presentation of several developments in wind technological systems concerning applications and operational approaches. Additionally, this work covers the costs associated with the electrical output in wind-powered power plants as well as the financial and environmental plans that describe the installation of wind technological systems. For those interested in this field, this publication is a great resource for academics, researchers, environmentalists, and professionals.

Chapter 1 provides a concise scientific overview of wind energy’s historical development, technological advancements, and significance as a major renewable energy source. It highlights offshore wind farms, improved efficiency, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions, making wind energy vital for a sustainable future. It also covers ongoing research for enhanced turbine designs.

Chapter 2 analyzes the direct and indirect environmental consequences associated with wind-energy technologies. It examines their potential impacts on living beings and the environment. These concerns may pose challenges to the progress of wind energy projects, underscoring the importance of thoughtful consideration and the implementation of effective mitigation strategies.

Chapter 3 discuss the visual impact of wind turbines and also their impact environment as noise pollution and wild life. The international wind energy generation and world energy forecast is discussed in details.

Chapter 4 discusses the types of wind hybrid power technologies. It focuses on the components and role of each hybrid system. The advantages and disadvantages of each hybrid system are also given. Careful integration of these systems can lessen their shortcomings and generate maximum electric power.

Chapter 5 extensively reviews wind energy theories driven by technological advancements. It starts with the fundamental principles and aerodynamics of wind turbines, moving to practical applications, control systems, and design aspects. It further explores advancements such as innovative materials, turbine designs, enhanced control systems, and smart grid integration, reinforcing wind energy’s efficiency and competitiveness.

Chapter 6 discusses the wind-energy hybrid power generation system with hydrogen storage. Additionally, it details hydrogen storage systems and wind energy systems. It concludes with the design and optimization of a wind-energy hybrid power generation system with hydrogen storage.

Chapter 7 investigates the growing global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources and how they have propelled the rapid development of wind power generation. Wind turbines, as key components of this industry, require efficient and cost-effective solutions to maximize their potential. One critical aspect is the design and manufacture of wind turbine blades, which significantly impact the overall performance and economic viability of wind farms. This chapter also explores emerging technologies centered on reusable wind turbine blades, highlighting their advancements, challenges, and implications. The chapter provides an overview of conventional wind turbine blade materials and their limitations in terms of recyclability and environmental impact. It then delves into recent research and innovations in materials engineering, such as composite materials, bio-based resins, and additive manufacturing techniques. Furthermore, the chapter examines the challenges faced in implementing reusable blade technologies, including structural integrity, fatigue resistance, and manufacturing scalability.

Chapter 8 details how to balance and choose the best alternative for the criteria after calculating significant aspects in the evaluation of a wind turbine technology following the principles of sustainable development for analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Based on the findings, the most optimal alternative is chosen.

Chapter 9 discusses different aerodynamic properties like solidity, blade number, pitch, pitch angle, strut effect, and Reynolds number as they directly affect turbine performance. The optimum values of all these parameters for improved performance are also summarized.

Key features:

Provides a broad overview of wind energy technology

Describes prospects for energy storage and conversion systems

Analyzes economic and environmental plans for the development of wind energy systems

1Wind Energy: From Past to Present Technology

Madhur Babu Singh1, Pallavi Jain1* and Prashant Singh2†

1Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi-NCR Campus, Modinagar, India

2Department of Chemistry, Atma Ram Sanatan Dharma College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Abstract

Humans have used wind energy for centuries. In the 7th century, ancient Persia used it to grind grain and pump water. The concept of using wind to produce electricity was initially investigated in the late 19th century, and in recent years, wind energy has emerged as a major player in the renewable energy market, with numerous nations investing in wind power projects. With numerous turbines positioned far from the shore, where the winds are steady and strong, offshore wind farms have grown in popularity. With the potential to produce electricity even in the absence of wind, wind energy has become more reliable and cost-effective thanks to technological improvements. This renewable energy source is crucial in the shift to a more sustainable future since it lowers greenhouse gas emissions while meeting the rising demand for electricity. As the world continues to move towards sustainable sources, wind energy is expected to offer a larger portion of energy needs. Scientists are researching novel wind turbine designs that might increase their output and efficiency. Wind energy is a potential renewable energy technology with a lengthy history and a bright future.

Keywords: Wind energy, turbine, environment, sustainable development

1.1 Introduction

Energy is a crucial aspect of our sustainability, playing a significant role in promoting human civilization and shaping our lives. The social and economic progress of modern society relies heavily on a steady and reliable source of energy. However, the rapid and unchecked growth of human civilization and industrialization has led to a detrimental effect on the environment and energy resources. Fossil fuels are a finite resource, and if the present rate of consumption continues, they will likely be depleted in the coming centuries [1]. The rise in carbon dioxide levels in the lower atmosphere has prompted the search for ecologically acceptable clean and sustainable energy options. Carbon dioxide build-up has had a negative influence on the climate, creating catastrophic weather events such as excessive rainfall, floods, and drought [2]. Every country is responsible for improving the quality of its energy supplies and, when feasible, replacing non-renewable fossil fuels like coal and oil with renewable sources like wind, solar, and other kinds of energy. This approach has the potential to reduce the negative environmental consequences of carbon dioxide emissions [3]. In order to address the issue of depleting natural resources and environmental deterioration, future technologies must incorporate sustainable development concepts and criteria throughout their technological processes, products, and operations. This notion has been recognized globally, and many initiatives have been established to promote the integration of these concepts. Sustainable development is not only beneficial for the environment but also for society and the economy in the long term. By merging environmental and social considerations into the design and production of new technologies, it is possible to create products and services that are not only eco-friendly but also efficient and cost-effective.

One of the key components of sustainable development is to minimize waste and pollution throughout the life cycle of the product. This can be achieved by using renewable resources, reducing energy consumption, and maximizing the product’s lifespan. Furthermore, sustainable technologies offer opportunities for creating new industries and jobs, improving public health, and creating more equitable societies. Wind energy, which has been used by humans for millennia for purposes such as sailing, grinding grains, and pumping water, is a feasible form of renewable energy that can help mitigate the negative environmental consequences of non-renewable energy. However, it was not until the late 19th century that wind power was harnessed to generate electricity [4]. Since then, wind energy technology has undergone significant advancements, making it one of the rapidly developing renewable energy sources worldwide. The earliest recorded use of wind energy was in Persia (present-day Iran) around 5,000 BC. Persians used wind energy to power their sailing ships, grind grains, and pump water. Similarly, ancient Egyptians and Greeks also used wind power to propel their ships. However, it was not until the 12th century that the first windmill was developed in Europe. These windmills were used primarily to grind grains and pump water. Windmills continued to evolve and become more efficient, and by the 19th century, they had become a common sight across Europe and North America [5].

The first electricity-generating wind turbine was developed by Charles Brush in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1887. Brush’s wind turbine had a rotor diameter of 17 m and generated around 12 kW of electricity. However, it was not until the 1940s that the first large-scale wind turbines were developed in the United States. These turbines had a rotor diameter of around 30 m and generated up to 100 kW of electricity. In the 1950s, wind energy began to be used to power remote locations such as farms and ranches.

Wind energy technology has undergone significant advancements in recent decades, making it a cost-competitive and reliable source of electricity. In addition to technological advancements in wind turbines were various significant developments in wind farm design and operation. Wind farms are designed to take advantage of the prevailing wind patterns in a particular region, and turbines are placed strategically to maximize energy production while minimizing environmental impacts. Wind farm operators use advanced software to monitor and control the turbines, allowing them to optimize energy production and minimize downtime [6].

1.2 Historical Background

Wind energy has been used throughout human history from ancient times, long before coal and refined petroleum were discovered. Notably, the Egyptians used windmills for water pumping some 3,000 years ago, while Chinese farmers used vertical-axis wind turbines to empty rice fields several centuries before their European counterparts. The horizontal-axis windmill is said to be originated in Europe and was first mentioned in the Duchy of Normandy around 1180 [7]. The generation of electricity using windmills began in 1887 when Prof. James Blyth built a windmill in Scotland for this purpose. In 1888, Bruch and his colleagues successfully developed a wind machine that was put into operation on the Atlantic coast. Wind power technology continued to evolve and develop over time. Kurt Bilau, in 1920, incorporated the Ventikanten blade, which utilized an aircraft air-foil developed by him and Betz, into modern windmill designs. Small wind machines (less than 1 kW) and windmills without an electrical system proliferated in rural areas of the United States during the 1920s and 1930s. The stages of wind technology development are given in Table 1.1. With almost 600,000 units erected at this time, windmill use in the US reached its height in popularity. Developed in the US for the first time in 1941, the contemporary horizontal-axis wind turbine was primarily utilized to supply electricity to farms without access to power lines. However, from the 1950s onward, the market for wind turbines slowly started to decline due to the widespread expansion of electric power lines [8].

Table 1.1 Stages of wind technology development.

Time period

Key developments in wind energy technology

Ancient times

Windmills used for milling grain and pumping water

Late 1800s

Charles F. Brush builds the first large-scale wind turbine in Ohio, USA

1920s–1930s

First electricity-generating wind turbines developed in Europe

1940s–1950s

Utility-scale wind turbines developed for remote areas with no access to a power grid

1970s

Advancements in aerodynamics and materials lead to more efficient wind turbines

1980s

Wind power begins to gain popularity as a viable source of renewable energy

1990s

Introduction of variable-speed turbines and the use of power electronics to improve efficiency

2000s

Continued improvements in turbine design, including larger rotor diameters and higher hub heights

Present day

Advancement of offshore wind farms and increasing use of wind energy storage technologies

1.3 Use of Wind Energy in Specific Countries

Wind energy has rapidly come into utilization in the US since the 1980s, with tax breaks playing an important role in stimulating investment. As a result, the price of wind-generated power has dropped significantly from 35 to 4 cents/kWh. The Stateline Wind farm, which is now under development, will be the biggest in the world. Furthermore, wind power capacity in the US has increased rapidly [9].

However, with an average annual growth rate of 22% over the previous 6 years, Europe has overtaken all other regions as the world leader in wind energy. The European Wind Energy Association has increased its estimates for Europe’s wind capacity in 2010, and offshore projects are starting to materialize off the shores of numerous European nations [10].

Germany, which in 1997 outperformed the United States in terms of wind capacity, has since emerged as Europe’s future trendsetter. Denmark, which has the third-largest wind energy and is the top manufacturer and exporter of wind turbines, intends to source 50% of its domestic energy from wind by 2030. Other nations with large increases in wind capacity include Spain, Canada, India, and Japan, all of which have set goals or incentives to promote future expansion [11].

1.4 Wind Technology

Wind power can be harnessed directly as mechanical power or indirectly as electrical energy through the conversion of wind’s kinetic energy (KE). All wind energy systems must include a wind turbine because it transforms the KE of the wind into mechanical power which can be used for various tasks. The wind turbine generates electricity by using the wind’s energy to move a rotor, which powers a generator.

In the early 1900s, the first wind turbine intended to produce energy was developed. Since then, substantial technological and design developments have improved the efficiency and dependability of wind turbines. Today, various varieties and sizes of wind turbines exist, from small ones used to power homes and small businesses to large ones used to produce electricity on a large scale for utilities. While wind turbine technology has been gradually improving, there have been remarkable advancements in turbine design [12]. In particular, modern innovations and optimizations in turbine technology have led to significant improvements in both power output and efficiency. Additionally, the development of specialized generators and the use of power electronic devices have enabled gearless turbine designs. Currently, wind turbines are typically divided into two main types: horizontal-axis turbines (HAWTs) [13] and vertical-axis turbines (VAWTs). HAWTs are more commonly used in the wind industry due to their higher efficiency compared to VAWTs [14].

1.4.1 Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS)

The wind turbine serves as the primary part of the WECS and facilitates the conversion of KE into mechanical energy. A coupling device gear train connects the wind turbine to an electrical generator [16]. To prevent disruptions and safeguard the system or network, an appropriate controller is used to transmit the generator’s output to the electrical grid [17]. Wind turbines, which employ specifically created blades to convert the KE of the wind into rotational energy, are employed to capture wind energy. The generator uses this mechanical energy to turn it into electrical energy. The generator is linked to the rotating blades via a shaft, allowing mechanical energy to be transferred. The layout of a wind energy conversion system is shown in Figure 1.1.

The generator’s output may either be used to power a stand-alone load, such as a house or a small town, or it can be fed into the grid through a transformer. Specialized knowledge and skill in the domains of aerodynamics, mechanics, electronics, and control systems are necessary to enable the efficient and effective conversion of wind energy [18, 19]. Such abilities may be used to optimize wind energy systems so that they produce the most electricity possible while having the least negative environmental effect.

Figure 1.1 Layout of a wind energy conversion system [15].

1.4.2 Electric Generator

Due to their high dependability and effective energy collection, permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) and double-fed induction generators (DFIG) are becoming more and more popular as the preferred generators in WECS. Synchronous generator-powered wind turbines are frequently referred to as gearless or direct-drive wind turbine generators [20, 21]. The PMSG has lately attracted interest since it creates a magnetic field using permanent magnets and is self-exciting without the need for a DC source. Induction generators, meanwhile, are frequently employed because of their brushless design, excellent dynamic response, straightforward operation, and reduced cost [22]. The size, power output, and operational needs of the wind turbines are only a few of the variables that affect the generator technology choice. To increase their effectiveness, dependability, and overall performance, WECS generator technologies have undergone extensive research and growth in recent years. The broad adoption of wind energy will be greatly aided by the progress of new generator technologies as the need for renewable energy keeps rising. However, they require reactive power to generate a magnetic field, which is drawn from the grid in grid-connected applications, but in standalone applications, a power electronics converter or capacitor bank is employed to provide reactive power. A self-excited induction generator (SEIG) is created when a capacitor is connected to an induction generator [23]. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 represent the general outline of a power converter.

Figure 1.2 Variable-speed synchronous/induction generator with full-scale power converter [24].

Figure 1.3 Variable-speed, gearless multi-pole PMSG-based WECS [24].

1.4.3 Evolution of Power Electronics

The aim of power electronics in WECS systems is to improve reliability, energy efficiency, and performance while reducing mechanical stress. As a result, the complete system may connect more fluidly with the grid and function as an adjustable power producing unit. Power electronics are especially important in variable speed wind turbine systems, as they allow for better control over the generator. In fixed speed wind turbine systems, thyristors can act as soft starters. Although expensive, power electronics can significantly simplify the mechanical design of wind turbines, reduce mechanical stress, and lessen the effects of wind gusts. Additionally, they can do away with the need for gearboxes, which are a frequent cause of failure and losses in wind turbines. Researchers are creating advanced power electronic technologies that can convert power at greater voltage levels to fulfil the rising demand for wind energy. As an interface for a full-scale power converter, galvanically separated DC–DC converters using a cascaded H-bridge converter architecture with a back-to-back arrangement are one possible alternative [25]. This concept makes use of a transformer that operates within a medium-frequency range of several kilohertz, greatly reducing the size of the transformer. To enhance the capability and dependability of wind turbines, make them more profitable, and encourage the wider usage of wind energy, sophisticated power electronics technologies will be essential to develop.

1.4.4 Energy Storage Technology

The wind’s movement is unpredictable, making it difficult to generate consistent power. Unstable wind power can create significant issues for power system operation, stability, and planning. Wind energy requires the efficient control and use of intermittent wind power. During times of little or no wind availability, excess wind-generated electricity may be stored and retrieved by means of energy storage technologies. Numerous storage technologies have been thoroughly investigated, including batteries, compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheels, and pumped hydro storage (PHS). These technologies have distinctive qualities, benefits, and drawbacks. Careful attention must be given to elements including energy density, efficiency, scalability, environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness when choosing an appropriate storage system for wind energy. To ensure dependable wind energy production, an energy storage system (ESS) is needed [26]. In WECS, extra electrical energy is stored in the ESS and then delivered to the load in the event of a power outage. Batteries are the most often utilized energy storage technology in this context, despite the existence of other energy storage technologies, due to their capacity to store energy as electrochemical energy [27].

1.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Since the first windmill was built in ancient Persia, the wind turbine industry has advanced significantly. The most common and largely utilized form of wind turbine in modern times is the HAWTs. These turbines consist of a rotor with many horizontally revolving blades that face the wind. The wind’s kinetic energy causes the blades to begin rotating, which, in turn, powers a generator to generate electricity. HAWTs are favored in the wind energy sector because of their exceptional efficiency, aerodynamic design, and capacity to capture wind from many directions [28]. In this chapter, we will discuss the history, design, components, working principles, and applications of HAWTs.

1.5.1 History

The first horizontal-axis wind turbine was made in Scotland in 1887 by Professor James Blyth. It had a 10-m-diameter rotor and generated electricity to light his cottage. Later, in the 1930s, a Danish engineer, Poul La Cour, developed HAWTs that were used to power homes and farms. In the 1970s, the oil crisis led to a surge of interest in wind power, which accelerated the development of modern HAWTs [29, 30].

1.5.2 Design

A tower, nacelle, and rotor are the components of a HAWT system. The hub of the rotor, which is attached to a main shaft, is made up of two or three blades. The gearbox, generator, and other components that change the rotor’s rotational energy into electrical energy are housed in the nacelle, which also acts as a containment. The tower supports the rotor and nacelle and can be made of steel, concrete, or hybrid materials [31, 32].

1.5.3 Components

The blades of HAWTs are typically made of fiberglass, carbon fiber, or other composite materials. The hub and main shaft are made of steel, while the gearbox is usually made of cast iron or aluminum [33]. The generator can be a conventional synchronous generator or a newer technology such as a permanent magnet generator. The control system of the turbine includes sensors, actuators, and a controller that regulates the pitch of the blades and the speed of the rotor [34].

1.5.4 Working Principle

HAWTs work on the concept of the aerodynamic lift principle. The turbine’s blades are made to generate a pressure differential between their top and lower surfaces when the wind blows over them, which causes the blades to rotate.

The primary shaft, which rotates in reaction to the motion of the blades, is connected to the generator. The mechanical energy generated by the blades’ spinning is subsequently changed into electrical energy with the use of a generator. The power grid subsequently receives this electrical energy for distribution and utilization. HAWTs use complex fluid dynamics and mechanics to convert wind energy into electrical energy, which calls for careful design and engineering to maximize the efficiency of the turbine. HAWTs have emerged as a significant renewable energy source in recent years, and addressing the rising need for sustainable energy sources will depend on their continuing growth and improvement.

1.5.5 Applications

HAWTs are used to generate electricity for a variety of applications, including residential, commercial, and industrial. They can be installed onshore or offshore, depending on the availability and quality of wind resources. HAWTs can also be combined with other renewable energy sources such as solar power and energy storage systems to provide a stable and reliable power supply.

1.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWT are often used in homes as a sustainable energy source. It is made up of a rotor shaft and two or three vertically moving blades that mimic the action of spinning coins on their edges. Unlike standard turbines, the generator is located at the bottom of the tower, with the blades around the shaft [35].

1.6.1 Working Principle

The vertically oriented blades of the vertical-axis wind turbine, which revolve around a vertical shaft and use wind energy to generate electricity, are essential to the device’s operation. The generator through which the rotor is attached to changes the mechanical energy generated by the wind into electrical energy. The blade, shaft, bearing, frame, and blade support are among the turbine’s crucial parts [36].

Displayed below is a block diagram depicting the components of a VAWT. The energy produced by this turbine can be utilized by any form of load, with an automatic lighting system serving as an example. This diagram (Figure 1.4) consists of a VAWT, gearbox, generator, battery, LDR circuit, and LED.

Figure 1.4 Block diagram depicting the components of a vertical-axis wind turbine.

1.7 Current Technologies in Wind Power Generation

Airborne wind energy is an auspicious technology that employs tethered airborne devices to exploit wind power. These airborne machines, also known as kite turbines or airborne wind turbines, generate electricity by flying in certain patterns that allow them to collect the energy of the wind at greater heights [37]. This electricity may be used for a variety of reasons, including powering homes, businesses, and remote places without access to traditional power systems. Airborne wind energy has various advantages over regular wind turbines, including a lower environmental effect, lower installation and maintenance costs, and the ability to generate power in regions where standard wind turbines are infeasible [38, 39].

1.7.1 Buoyant Airborne Turbine (BAT)

BAT is a technology that uses wind energy via a wind turbine mounted to a helium-filled blimp-like object. This contraption can float up to 2,000 ft in the air, capturing strong and persistent winds. The wind moves the turbine’s blades, creating power that is delivered to the ground through a tether. BAT offers various benefits over standard wind turbines, including the capacity to operate at higher elevations, where winds are more consistent and forceful, and the potential to be employed in isolated and offshore sites. Furthermore, BAT takes less material to construct and less area to operate, resulting in a lower environmental effect.

1.7.2 Offshore Floating Wind Technology

Offshore floating wind technology involves the installation of wind turbines on floating platforms in deep oceans distant from the shore. These platforms, sometimes known as floating wind farms, use cables to tether the turbines to the seabed and transfer the power generated back to land. Offshore floating wind technology has a number of advantages over traditional offshore wind turbines. It can capture stronger winds in deeper oceans where standard turbines cannot, and it can be utilized in a larger range of places, expanding the possibilities for renewable energy production. Furthermore, because floating wind farms do not require permanent foundations in the seabed, they have a lower environmental effect than typical offshore wind turbines [40]. Offshore floating wind, while being a relatively new technology, has displayed outstanding output in terms of efficiency, dependability, and cost-effectiveness and is predicted to perform a significant part in the future of renewable energy [38].

1.8 Advantages

VAWTs have a number of benefits, including worker safety and the ability to produce power from wind that is blowing in any direction. Their gearbox, generator, and other components are positioned on the ground, making them expandable and not needing a sturdy supporting tower. They are simpler to install and more cost-effective to design than horizontal-axis turbines. Additionally, they are transportable, making it simple to relocate them from one place to another. These turbines pose less of a threat to people and birds because they have less speed blades. They can function in any weather, even in steep areas with changing winds. They can also be placed close to the ground, which lowers the cost of construction and maintenance. They can operate quietly in residential areas because of their straightforward design. Additionally affordable, efficient, and silent, VAWTs are a perfect renewable energy source for residential use, especially in metropolitan settings [41]. A list of countries utilizing wind power as a source of electricity is given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 List of countries utilizing wind power as a source of electricity.

Country

Wind power capacity

Percentage of electricity from wind power

China

281.5 GW

10.4%

United States

127.2 GW

8.4%

Germany

65.8 GW

27.2%

India

40.5 GW

5.6%

Spain

28.4 GW

22.7%

United Kingdom

24.2 GW

24.2%

France

17.8 GW

8.1%

Brazil

18.8 GW

9.3%

Canada

16.5 GW

8.5%

Italy

12.8 GW

9.9%

1.9 Disadvantages of Wind Energy

Before relying solely on wind energy, it is vital to consider its drawbacks. For starters, storing energy during peak output periods could be costly. Second, wind energy is unreliable due to its unpredictability. Furthermore, wind farms necessitate large open places for construction since wind turbines might have a negative visual effect on the surrounding area. Wind turbines also contribute to noise pollution, which is an issue. Furthermore, wind energy can be generated only in areas with strong, consistent winds, which may be remote from areas with high electricity demand, raising the cost of transmission. Furthermore, because wind turbines have a lower average efficiency than fossil fuel generation, a greater number of turbines may be necessary to achieve equal results.

1.10 Conclusion

Wind power has evolved significantly technologically over time, from its early use for grinding and pumping to the current large-scale energy generation via wind turbines. These developments in materials science, aerodynamics, and computer control systems have considerably increased wind energy harvesting efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Wind energy is now a crucial component of the global energy mix, and it is well positioned to play a critical part in the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable future. Given the current rate of innovation and investment in the field, wind energy is very likely to advance and emerge as a critical source of renewable energy for future generations.

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Notes

*

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

†

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

2Environmental Consequences of Wind Energy Technologies

Adarsh Kumar Arya and Ashish Kapoor*

Department of Chemical Engineering, Harcourt Butler Technical University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract

In light of rising public interest in environmental and social problems, governments throughout the globe are evaluating the impacts of pollution on the energy paradigm. Power plants employ sustainable energy sources, including wind, solar, and hydro, to lessen their environmental impact. Wind energy, one of these global commons, has recently emerged as a promising new energy source. Wind energy is becoming a more significant component of the power sector when there is increasing anxiety over the expenses and long-term ecological effects of using petroleum-based fuels and nuclear energy. Because of its low environmental impact, wind power has received government backing through subsidies and tax credits. However, the development of wind projects has been hampered by fears of some adverse effects from onshore and offshore wind farms. The concerns are due to the possibility of major effects on birds and species of bats and marine animals as well as direct and indirect impact on humans that may halt, scale down, and significantly delay the progress of projects. The chapter investigates and discusses several elements of the environmental impacts caused by wind energy technology.

Keywords: Renewable energy, wind power, pollution, fossil fuel, environmental impact, green technology

2.1 Introduction

Energy is a crucial component of our daily life and is a fundamental requirement for the advancement of civilization. Modern society and the global economy depend on reliable and renewable energy sources. However, modern civilization’s rapid and unpredictable advancements and industrialization severely impact the environment and energy resources [1–5]. Reduced reliance on nuclear and fossil fuel power, reduced environmental risks, and the possibility of cheaper energy generation all contribute to the attractiveness of renewables